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community of practice and cognitive apprenticeship

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community of practice and cognitive apprenticeship

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(REMEMBER TO USE THEORY HERE, NOT JUST COMMON SENSE)

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For legitimate peripheral participation- CLICK ON THE PICTURE TO FOLLOW THIS LINK

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Situated Cognition Theory & Legitimate Peripheral Participation | Educreations

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Educreations is a community where anyone can teach what they know and learn what they don't. Our software turns any iPad or web browser into a recordable, interactive whiteboard, making it easy for teachers and experts to create engaging video lessons and share them on the web.

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(for Bruner) What would Bruner regard as mediation?

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(for Bruner) What would Bruner regard as mediation?

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I want to ask a question about the distinction between cognitive apprenticeship, transformation, and trajectory. This is specifically related to the diagram under Legitimate Peripheral Participation. I see movement toward the center of the Community of Practice circle as transformation, where those on the outside edge (the LKOs) are appropriating behaviors and gradually internalizing them. But that same movement could be viewed as trajectory, where those on the outside of the circle have fewer tools, and they work to gain more tools like the people in the center. In addition, the space from the outer edge toward the center is the space of cognitive apprenticeship. I’m trying to see how these are distinct, or whether they are different terms for the same concept. Thoughts? {Carollan Swartz}
YOU PRETTY MUCH HAVE IT, CAROLLAN. MOVEMENT THROUGH THE COMMUNITY TOWARD EXPERTISE IS CALLED A TRAJECTORY (OR A PATH). THIS IS A PATH TOWARD CONTINUAL TRANSFORMATION AS THE LEARNER APPROPRIATES AND INTERNALIZES WAYS OF DOING, THINKING VALUING, BELIEVING, DOING ETC. OF THE COMMUNITY. THE GOAL IS TO BE TRANSFORMED INTO AN EXPERT IN THE COMMUNITY. ALL OF THIS IS DONE AS PART OF A COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP, WORKING UNDER AND WITH A MORE EXPERT PERSON IN THE COMMUNITY. (nmb)

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Your Questions? (Ask a question and your classmates and/or I will try to answer it). 

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Your Questions? (Ask a question and your classmates and/or I will try to answer it). 

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I have a question regarding the different between Bruner's modes of learning and Piaget's stages of development. I get that the big difference is between Bruner's and Piaget's models is that Bruner's model is not tied to age. But, in the Bentham article (2011) the author gives a general age range for each of Bruner's modes. My question is what moves someone through Bruner's modes? If we don't think of it as age, what is it that we should think of it as? And if this is the big difference between the two, why did the author of this article use ages to describe the modes? Are Bruner's modes more of something you acquire? And once you acquire a mode it is a way your can interpret things, rather than you pass from one stage to the next as in Piaget's?  If so then what determines when someone or how someone will acquire this ability?  (Jessica Selleck)
GOOD QUESTIONS HERE, JESSICA, AND I'M GLAD YOU ASKED BECAUSE IT DOES HELP US TO DISCUSS A BIG DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIAGET AND BRUNER.  YOU PROBABLY REMEMBER THAT PIAGET THOUGHT THAT CHILDREN HAVE TO ACCOMPLISH THE TASKS OF AN EARLIER STAGE OF THINKING IN ORDER TO MOVE ON TO THE NEXT.  HE DID ATTACH THESE STAGES TO AGE LEVELS, THOUGH IN HIS LATER CAREER, HE  REALIZED THAT THESE AGES WERE NOT AS FIRM AS HE ONCE THOUGHT, BUT NONETHELESS, HE THOUGHT THE SEQUENCE WAS INVARIANT.  FOR BRUNER, AGE DOES NOT MATTER (I SUSPECT, IN FACT, THAT HE WOULD DISAGREE WITH THE IDEA OF SETTING AGES ON HIS STAGES, AS WE SOMETIMES FIND--LIKE THE TEXT SEGMENT THAT YOU READ FOR THIS WEEK, but since these articles/chapters are written for teachers, I think that the authors are attempting to guide the use of Bruner's ideas in schools where children are often grouped according to perceived background and learning potential. ) IN CONTAST TO PIAGET, BRUNER SAW LEARNING AS A PROCESS THROUGH WHICH WE GROW INCREASINGLY ABLE TO USE SYMBOLS AND ABSTRACT THOUGHT (WHAT HE CALLED "ADULT-LIKE THINKING"). RATHER THAN SEEING HIS MODES AS STEPS IN MATURITY (AS PIAGET DID), HE SAW THEM AS PROCESSES THAT , IDEALLY, WE CONTINUOUSLY GO THROUGH AS WE DEVELOP TRULY SYMBOLIC AND ABSTRACT UNDERSTANDINGS. THIS COULD HAPPEN AT ANY TIME WITH ANY TOPIC, ACCORDING TO BRUNER (USING MYSELF AS AN EXAMPLE: THOUGH I HAVE A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF A TOPIC LIKE LITERACY, I WOULD NEED MANY OPPORTUNITIES TO USE ENACTIVE LEARNING ON THE WAY TO TRULY MASTERING SYMBOLIC AND ABSTRACT UNDERSTANDINGS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS).  BRUNER WAS MOST INTERESTED IN HOW REPRESENTATIONAL MODES ARE USED IN THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, AND THIS IS WHY HE SUGGESTS A SPIRAL CURRICULUM IN OUR SCHOOLS (MORE ABOUT THAT IN A DIFFERENT BOX ON THIS PAGE). (nmb)

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According to Bruner, any student is ready to learn as long as they are taught with developmental correctness. Therefore, students can learn difficult, or seemingly advanced concepts, if they are taught with the correct representations for their age. Further, he defined three specific modes of representation in accordance with his readiness to learn ideas. Briefly, they are enactive (movement- begins at birth), iconic (images- around ages one to seven), and symbolic (language and numbers- around age seven). He maintained that readiness for learning does occur in these stages, similar to Piaget's models, but their ability to learn is dependent on which of these modes of representation a learner can use. This is in contrast to Piaget's theory, which determines a child's ability to learn regarding reasoning capabilities and maturation. Moreover, teachers can introduce new and complex concepts effectively to students, as long as they consider the proper mode of representation that their students are currently able to learn with (Lindsey Sagasta)

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According to Bruner the spiral curriculum was, “ teaching the same concept at different ages but with increasing complexity”( Bentham, P. 1). In the article a example of this was introduced with the National Curriculum. In this model students are taught a topic in a lower grade level before being reintroduced to the topic with more elements in upper grade levels.
I have found that topics that I have taught to my students thus far are reintroductions to topics covered in lower grades. In my limited experience with spiral curriculum, I believe the idea of spiral curriculum is great but the reality is not. Students tend to forget topics taught in lower grade levels. I have had to reteach the whole topic from the beginning.
Valerie Cadena
GOOD DEFINITION HERE, VALERIE (AND A VIABLE CONCERN WHICH HELPS US TO SEE WHY WE NEED A GREAT DEAL OF COORDINATION WHEN WE CREATE SCHOOL-WIDE CURRICULA).  CAN ANYONE ADD HERE TO VALERIE HAS SAID BY INTEGRATING BRUNER'S IDEAS ABOUT MODES OF REPRESENTATION INTO THIS EXPLANATION? (nmb)

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(from Bruner) Discovery Learning (What is Piaget's influence; what is Vygotsky's influence?)

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(from Bruner) Discovery Learning (What is Piaget's influence; what is Vygotsky's influence?)

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Throughout the 60's and 70's many educators misinterpreted Bruner's Discovery Learning model as "open" or "unstructured" classrooms to promote learning through experimentation and discovery.  After some years this was clarified, yet still held some merit within some interactive learning environments (CTGV, 1992 (within Jones & Reeves)).  Bruner's true meaning was a carefully planned and structured classroom that allowed the flexibility for students to interact with the curriculum to "discover" what educators wanted them to discover.  Vygotsky is clearly present in Bruner's view of how students discover knowledge.  He allows students to interact with each other to learn and build problem solving skills.  I believe that Vygotsky may have disagreed with Bruner's method of almost falsifying discovery instead of allowing free and unrestricted play and discovery.  NOT SURE WHAT YOU MEAN BY "FALSIFYING" HERE, NICK. ALSO, BOTH PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY WOULD HAVE LIKED TO SEE CHILDREN PLAYING.  PIAGET WOULD HAVE LIKED IT TO BE MORE FREE, PERHAPS SO THAT CHILDREN COULD BE "LITTLE SCIENTISTS" AS LONG AS THEY KNEW HOW TO REFLECT ON THEIR FINDINGS AND COME TO SOME IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS THAT WOULD LEAD TO ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION.  VYGOTSKY WOULD PROBABLY ALSO LIKE THE PLAY, ESPECIALLY IF IT ALLOWED CHILDREN TO TAKE ON ROLES OF THAT WOULD LEAD TO APPROPRIATION AND INTERNALIZATION.  FOR THE LATTER TO OCCUR, THOUGH, HE WOULD PROBABLY RECOMMEND THE ASSISTANCE OF A MKO (NMB). The Jones & Reeves article in the Discovery Learning section never clearly integrates the stages of development Bruner theorizes about, but it can be tied in throughout the article.  However, they do mention that when a learner has more prior knowledge and scaffolded correctly (Roblyer, 1997)  they are able to learn more through this discovery learning model.  We can see Piaget through this when connected to Bruner's Models of Representation (and Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development), which require a certain amount of prior knowledge and experience (or schema) before continuing into the next step.  This however is not based on age, but rather comprehension and prior knowledge (Jones and Reeves, 2006). AND THE USE OF THE DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE REPRESENTATION SYSTEM, RIGHT? (NMB)
-Nick Weith

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Bruner saw teachers as cultural agents who share cultural artifacts with their students. A teacher should re-define subject matter to match the developmental level of the learner.
According to Bruner, teachers should provide carefully guided discovery learning. Ways that a teacher can guide discovery learning is through models, by giving background knowledge when prior knowledge is missing, teaching reflective skills, and lastly by creating cognitive conflict. (Clara Conrad)

Going off of what Clara has written, it is clear that Bruner sees that the role of a teacher is integral to the learning process. Bruner doesn't believe that a teacher is guiding students only through content, bur rather, he believes that teachers must facilitate animated conversation within the classroom in order to stimulate true learning. Rather than guiding them from fact to fact, Bruner posits that students learning more effectively when the information is presented in context with the world. "Real questions, and real answers" He believes that the goal of education, and that of the educator, is to teach understanding. Understanding that comes from knowledge that connects with prior information that they have learned, which is then connected into grander context of the world. While facts are important for students, it is the role of an educator to create open ended questions that will stimulate student minds into thinking about what something could mean, rather than what the right answer is. (Philip Thomas )

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(from Bruner) Role of culture in education

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(from Bruner) Role of culture in education

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According to Bruner, the culture plays an essential role in learning. First, Burner argues that "reality is represented by symbols shared by members of a culture." The learner depends on the cultural tools and environment in order to acquire and retain knowledge. The real learning comes from interaction between the two and can be "best accomplished when students are asked to answer real, authentic questions or to solve real authentic problems of a culture." This is the aha moment: the importance to teach cultural relevant lessons: provide students with rich curriculum, rich authentic materials and let them explore them - develop their understanding and thinking and sharpen their learning tools. This is how the intellect will grow - as Burner points out that culture can inhibit or expand cognitive development. (Natasa Popovic)

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(from Bruner) Modes of Representation (Also, can someone contrast with Piaget's stage theory?)

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(from Bruner) Modes of Representation (Also, can someone contrast with Piaget's stage theory?)

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According to Bruner's Representational Systems article, there are three different modes of representation. The first mode is enactive representation, which begins developing at birth and is based on muscle memory. The second mode is iconic mode, which begins around the age of one and involves memory in the form of mental images, sounds, and smells. The last mode is symbolic mode, this mode begins around the age of 7 when memory is formed through the use of symbols and codes. Bruner would say that any subject can be taught at any age if the teacher is using the correct mode to reach the student (Bruner Representational Systems, pg 67).
VERY GOOD DEFINITIONS HERE, JEN.  LET ME GIVE AN EXAMPLE TO HELP TO MORE PRECISELY ELABORATE: IF I ASK A YOUNG CHILD (OR ANYONE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE MASTERED ONLY THE ENACTIVE STAGE, LIKE AN ENL STUDENT) WHERE THE PLAYGROUND IS, HE COULD PROBABLY TAKE ME THERE BUT NOT BE ABLE TO TELL ME SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS IN WORDS.  IN THE SYMBOLIC STAGE, HE MIGHT BE ABLE TO DRAW (OR SAY)  A ROUGH MAP WITH GESTURES AND WORDS ("YOU GO UP THIS STREET UNTIL YOU GET TO THE GREEN HOUSE WITH MEAN DOG IN THE YARD.").  IN THE ABSTRACT STAGE, HE MIGHT BE ABLE TO GIVE ME DETAILED DIRECTIONS IN WORDS ("YOU GO WEST FOR FOUR BLOCKS, ETC."). (NMB)
There are a few things that I find very interesting when comparing Bruner's modes of representation and Piaget's cognitive development theory. The first thing that I find interesting is that they both have specific ages associated with the stages. This leads me to believe that both Bruner and Piaget seem to believe that development leads to learning. Vygotsky, on the other hand, would say that one must learn to develop. The obvious difference between Burner and Piaget is that Bruner believes that a student can learn any subject at any age, depending on how it is taught. However, there are a couple similarities between Bruner and Piaget that I would not have expected.
(Jennifer Prechtl)
GOOD THINKING HERE, JEN AND A LOGICAL ASSUMPTION, BASED ON YOUR TEXT AUTHOR'S INTERPRETATION OF BRUNER.  HOWEVER, AS I POINT OUT IN MY ANSWER TO JESSICA'S QUESTION IN A NEIGHBORING BOX ON THIS PAGE, AS FAR AS I KNOW, BRUNER DID NOT PUT AGES ON HIS MODES OF REPRESENTATION.  IT IS THE FOLKS WHO ARE TRYING TO ADAPT BRUNER'S IDEAS FOR CURRICULAR PURPOSES WHO HAVE DONE THIS.  BRUNER WOULD ALIGN MUCH MORE CLOSELY WITH VYGOTSKY IN THINKING THAT LEARNING MUST COME BEFORE DEVELOPMENT (I.E., WE MUST LEARN TO USE LANGUAGE SYMBOLICALLY AND ABSTRACTLY BEFORE WE CAN GROW COGNITIVELY.) (NMB)

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Remember, MKOs don't have to be adults!

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Tacit assumptions about learning and development, according to Vygotsky and the NeoVygotskians

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Tacit assumptions about learning and development, according to Vygotsky and the NeoVygotskians

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Vygotsky assumed that learning occurred best through doing; that we acquire meaning through experience.  Jaramillo argues that not all experiences lead to appropriate learning.  He divides experiences into two categories: normative (those that supplement an individual’s growth) and deviant (those experiences which hinder a person’s growth) (Jaramillo, 1996, p. 137). An example of a normative experience would be using manipulatives to discover answers in math, while a deviant experience would be arriving at answers by copying a classmate. Jaramillo posits that the “dichotomy of normative and deviant experiences corresponds with the conceptual parameters of Vygotsky’s notion that society perpetuates and promotes social conformity” (Jaramillo, 1996, p. 137).  I believe that Vygotsky would agree with Jaramillo’s assessment, due to  his believe that all experiences occur in a social concept i THINK YOU MEAN CONTEXT HERE, RIGHT? (NMB) and/or are subsequently shaped by society.

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ELENA (I THINK?): THIS IS A START, BUT THERE IS MORE FOR EITHER YOU OR ONE OF YOUR CLASSMATES TO SAY HERE. IN CONSIDERING LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT, WE SHOULD ALSO INCLUDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE ZPD, ABOUT WHICH COMES FIRST (LEARNING OR DEVELOPMENT?) AND EXACTLY HOW LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT OCCUR (HINT: THINK ABOUT APPROPRIATION AND ACCOMMODATION). (NMB)

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Tacit assumptions about knowledge, according to Vygotsky and NeoVygotskians

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Tacit assumptions about knowledge, according to Vygotsky and NeoVygotskians

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Vygotsky's assumptions about knowledge is based in play and social interaction (Bailey, ppt).  While Vygotsky recognizes the importance of teacher intervention in the classroom as part of a student's development; the interactions above can far better expand students' ability and development.  The facilitator or teacher role is simply to gently pull students out of their comfort zone and into the Zone of Proximal Development (McCown et al, 47). THIS IS CORRECT. (nmb) Creating enough cognitive dissonance to challenge them to higher levels, without causing students to shut down due to over stimulation in one way or another. VYGOTSKY WOULD PROBABLY AGREE HERE WITH MUCH THAT YOU ARE SAYING IN THIS SENTENCE, BUT REMEMBER THAT "COGNITIVE DISSONANCE" IS PIAGET'S TERM, NOT VYGOTSKY'S. VYGOTSKY WOULD SAY, INSTEAD THAT WE MUST CHALLENGE THE STUDENT TO REACH JUST BEYOND THE LEVEL OF ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT (WHAT HE/SHE CAN DO ALONE) AND TO MOVE, WITH ASSISTANCE FROM A MKO, TOWARD THE HIGHEST POINT OF POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT. (nmb) Vygotsky's theorizes that the interactions humans have with multiple sources and when the activity is engage, they process information more effectively.  NOW YOU MAKE VYGOTSKY SOUND LIKE AN INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIST. I DON'T THINK HE WOULD AGREE WITH YOU HERE. (nmg) He believes that through collaborative learning and modeled instruction in abilities through many ages is what classifies 'Best Practices' (Bailey, ppt). YES! Unfortunately, in today's classroom, varied ages and common stage of development actual development is rare.

-Nick W.

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Intersubjectivity advances cognitive development by the negotiation of learning partners who are seeking understanding of a problem and finding the solution (McCowan et. al.). This process reminds me of taking the teacher out of the center (or challenging the traditional lecturing style of knowledge acquisition). Once the teacher moves away from the center and steps into the partnership role, the students seek understanding and start problem solving with simple teacher guidance (McCowan et. al.). This is something that we have aspired to accomplish when creating lesson plans. Just as it was mentioned in the Jing intro about Vygotsky, we use some of these practices and they are part of our teacher identities, without even realizing their origins. (Natasa Popovic).
JUST THINK OF THE POSSIBILITIES FOR INSTRUCTION IF WE START TO THINK OF INTERSUBJECTIVITY--BOTH BETWEEN STUDENT AND STUDENT (AS IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING) OR EVEN BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT OR OLDER STUDENT AND YOUNGER STUDENT (WOULDN'T THE LATTER BE FUN IF YOU HAD A PAL WHO TEACHES IN A GRADE HIGHER OR LOWER THAN YOURS?) (nmb)

The key point that I took from Vygotsky's theory of intersubjectivity is that students are learning partners and should not just be a part of negotiating a mutual understanding of the task, but also how to proceed with its solution. (McCown et al., 1996, 46).  To me this means that teachers should conference with students, identify the problem, and then brainstorm together how to go about solving it.  This could be useful in both academics and behaviors. For example, if a student was struggling with addition, you could discuss with them different ways to improve and have them help decide which path to take moving forward. This type of intersubjectivity is also present in contingency contracts, a form of operant conditioning (Moreno, 2010).
(Elena Scrivani) I THINK THAT VYGOTSKY WOULD LIKE EVERYTHING YOU SAY HERE UNTIL YOU COMPARE HIS IDEAS TO BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTS LIKE OPERANT CONDITIONING.  SEE MY NOTE TO YOU BELOW IN THE BOX FOR APPROPRIATION AND INTERNALIZATION FOR MORE EXPLANATION (nmb).

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Scaffolding (Vygotsky's idea, but name from Bruner)

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Scaffolding (Vygotsky's idea, but name from Bruner)

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When I first think of the word scaffolding, it seems so buzzword educational theory that for me, actually reading the original definition gave me a bit of an aha moment.  The word “scaffolding” just seems so “teacher/student” oriented in the way it is used now that its meaning became very jargony.  But, seeing that scaffolding as Jerome Bruner defined it as an advanced partner giving the amount of support given to a partner as he or she becomes more proficient in a skill, made a lot of sense to me (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976).  It really also broke down the walls of student teacher relationship, in that while a teacher teaching a student might be one way someone can scaffold, it really isn’t the only one.  We provide scaffolding all the time within our relationships, be it parent and child relationships or within friendships in which someone may have a higher social awareness or understanding and may try to build someone to that understanding.  It is also more permeable and built on a level of trust, within those relationships where often times one person is scaffolding something for another, while the other person is doing it simultaneously for another thing for the other person.  It is also interesting that McCown et al. (1996), then go on to describe intersubjectivity so close to scaffolding, because again this focuses more on two people mutually negotiating issues.  It makes me wonder if that is the element that is missing from “scaffolding” in my previous understanding of the word, if that to provide effective scaffolding, there needs to be a relationship and in that relationship there needs to be some level of mutual scaffolding, understand and trust.  And without that hidden part of the meaning, can scaffolding really be that effective? (Jessica Selleck)

THIS IS A GREAT START, JESSICA.  WE WILL BE TALKING A LOT ABOUT THIS CONCEPT OF VYGOTSKY'S, ESPECIALLY AS WE TALK ABOUT THE ZPD.  YOU ARE RIGHT THAT THIS TERM, "SCAFFOLDING," HAS BECOME AN EDUCATIONAL "BUZZWORD" AND ITS MEANING HAS BEEN GREATLY DILUTED.  THIS IS A GREAT EXAMPLE OF WHY WE NEED TO GO BACK TO SEMINAL THEORIES SO THAT WE UNDERSTAND HOW VERY POWERFUL SOME OF THESE CONCEPTS REALLY ARE IF USED AS THE THEORISTS INTENDED THEM TO BE USED.  I HOPE YOUR CLASSMATES WILL HAVE SIMILAR "AHA" MOMENTS. (NMB)

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McCown et al. (1996) st  (IT'S 1996--SEE NOTE IN SIDE MARGIN ON P.2) ates that certain activities require roles and “appropriate ways” are defined by the culture and understand of those roles (p. 43).  After reading this section, I was struck by the way some of those things are currently evolving right now. McCown et al. (1996) also addresses this, but briefly.  For example, as we introduce new things into our society and culture, the “appropriate ways” also change and evolve.  While McCown et al. (1996)uses the example that people wouldn’t use a garden hoe in the kitchen and I think most people would agree with them in this case, there are places in which “appropriate ways” aren’t so clear.  What exactly are the “appropriate ways” to use technologies when those technologies and their uses are still evolving?  For example, the ubiquity of cell phones and text message in the last 15 years has increased significantly, to a level that most Americans own or have access to a cell phone.  With that being said, rules and social acceptability of when it is okay to use a phone, or to send a text message and what is appropriate and not is also shifting and evolving.  To illustrate this you could ask a few people if it is appropriate to send a text message while you are at dinner in person with someone else.  I am not sure culturally there would be a consensus as to what the appropriate way to handle that is.  Since, some may say yes, some may say no and some may say only if it is an emergency and so on.  So, “appropriate ways” are an interesting element of Vygotsky’s theory in so much as they are things that are also changing and evolving over time with the type of culture and influences of culture that we receive.  While some elements of “appropriate ways” may be clearly defined, there are places that it isn’t so clear what the “appropriate ways” are within a culture and as societies shift and change with a greater force and speed, this element of the theory may also shift and change as well.       (Jessica Selleck)
YOU ARE PUTTING YOUR FINGER ON A COUPLE OF IDEAS HERE, JESSICA.  MOST IMPORTANT YOU CALL ATTENTION TO THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE (AND HISTORY) IN VYGOTSKY'S IDEAS.  (nmb)

