# data[].attributes.body
Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark constitutional law case of the US Supreme Court. It upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal".

# data[].attributes.body
Dred Scott v. Sandford was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on US labor law and constitutional law that held that "a negro, whose ancestors were imported into the U.S. and sold as slaves" whether enslaved or free, could not be an American citizen and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court.

# data[].attributes.body
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865.

# data[].attributes.body
Harriet Tubman was an American abolitionist, humanitarian, and an armed scout and spy for the United States Army during the American Civil War.

# data[].attributes.body
John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. His court opinions helped lay the basis for United States constitutional law.

# data[].attributes.body
James Madison, Jr. was a political theorist, American statesman, and the fourth President of the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. He was elected the second Vice President of the United States, serving under John Adams and in 1800 was elected the third President.

# data[].attributes.body
John Locke was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".

# data[].attributes.body
George Calvert was the first person to dream of a colony in America where Catholics and Protestants could prosper together.

# data[].attributes.body
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these laws continued in force until 1965.

# data[].attributes.body
In the United States, payment of a poll tax was a prerequisite to the registration for voting in a number of states. The tax emerged in some states of the United States in the late 19th century as part of the Jim Crow laws.

# data[].attributes.body
a U.S. federal government agency established in 1865 to aid freedmen (freed slaves) in the South during the Reconstruction era of the United States, which attempted to change society in the former Confederacy.

# data[].attributes.body
The 15th Amendment to the Constitution granted African American men the right to vote by declaring that the "right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

# data[].attributes.body
The 14th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified on July 9, 1868, and granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States,” which included former slaves recently freed.

# data[].attributes.body
Formally abolishing slavery in the United States, the 13th Amendment was passed by the Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified by the states on December 6, 1865.

# data[].attributes.body
Reconstruction refers to the period following the Civil War of rebuilding the United States. It was a time of great pain and endless questions.

# data[].attributes.body
President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of bloody civil war. The proclamation declared "that all persons held as slaves" within the rebellious states "are, and henceforward shall be free."

# data[].attributes.body
the action or an act of abolishing a system, practice, or institution.

# data[].attributes.body
The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival movement during the early 19th century in the United States.

# data[].attributes.body
Manifest Destiny is a term for the attitude prevalent during the 19th century period of American expansion that the United States not only could, but was destined to, stretch from coast to coast. This attitude helped fuel western settlement, Native American removal and war with Mexico.

# data[].attributes.body
Mormons are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity, which began with Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s.

# data[].attributes.body
n 1838 and 1839, as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi River and to migrate to an area in present-day Oklahoma.

# data[].attributes.body
The Monroe Doctrine was articulated in President James Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The European powers, according to Monroe, were obligated to respect the Western Hemisphere as the United States' sphere of interest.

# data[].attributes.body
The Louisiana Purchase (1803) was a land deal between the United States and France, in which the U.S. acquired approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River for $15 million.

# data[].attributes.body
The Supreme Court's landmark decision regarding judicial review is Marbury v. Madison. Marbury was the first Supreme Court decision to strike down an act of Congress as unconstitutional.

# data[].attributes.body
The Establishment Clause of the Religion Clause is the first of several pronouncements in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, stating, Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise.

# data[].attributes.body
The Free Exercise Clause reserves the right of American citizens to accept any religious belief and engage in religious rituals.

# data[].attributes.body
The Bill of Rights is the collective name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution.

# data[].attributes.body
Federalism refers to the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government with regional governments in a single political system.

# data[].attributes.body
Anti-Federalism refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution.

# data[].attributes.body
The Federalist Party or First Hamiltonian Party, was the first American political party. It existed from the early 1790s to 1816; its remnants lasted into the 1820s.

# data[].attributes.body
an agreement that large and small states reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that in part defined the legislative structure and representation that each state would have under the United States Constitution.

# data[].attributes.body
The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution of the United States, on November 15, 1777. However, ratification of the Articles of Confederation by all thirteen states did not occur until March 1, 1781.

# data[].attributes.body
Rights that people supposedly have under natural law. The Declaration of Independence of the United States lists life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as natural rights.

# data[].attributes.body
The Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies, then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen newly independent sovereign states, and no longer under British rule.

# data[].attributes.body
The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 during which colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, and founded the United States of America.

# data[].attributes.body
an organization of American colonists that was created in the Thirteen American Colonies. The secret society was formed to protect the rights of the colonists and to fight taxation by the British government.

# data[].attributes.body
The Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in the colonies) lasted from 1756 to 1763, forming a chapter in the imperial struggle between Britain and France called the Second Hundred Years’ War.

# data[].attributes.body
an act of vesting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate bodies.

# data[].attributes.body
a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition.