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Global number of children in child labour has declined by one third since 2000, from 246 million to 168 million children. More than half of them, 85 million, are in hazardous work (down from 171 million in 2000).

Asia and the Pacific still has the largest numbers (almost 78 million or 9.3% of child population), but Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be the region with the highest incidence of child labour (59 million, over 21%).

There are 13 million (8.8%) of children in child labour in Latin America and the Caribbean and in the Middle East and North Africa there are 9.2 million (8.4%).

Agriculture remains by far the most important sector where child labourers can be found (98 million, or 59%), but the problems are not negligible in services (54 million) and industry (12 million) – mostly in the informal economy.

Child labour among girls fell by 40% since 2000, compared to 25% for boys.

Source: Marking progress against child labour - Global estimates and trends 2000-2012  (ILO-IPEC, 2013).

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The first time you see a child hunched over a sewing machine in a hot, airless factory will never leave you.

The boy, no more than 11 or 12, peeked up at me with just the trace of a smile before he dipped his head again, back to work. It felt like a punch in the gut.

I'd been told that child labour was endemic in Turkey. But I wasn't prepared for the reality of it. Or the scale of it. One basement workshop was almost entirely staffed with children, many of whom couldn't have been more than seven or eight years old, the very picture of Dickensian misery.

I was in Istanbul investigating allegations that Syrian refugees and children are being exploited by the garment industry. And specifically that many are working on clothes destined for our High Street.

This undercover investigation was unusually tricky. Secret filming is illegal in Turkey and we were halfway through our investigation when a state of emergency was declared in the country. We were routinely stopped and questioned by police. Our secret filming equipment had to be kept out of sight.

And yet finding Syrian refugees and children making branded clothes for the UK market was relatively straightforward.

Only a tiny percentage of the estimated 3 million Syrians who have sought refuge in Turkey have the necessary work permits. To survive, they have to work illegally, without any rights, and for low wages. A made-to-measure workforce for the garment industry, and a reminder that one person's plight is often another's opportunity.

I was able to see how this exploitation works for myself. It was just before 08:00. A group of people had gathered on a street corner on the outskirts of Istanbul, all desperate for a day's work.

We filmed through the blacked-out windows of our van a dozen yards away as a middleman picked this day's workforce, selecting them one by one. Those who were chosen boarded a bus to take them to a factory.

We know now that up to seven of the workers on board were Syrian refugees. One was just fifteen. Another, we'll call him Omar, was our source.

We followed behind until the bus stopped outside a factory in an industrial zone a few miles away. This factory was known to us. We'd been told it made clothes for some of the world's leading brands.

Later that evening, Omar met up with me. He showed me the labels from the clothes he'd been working on, that day. I recognised them instantly. So would you. The brand could hardly be better-known in the UK.

Over the next few weeks, I got to know Omar and his friends. Like all the Syrians I spoke to, they knew they were being exploited, but they knew there was very little they could do about it.

Some of them were being paid a little over £1 an hour, well below the Turkish minimum wage. The 15-year-old boy told me he wanted to be in school but he couldn't afford not to work. So he was spending more than 12 hours a day ironing clothes that are then shipped to the UK.

All the brands I contacted about this programme say they regularly inspect the factories making their clothes to guarantee standards. Some of these audits are unannounced. But the Syrian boys explained how the factories got round this problem.

When the auditors arrive, they are hidden out of sight. And when the auditors leave, they go back to work. As simple as that. Some of the brands acknowledge the inherent failings in the auditing process and are now trying to tie up with trade unions and NGOs to combat abuses.

Other factories may never be visited by auditors because as far as the brands are concerned, they don't make their clothes. They're part of the chain of sub-contractors who make up much of the garment industry in Turkey.

They take orders from so-called first-tier factories - official suppliers to the brands - but often without the knowledge of the brands themselves.

This is where you'll find the worst abuses of Syrian refugees and children. We decided to follow delivery vans from one of the first-tier factories hoping they would lead us down their supply chain.

Our plan was successful but also darkly disappointing. We filmed outside one of the sub-contractors as a small boy carried and dragged bags of material as big as himself to one of the vans. He couldn't have been more than 12.

We go inside posing as the owners of a new fashion business. In the manager's office we immediately spot a jacket that has been made for a British clothing retailer. It's whisked away. Later, after browbeating the owners to let us see the factory floor, we get sight of the young boy again.

He's carefully folding clothes at an ironing station. He looks up briefly and then looks down to his work again. And he's far from alone - there are half a dozen Syrian children of around his age in the workshop.

Efforts are being made to get them into education but it's estimated that as many as 400,000 are working, many of them in the garment industry.

I've spoken to some of the parents of these children. They don't want their kids working, but they say they simply don't have a choice.

One boy, just 13, told me he was between jobs. He had spent the morning looking for work when we spoke. No luck. I asked him what he would do now. Tears rolled slowly down his cheek as he told me that if he didn't work, he couldn't live.

Our evidence confirms that big fashion brands are profiting from refugees and their children. All the brands involved say they are completely opposed to child labour and any exploitation of Syrian refugees.

But our investigation shows they sometimes don't know how or where their clothes are being made. And until the brands know exactly who is making their clothes, then this type of exploitation is almost certain to continue.

Panorama - Undercover: The Refugees Who Make Our Clothes is on BBC One at 20:30 BST on Monday, 24 October and available on the BBC iPlayer afterwards.

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The first time you see a child hunched over a sewing machine in a hot, airless factory will never leave you. The boy, no more than 11 or 12, peeked up at me with just the trace of a smile before he dipped his head again, back to work.

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Global firms behind popular brands such as Kit Kat, Colgate toothpaste and Dove cosmetics use palm oil produced by child workers in dangerous conditions, Amnesty International has claimed.

The human rights organisation traced a range of well-known products back to the palm oil company Wilmar, which it alleged employs children to do back-breaking physical labour on refineries in Indonesia.

Singapore-based Wilmar counts multinational companies including Kellogg's, Unilever, Colgate-Palmolive, Reckitt Benckiser and Nestlé among its major clients, according to Amnesty.

In a 110-page report accompanied by a video, Amnesty alleged products sold by those companies were "tainted by appalling human rights abuses ... with children as young as eight working in hazardous conditions".

It called on the companies implicated to tell customers whether the palm oil in individual products such as Magnum ice-creams, Ariel detergent, Knorr soup, Pantene shampoo and Aero chocolate bars were made using child labour.

"These findings will shock any consumer who thinks they are making ethical choices in the supermarket when they buy products that claim to use sustainable palm oil," said the senior Amnesty investigator Meghna Abraham.

"There is nothing sustainable about palm oil that is produced using child labour and forced labour. Something is wrong when nine companies turning over a combined revenue of £260bn in 2015 are unable to do anything about the atrocious treatment of palm oil workers earning a pittance."

She said allegations of child labour at Wilmar were not "isolated incidents but are systemic and a predictable result of the way Wilmar does business".

In the report, Amnesty alleged that children aged from eight to 14 were carrying out dangerous work without safety equipment, were exposed to toxic pesticides and regularly carried sacks of palm fruit weighing 25kg.

One 10-year-old boy, who claims he started working for a Wilmar supplier aged eight, said he gets up at 6am to gather fruit and works every day but Sunday. "I don't go to school ... I carry the sacks with the loose fruit by myself but can only carry it half full. My hands hurt and my body aches," he said.

When approached by Amnesty, seven of nine companies admitted that they use palm oil from Wilmar's Indonesian supply network but only two - Kellogg's and Reckitt Benckiser - offered any detail about which products were affected.

The two companies cited "traceability" as a factor in why they had not been aware of abuses at the plantations supplying them palm oil through Wilmar.

"Using mealy mouthed excuses about 'traceability' is a total cop-out from those companies," said Amnesty's business and human rights programme director, Peter Frankental.

"You can be sure that if one of these companies' products were contaminated and had to be taken off the shelves of supermarkets, they would ensure that they could trace the source to specific plantations."

Wilmar said it was aware of allegations about labour rights abuses before it was contacted by Amnesty and was already taking steps to remedy any failings.

"Wilmar has put a lot of effort and systems in place to deal with labour and social issues in our operations and supply chain," the company said. "We acknowledge that there are ongoing labour issues in the palm oil industry, and these issues could affect any palm company operating in Indonesia.

"The focus on Wilmar, as the largest processor and merchandiser of palm and lauric oils worldwide, is often used to draw attention to problems in the wider palm oil industry."

Colgate-Palmolive said: "We are concerned about the specific allegations raised by Amnesty International and will hold Wilmar accountable for addressing any issues."

It said it would "terminate any supplier that fails to address labour and human rights concerns".

A Nestlé spokesperson said: "We will investigate allegations related to our purchasing of palm oil, along with our suppliers." The company said it was not currently able to trace its products back to the plantations in Amnesty's report.

Kellogg's said: "If we find ... any supply chain violations of our global palm oil principles, we work with the supplier to understand corrective actions and ensure they understand our commitments. If the concerns are not adequately addressed, we take action to remove them from our supply chain."

Another company, Procter and Gamble, said it had been "working with Wilmar to ensure they can remedy any potential human rights infringements in their supply chain".
Topics

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Firms such as Kellogg's, Unilever and Nestlé 'use child-labour palm oil'

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Global firms behind popular brands such as Kit Kat, Colgate toothpaste and Dove cosmetics use palm oil produced by child workers in dangerous conditions, Amnesty International has claimed. The human rights organisation traced a range of well-known products back to the palm oil company Wilmar, which it alleged employs children to do back-breaking physical labour on refineries in Indonesia.

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Children as young as 14 have been employed to make clothes for some of the most popular names on the UK high street, according to a new report.

New Look, Sports Direct's Lonsdale brand and H&M have all used factories found to have employed children, after several major brands switched their production to low-cost factories in Myanmar. Workers told investigators that they were paid as little as 13p an hour producing clothes for UK retailers - half the full legal minimum wage.

Labour rights campaigners say that the use of children in factories supplying household names is the result of a "race to the bottom", as brands chase ever lower labour costs.

The Netherlands-based Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (known by its Dutch initials as Somo) interviewed 400 workers in 12 factories supplying international brands and worked with the Observer to finalise the report.

"We thought that brands were getting the message on child labour but this investigation shows the risks involved in constantly trying to cut labour costs," said researcher Pauline Overeem. "The widespread use of children in Myanmar to manufacture clothes for western brands is alarming and depressing and we urge all companies to take responsibility and to ensure that children are getting the education they need and deserve."

Brands have had some success eliminating child labour from their main supplier factories in recent years, but as wages have risen in countries such as China, companies are increasingly moving production to cheaper markets, including Myanmar, where children can legally be employed for up to four hours a day from the age of 14.

Daw Khine Khine Nwe, secretary of the Myanmar Garment Manufacturers Association Photograph: Gethin Chamberlain

The legal minimum wage in Myanmar is 3,600 kyat (£2.12) for an eight-hour day - equivalent to 26p an hour. Workers in all the factories investigated worked six-day weeks. Labour NGOs argued when the minimum wage was set that a minimum of 6,000 kyat a day was required for a basic standard of living.

All the factories investigated employed workers below the age of 18. Several workers at factories supplying Lonsdale and New Look stated in detailed interviews that they had started work at the age of 14.

A German brand that sourced from the same factory as New Look reported that it had found "misconducts" at the factory, including evidence of child employment. Researchers said the factory subsequently dismissed all workers below the age of 18. But one of the workers, asked her age by the researchers, replied: "Do you want to know my real age or my age at the factory?" A worker at another factory told researchers: "When buyers come into the factory the child workers are being told not to come to work that day."

There were also reports of several workers below the age of 15 at a factory supplying H&M and Muji. H&M confirmed that it had found two 14-year-olds but that an inspection in November found no one under 14.

Researchers found wages below the full legal minimum at factories supplying Sports Direct, Henri Lloyd, New Look, H&M, Muji, Pierre Cardin and Karrimor (owned by Sports Direct).

The lowest wages of just 13p an hour were found in factories supplying H&M, Karrimor, Muji and Pierre Cardin. The day rate for those workers was £1.06. Myanmar's labour laws permit factories to pay newer workers at reduced rates.

Workers say they struggle to live on such low wages. Thiri and Yadana, who both worked at a factory supplying Lonsdale, said they could only afford to live in a makeshift hut in a squatter area without electricity or running water.

Thiri said: "The upside of living here is that we don't need to spend money on rent which makes it easier to get by."

According to Myanmar's factories act, workers should not be expected to do more than 60 hours a week, including overtime, but workers reported longer hours in factories supplying New Look, Sports Direct, Henri Lloyd, Karrimor and H&M. Forced overtime was reported by workers in factories supplying H&M, Muji, Sports Direct and Henri Lloyd, while there were reports of unpaid overtime at factories supplying New Look, Pierre Cardin and H&M.

Factory owners in Myanmar say they are under intense pressure from brands to cut costs. Daw Khine Khine Nwe, secretary of the Myanmar Garment Manufacturers Association, urged UK shoppers to think about how budget clothes are produced. "We are asking the buyer to increase the rate and we'll share it with the worker. But they're not willing."

In an interview with the Observer in Yangon last year, she said: "The consumer also needs to understand - the consumer asks for better quality but when it comes to the price they always look for the cheapest one. Which do you want?"

The low labour costs in Myanmar have encouraged international brands to switch production from more expensive countries and between 2010 and 2014 exports tripled to £787m. There are now more than 400 factories in the country, employing 350,000 people, 90% of them women.

In its report, Somo urges the companies to pay workers a living wage: "Clothing companies are constantly on the lookout for production locations that can make clothes quickly and at low costs," it says. "Over the past few years, Myanmar has rapidly become a popular sourcing destination for the garment industry due to a huge pool of cheap labour and favourable import and export tariffs.

However, working conditions in this industry are far from acceptable. Labour rights violations are rife. Asian suppliers are setting up shop in Myanmar in an unseemly 'race to the bottom', pushed by foreign buyers that are eager to secure the cheapest possible prices."

New Look said: "We recognise the issues highlighted in this report. We are working with our suppliers and local partners in Myanmar to address the findings and to support the development of an ethical garment industry in the area."

H&M said the report raised "industry-wide challenges". "It is of utmost importance to us that all our products are made under good working conditions and with consideration to environment, health and safety. We want people to be treated with respect and that our suppliers offer all their workers good, fair and safe working conditions."

The company stressed that child labour was totally unacceptable, but pointed out that the legal age for working in Myanmar was 14.

Sports Direct dismissed the interviews with the workers as "anecdotal and uncorroborated", with a spokesman adding: "We would therefore strongly advise you not to publish." But in a statement the company said: "However, we do not condone these types of abuse and we have policies in place which reflect this view. Details of these policies are published on our company website in our statement about the Modern Slavery Act."

A spokeswoman for Muji said: "We are committed on a global scale to always ensure good working practices, both internally and in cooperation with our external partners."

Pierre Cardin said it would investigate the matter further and take the appropriate measures.

Henri Lloyd did not respond to repeated requests for comment and did not respond when offered an opportunity by Somo to react to the report.

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How high street clothes were made by children in Myanmar for 13p an hour

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Children of 14 were working a six-day week

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WHAT IS CHILD LABOUR?
CAUSES
EFFECTS

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Opposition and contrast

In Oliver Twist there are several instances where Dickens uses the ideas of opposition and contrast, for example, between town and country, rich and poor, etc. He has used this device to draw our attention to the values contained within certain settings and characters by showing them in contrast to their opposite. Ideas and values often change over time and you may agree or disagree with the ideas that Dickens puts forward through the various oppositions in Oliver Twist. ��С%��

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During the Victorian era England was undergoing rapid change. Advancement in science, medicine, industry and political thought was at its height. Britain was the wealthiest country in the world, with its Empire expanding and adding to this prosperity. However, this prosperity was not shared by all of Victoria’s subjects. Women did not have the vote and many could not work. The only common occupations for women were governess or teacher. Their working-class counterparts may have found employment in factories or even prostitution as a last resort. Poverty during this period was atrocious. Many people lived in conditions that we would find shocking today. The workhouse was a looming presence. Many chose a life of crime rather than the slow starvation that this institution inflicted. People lived the best they could; some survived, many did not.