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The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area in which a child is still in the process of maturing a function. While Piaget created stages of cognitive development, Vigotsky was more interested in how children developed their cognitive functions. To Vigotsky, there is a difference between the actual development  and the potential developmentof a child. Actual development is based on what a child is able to do without the help of an adult or more skilled other. Potential development is what a child is able to do with the guidance of or in collaboration with a more skilled other (McCown et al., 44).  Vigotsky believed it was most useful for teachers to observe how students perform with tasks when they are being assisted in order to understand what the students' potential performance could be. Teachers and more skilled peers can then provide support through scaffolding and intersubjectivity to help the student achieve what is within their ZPD (McCown, 45-46).  (Bradley Raynor)

THIS IS THOROUGH, BRAD.  CAN YOU OR ONE OF YOUR CLASSMATES FIND A DRAWING OF THIS ONLINE AND INSERT IT HERE?  SOMETIMES IT IS EASIER TO UNDERSTAND (AND REMEMBER) IF WE CAN SEE IT. (nmb)

I found a few different representations to depict Vygotsky's ZPD, however, I felt that the one attached here was most effective. There were two other graphics I liked, a continuum line-graph or concentric circles, but this graph added a layer of challenge and competence that helped reinforce my understanding. Going off of Bradley's post, the green area would represent a students actual development while the red area represents the student's potential development. Therefore the white strip represents the "gap" between a child's actual and potential development, or where they are still in the process of maturing a function. Therefore the teacher should focus on the white area in order to best advance a particular students learning, pulling development (Lindsey Sagasta). THIS IS GREAT, LINDSEY! I'M GLAD THAT YOU PAID GOOD ATTENTION WHEN WE TALKED ABOUT DUAL CODING THEORY WHEN WE STUDIED I.P. THEORY. THIS GRAPHIC IS INDEED HELPFUL FOR GRASPING THIS COMPLEX CONCEPT OF THE ZPD. (NMB)

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I'll take appropriation and someone else can tackle internalization:
In the McCown article we learned that internalization provides a reasonable explanation for egocentric speech, as Piaget observed in pre-operational children.  Vygotsky thought that complex monologues could be evidence of internalization of complex cognitive skills, such as self-monitoring. He thought that children speak to themselves as means of self-guidance and internalization of this external speech as thought process. I've observed this often within kindergarten classrooms. As children work on puzzles and find a piece not fitting, they are often thinking aloud to themselves and end up self-correcting as they have this monologue about the puzzle. As this conversation begins to become more internalized we see more complex cognitive skills developing.
(Clara Conrad)
GREAT EXAMPLE HERE, CLARA.  UNLIKE PIAGET WHO SAW EGOCENTRIC SPEECH AS A MANIFESTATION OF THE CHILD'S INABILITY TO SEE FROM A PERSPECTIVE OTHER THAN HIS/HER OWN (THUS, INDICATING A PRE-OPERATIONAL, LIMITED REASONING ABILITY), VYGOTSKY SAW EGOCENTRIC SPEECH AS A STEP ON THE WAY TO MATURE THINKING.  JUST AS YOU INDICATE IN YOUR EXCELLENT EXAMPLE, CHILDREN (AND ADULTS TOO, SOMETIMES) TALK THEMSELVES THROUGH TASKS OUT LOUD, AND EVENTUALLY THIS TALKING BECOMES PART OF THEIR THINKING AND THEY DON'T NEED TO ORALLY VERBALIZE IT ANYMORE. (nmb)
I find it near impossible to discuss internalization without also explaining appropriation as internalization occurs through appropriation and subsequent application of a skill across various situations and contexts (McCown et al, 1996, p.44).  Internalization then, is the process of learning the skill.  Vygotsky states that “any higher mental function necessarily goes through an external stage in its development because it is initially a social function” and McCown et al give the example of a child appropriating and internalizing of pointing, a gesture which only has meaning through social interaction, first with the child’s mother and then across other situations (McCown et al., 1996, pp. 43-44). This process of appropriation and internalization reminds me of classical conditioning and generalization (Moreno, 2010).  I would argue that the child has been classically conditioned to point to get what it wants, just as the rat was conditioned to push the lever to receive food (Moreno, 2010).  The child then generalized this conditioned response to apply it to different situations.

(Elena Scrivani)

I AM PLEASED TO SEE THE ATTEMPT TO SYNTHESIZE HERE, ELENA, BUT I DON’T THINK VYGOTSKY WOULD LIKE YOUR BEHAVIORAL INTERPRETATION, SINCE HE WOULD SEE YOUR BEHAVIORAL LENS AS TOO LIMITED. HE WOULD SAY BEHAVIORAL THEORY PAYS NO ATTENTION TO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FORCES THAT ARE AT WORK HERE AND INFLUENCE LEARNING. VYGOTSKY WOULD SAY THAT IT IS NOT ANY KIND OF BEHAVIORAL SHAPING THAT CHANGES THE CHILD’S BEHAVIOR IN THE POINTING EXAMPLE. INSTEAD, HE WOULD SAY THAT IT IS THE LANGUAGE (THE WORDS THE MOTHER USES) AND THE TOOL (HIS FINGER) AND SIGN (THE POINTING) THAT THE CHILD FIRST APPROPRIATES AND THEN INTERNALIZES, AND HE BECOMES TRANSFORMED AS SOMEONE WHO CAN GET WHAT HE WANTS IF HE USES THE POINTING AS A SEMIOTIC MEDIATOR THAT CONNECTS THE GESTURE, THE WORDS AND HIS SUBSEQUENT.  THUS, HE IS NOT MERELY WAITING TO POINT AS A RESPONSE TO AN ENVIRONMENTAL CUE, BUT RATHER, HE LEARNS TO THINK ABOUT HOW HE CAN BE BECOME MORE POWERFUL, GETTING WHAT HE WANTS IN THIS SOCIAL SETTING. THE MOTHER IS A VITAL PART OF THIS LEARNING PROCESS BECAUSE SHE INTERPRETS THE POINTING AND GIVES HIM WORDS TO SUBSTITUTE FOR THE POINTING AND BE MORE PRECISE IN ITS MEANING THAN THE POINTING.  THUS, THE SOCIAL INTERACTION HERE BRINGS ABOUT MEANING CONSTRUCTION, NOT JUST BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE. (nmb)

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This Whittaker article did an excellent job of helping the reader to understand the difference between signs and tools in her example of learning to ride the Metro in Washington, D.C. In contrast with prior theorists, Vygotsky does not believe that learning is just a matter of growing and maturing. Instead Vygotsky would say that learning is a matter of how we see the world and act upon it through tools and signs. It was said that learning occurred in the sociocultural world in which tools are used as resources for thinking. According to the article, a tool is externally oriented and a sign is internally oriented. Whittaker used the tool of a map to help her navigate the world around her. As time went on, however, and she learned to navigate the subway system on her own, she no longer felt the need to use maps. The maps then became a sign instead of a tool. The map changed her internally from a “tourist” to someone who learned the city well enough to navigate it on her own. I think that it is so interesting that a once “tool” could become a “sign” over time. This whole concept really highlights the difference in which people see and interact with the world around them. For someone who has been using subways all their life, as it said in the article that even a kindergartener can successfully navigate the subway system, a map would become sign much more instantaneously than it might for someone else. It all depends on one’s interaction with their environment. (Jennifer Prechtl) THESE ARE HARD CONCEPTS, JEN, AND YOU DID A GREAT JOB USING WHTAKER'S HELPFUL ARTICLE TO PUT THEM INTO YOUR OWN WORDS. I WONDER IF ANY OF YOUR CLASSMATES COULD COME UP WITH ANY SIGNS OR TOOLS IN THEIR OWN EXPERIENCES? (nmb)

Taking what was explained within the Whittaker article and the Powerpoint it is evident that most teachers engage in the use of these tools. According to Vygotsky, "The tool's function is to serve as the conductor of human influence on the object of activity; it is externally oriented."(Whittaker 29) While he describes tools as an external stimuli, it is evident that using them leads to internalization. Within my classroom, and the classrooms of my co-workers, Inquiry, Collaborative and and Reciprocal learning is used. Inquiry learning specifically refers to posing questions to the class rather than relaying statements and facts. This pushes the learning to "inquire" about the information or the topic at hand. This will move to help the learner develop their own base knowledge of the subject, and their search for solutions.

Collaborative and Reciprocal learning has also proven to be an effective learning tools. Both revolve around involving the students within their own learning as much as possible. Collaborative learning focuses on group work, where students work together towards a common goal, whereas Reciprocal learning encourages the student to become the teacher in group scenarios.

Throughout the use of these tools it is important to note that students must move through 4 stages of progression. They must first rely on others, collaborate with others, rely on themselves, and finally internalize the information. (Philip Thomas) YES, GOOD, PHIL. YOU ALL HAVE PROBABLY LEARNED THIS VYGOTSKIAN NOTION AS "I DO, YOU WATCH; WE DO TOGETHER; YOU DO I WATCH; YOU DO ALONE WITHOUT ME." (nmb)

I know it is strange to expanded upon my own point, but after reading the Jaramillo article I came across another mention of another Vygotskian tool. Jaramillo states that, " Vygotsky describes language as a tool that humans use to share social meanings among one another and to explain how we advance developmentally from natural processes to high mental processes."(Jaramillo ) While I stated forms of collaborative learning as tools that can be used, all of them are based upon language. each student begins their learning process at a concrete level, which includes a certain level of language. Their knowledge of both the subject matter being taught, and language itself is bolstered by their teachers who facilitate learning using more competent language. This both distinguishes the knowledge of the teacher from that of the student, and also encourages students to begin thinking at a higher level. Jaramillo writes that, "As students engage in dialogues with more competent partners and adults, they internalize the language of these interactions, and use it to organize their individual endeavors in the same manner." (Jaramillo ) Language plays an integral role in the development of a students mind. While other tools for learning exist, language is the most valuable to a student. Whether it is verbal or non-verbal communication, language is essential in the internalization of new knowledge. (Philip Thomas) NICELY SAID HERE, PHIL. WITH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES, WE HAVE SO MANY MORE WAYS FOR STUDENTS TO USE LANGUAGE TOO. (NMB)

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More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and Less Knowledgeable Other (LKO)

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More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and Less Knowledgeable Other (LKO)

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The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is often considered to be the teacher, however it may be another student with more development than the student they are working with. The less knowledgeable other (LKO) is the one that is learning from the interaction with the MKO. Further, our PowerPoint outlined the specific roles of teachers (or MKO) and learners within the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Teachers are to “provide content, model processes, scaffold learning, assess learning and development, and scaffold additional learning” (Bailey, Fall 2016). In order to reap the greatest benefit to childhood development, the MKOs, specifically teachers, should always prioritize a students’ ZPD when engaging with the LKO.  On the other hand, the learners, or LKOs, “gradually internalize the way tools (like language) are used to solve problems, think and act by allowing their efforts to be scaffolded and by reflecting on what they are doing, and transferring what they have learned to new problems on novel situations” (Bailey, Fall 2016). Putting this together, it is the social interaction within the ZPD of the LKOs with MKOs that allow students to restructure their own thinking. Specifically, language interactions between the MKO and LKO foster internalization in the LKO for construction of knowledge. The MKO can model language use for the LKO and provide a point of communication for the LKO to express or attempt the appropriate use of language. (Lindsey Sagasta)  I COULDN'T HAVE SAID THIS BETTER MYSELF, LINDSEY.  WELL SAID. (nmb)

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It is very interesting to see the difference between Vygotsky’s reasoning behind the importance of social interaction compared to reasoning behind prior theorists importance of social interaction. Piaget would say that social interaction is important between adults and children to guide children in their learning. Piaget would also say that social interaction between two children is important to allow children to feel cognitive dissonance to expand their schema. However, Vygotsky shines light on a different reason as to why social interaction is important. Vygotsky would say that social interaction is important because “social processes enable development of personal psychological processes.” (McCown, pg 41) One example of this was children learning to read. Theorists believe that that the ability to read is not based entirely on an individual basis, but is influenced by one’s social environment. In other words, one’s ability to read is based on who has read to that person and whom that person has read to and how that person helped them in their reading fluency. This connects directly to Vygotsky’s idea that life conditions affect one’s development. To keep with the reading example, if one is raised in an environment where there are no books or the other people in the environment cannot read, then that person would not be exposed to reading. Without being exposed to reading, it would be incredibly difficult for one to learn to read. (Jennifer Prechtl)  VERY GOOD POINTS HERE, JEN.  THESE POINTS WILL MEAN EVEN MORE ONCE WE TALK ABOUT APPROPRIATION AND INTERNALIZATION.  (nmb)

I'm just going to add to my own comment that I made previously because I find the idea and importance of interaction very fascinating in Vygotsky's theory. While reading Jaramillo's article, the section conveniently titled "Social Interactions" helps to explain how Vygotsky viewed social interaction. It says that individuals interact in social situations to "socially negotiate meaning" (Jaramillo, page 136) This tells us that individual experiences are attached to social setting. This leads us to the idea that we develop internally AND externally (by engaging with the environment and those in our environment). While some of this definitions were a little confusing to me, the section that really stuck out to me (and where I had my AHA moment) was on page 137 when Jaramillo discusses ZPD. The author discusses how students' learning is encompassed by their interactions with their peers and teachers. A quote by Vygotsky was then give, "The mind extends beyond the skin and is inseparably joined with other minds" ((cited in Wertch, 1991, pg. 90) (Jaramillo, page 137). When I read this, I instantly thought of a saying that I always hear, "You become the five people that you spend the most time with." It's a saying that is basically just telling you to choose your friends wisely, but now looking back this saying is directly linked to Vygotsky. THIS IS WONDERFUL, THINKING, JEN!! (nmb)This saying is directly linked to the idea that you really are influenced by who you spend your time with. I also thought about the fact that when we are children, we can't always choose who we spend our time with. For instance, we can't choose who our families are or the other students in our class. To return to the reading example I posted earlier, we don't get to choose whether or not we have people at home that can read to us and share knowledge with us. Nevertheless, these factors greatly affect us for the rest of our lives. (Jennifer Prechtl- Part 2) YES!  YOU HAVE SO MANY GOOD POINTS HERE, JEN.  I CAN SEE THE EXTENT OF THIS AHA MOMENT, AND IT IS AN IMPORTANT ONE.  JUST AS YOU HAVE DONE SOME IMPORTANT REFLECTING AND DRAWING OF CONCLUSIONS HERE, THE ENTIRE EDUCATIONAL COMMUNITY BECAME GREATLY INFLUENCED, FIRST IN THE 1980s AND 90s BY VYGOTSKY'S IDEAS ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE AND UPBRINGING, AND WE BEGAN TO UNDERSTAND THAT WE HAD TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION SUCH THINGS AS THE CHILD'S FAMILY BACKGROUND, THE VALUES OF THE COMMUNITY IN WHICH HE/SHE GREW UP, HOW MUCH HE/SHE HAD BEEN READ TO, ETC., ETC. WHEN DIAGNOSING LEARNING PROBLEMS AND PLANNING CURRICULUM AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION.  THIS IS WHY YOU AS A TEACHER ARE ENCOURAGED TO MAKE CONTACT WITH YOUR STUDENTS' PARENTS AND ENLIST THEM AS CO-TEACHERS WITH YOU IN THE CHILD'S LEARNING. (nmb)

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Learning and Development (According to Vygotsky)

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Learning and Development (According to Vygotsky)

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According to Vygotsky, cognitive development is heavily influenced by social/cultural environment and internalization (Vygotsky 1928, 1987). The capabilities, therefore, appear twice. Vygotsky further divides development into two types: actual and potential development of the child. He defines actual development as something determined by what a child can do independently (1978). The potential development is the opposite of actual development as during this learning process a child works with an adult, peers, etc. (1987). Vygotsky and Piaget seem to contrast each other completely when it comes to learning. Vygotski claims that learning occurs in ZPD and encourages development along while Piaget claims that learning cannot occur until certain capabilities have been developed (McCown et. al.).
For Vygotsky, a child must work with more skilled partners who will guide them through more complex problem solving process (McCown et. al.) in order to develop fully. (Natasa Popovic)  I AM GLAD THAT YOU STARTED US ON A VERY IMPORTANT COMP/CONTR OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY.  THEY WERE ALIKE IN SOME OF THEIR THINKING AND VERY DIFFERENT IN OTHER PARTS. IF WE COMP/CONTR THEM AS YOU HAVE STARTED HERE, WE WILL--AS WILLINGHAM WOULD SAY--BE DEVELOPING SOME DEEP KNOWLEDGE OF BOTH OF THEM.  (nmb)

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Egocentric Speech (Sometimes called Private Speech)

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Egocentric Speech (Sometimes called Private Speech)

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Egocentric speech is the act of speaking to oneself to communicate or guide themselves. This speech is not directed to anybody thus the reason it can also be called private speech. Vygotsky saw this type of communication as being part of the normal developmental phase in communication for children. He expressed the many benefits egocentric speech can have. In the power point we learn that egocentric speech, “is used to solve problems and plan activities”. THIS IS A GREAT START ON THIS IMPORTANT CONCEPT, VALERIE.  I WONDER IF ANY OF YOUR CLASSMATES CAN ADD MORE HERE, SUCH AS THE PURPOSE OF EGOCENTRIC SPEECH AND, PERHAPS, AN EXAMPLE? (NMB)

Valerie Cadena

To add more to Valerie's definition of egocentric speech, I find it fascinating how different Piaget and Vygotsky have identified the egocentric speech and used it to explain their theories. Using my own child as an example, here are the differences between the two definitions. My two-year old son often gets frustrated as his language is not fully developed yet. He cannot always communicate to us what he would like to do or why he is frustrated. Therefore, he will cry, throw a tantrum or try to point or mimic gestures in order to get his point across. According to Piaget, when my son uses as few words as "Daria (his sister) no share. Me want book, me read, me sleep." he would view this type of language as egocentric: focusing on the "me" and pointing out the needs of the child at the moment. Piaget doesn't think that children in early stages of their development can understand the feelings and emotions of others, but are focused on their own needs. He doesn't think that they can relate or explain other people's or their own emotions' just yet. Vygotsky, on the hand, would view this type of speech as "working out through the problem." My son is stating the problem and explaining why he wants the book. If he has the book, he would be able to look through the pictures (or as he would say "read") and then go to sleep. He is sleepy, this is his routine and his routine has been interrupted by his sister.
I hope this example makes sense. ;) (Natasa Popovic)
THESE ARE GOOD EXAMPLES, NATASA.  BOTH YOUR PIAGETIAN AND VYGOTSKIAN INTERPRETATIONS ARE CORRECT. THE DIFFERENCE IN THINKING ABOUT THIS SITUATION WITH YOUR SON IS THAT PIAGET HELPS US TO UNDERSTAND WHY YOUR SON IS THROWING A TANTRUM, BUT VYGOTSKY HELPS US TO SEE THAT IF WE JUST GIVE HIM WORDS TO EXPRESS WHAT HE WANTS, HE WILL PROBABLY CALM DOWN. AS WE SAW IN THAT ARTICLE SHOWN IN CLASS CALLED 'TALKED OUT OF TANTRUMS," LANGUAGE IS USED NOT ONLY FOR PROBLEM SOLVING BUT ALSO FOR SELF REGULATION. (nmb)

Vygotsky mentions that "Early egocentric speech" is used to solve problems and plan activity" (Bailey, PPT). This egocentric speech helped develop the students critical thinking skills. Which was something both Vygotsky and Piaget thought. "Piaget observed that children would talk to themselves during play, and this egocentric speech was merely the childs thoughts." As a teacher this shows me that this child is able to convey their thoughts in speech form, which is critical to the development of their learning and development. Vygotsky "egocentric speech is seen as a transition between the childs learning language in a social communication context, and attempting to internalize it as private or inner speech. This side showed the steps of processing information and comprehension. They believed that language and language through this egocentric speech helps that the child practice the skills they need for comprehension which is a key piece to the development of learning information.  (Emmanuel Price).
GREAT JOB OF EXPLAINING HERE, EMMANUEL, SO I'LL GIVE AN EXAMPLE (AND SOMEONE ELSE MIGHT ADD ANOTHER, IF POSSIBLE).  THINK ABOUT WHEN YOU LEARNED TO TIE YOUR SHOE, AND YOU WOULD SAY OUT LOUD, USUALLY (OR WHISPERED TO YOURSELF), "NOW, I PUT THIS STRING OVER HERE, AND I MAKE A LOOP, AND I PULL IT THROUGH HERE."  I SUSPECT THAT YOU DON'T HAVE TO SAY THAT TO YOURSELF ANYMORE WHEN YOU TIE UP YOUR SNEAKERS. THE PROCESS HAS BECOME PART OF YOUR THINKING (YOU HAVE INTERNALIZED IT), AND YOU DON'T NEED TO SAY IT OUT LOUD ANY MORE. (nmb)

To add to the example that Dr. Bailey provided about tying her shoe, and support the great definitions provided above by Emmanuel, Natasa, and Valerie, I see egocentric/ private speech daily in my Kindergarten classroom. For instance, the Engage NY modules I use for math have different phrases kids can sing to teach how to draw each number (i.e. half a moon, there's more to do, slide to the right, and that's a two!; or, backward c, backward c, that's how you make a number 3!). I hear them mumbling the words while they do number writing practice. As well, in the beginning of our Journeys ELA curriculum there was a phrase I could say to draw each separate lowercase and uppercase letter. Now as we do our color unit, whenever I have my kids write the name for each color down, I hear them singing the song that I played throughout the day so they would learn color words. I often have to catch myself telling the students not to count out loud when I have given them an exit ticket or task that involves counting. I don't want other students to hear the answer from them, but I also have to let the children develop properly within their pre-operations stage! Also, when we are doing small group/ centers time I usually want the students to be at the lowest voice level possible, but I have to allow some talking in order to benefit the student according to egocentric speech. (Lindsey Sagasta)

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Vygotsky had a Gradual Release Of Responsibility Model of instruction. This model looked a lot like what we see in schools today. The teacher models by thinking out loud, before does guided practice. This allows the teacher to give feedback and offer support. Finally as the teacher slowly releases responsibility the student moves into independent practice.

Vygotsky said, the goal of a teacher is was to support the student so that they could become independent learners. From the reading in Jaramillo I was able to see that Vygotsky placed a strong value in problem solving. Which could be consider the guided practice or even independent practice.  Vygotsky, “stress upon experiential learning was further expresses in the role of a teacher as a facilitator”( Jaramillo, 8).

Valerie Cadena
YES, GOOD.  ONCE AGAIN, I'LL MENTION THAT YOU PROBABLY KNOW THIS AS "I DO, YOU WATCH; WE DO TOGETHER; YOU DO I WATCH; YOU DO ALONE. (NMB)

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Bruner believed that a curriculum should not be based on lecturing about facts so that students can pass a test on those facts. Bruner described the ideal state of curriculum as "animated conversation" based in real questions and real problems (Bailey PPT, Fall 2016). In order to answer these problems, students would need both knowledge and skills. Bruner considered culture to be essential in a classroom and "maintained that the objective of education should be to teach and develop culture-creation skills such as discovery, invention, negotiation, and sharing" (Jones and Reeves, 60). In addition to these skills, students would need to remember, think, and hypothesize in order to successfully achieve their objectives and solve the posed questions and problems (Bailey PPT, Fall 2016).    (Bradley Raynor) YES, GOOD BRAD.  HERE ONCE AGAIN, WE SEE BRUNER TURNING TO VYGOTSKY AND HIS EMPHASIS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE.  THEY BOTH FELT THAT CLASSROOMS SHOULD BE ALIVE WITH TALK BETWEEN MKOs AND LKOs WHERE, THROUGH APPROPRIATION AND INTERNALIZATION, STUDENTS (AND TEACHERS, ACTUALLY) COULD GROW IN THEIR THINKING.  BUT THE KEY IS LANGUAGE. (NMB)