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Children learn cultural norms and practises from others through observation and through reinforcement

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Genie and Cambodian jungle girl

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Relationship of real-world examples  to first language acquisition:

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Relationship of real-world examples  to first language acquisition:

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By focusing on a crucially different notion of the critical period for language, with a crucially different time scale: that of a critical period for first language acquisition. A study approached this question in examining the language outcomes of children who missed their critical period for acquiring a first language: children who did not receive the required language input because they grew in isolation. The acquisition of syntax in a first language has a critical period that ends during the first year of life, and children who missed this window of opportunity later show severe syntactic impairments.

Several cases of children who grew in isolation and experienced drastic deprivation of language input during the critical period for first language acquisition are reported in the literature. These children later failed to acquire language even after exposure to language and sometimes formal language teaching, and their main domain of difficulty was morpho-syntax. The cases of Genie and  Cambodian jungle girl are known examples of impaired language acquisition following deprivation of language input during a critical period.

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(Genie)
Susan Wiley or known as Genie is a 13 years old girl that has been isolated by her father for her whole life in a state of physical, sensory, social, and emotional deprivation without any exposure to human contact. Genie was kept in isolation from the age of 20 months until she was 13 years and 9 months old. All through this time, and possibly also before the age of 20 months, she has barely been spoken to. Genie did not speak at all when she was discovered. In the following months, she did acquire some language, but the process was slow and inefficient. Whereas her vocabulary consistently grew, Genie failed to develop normal syntax. Her speech contained no question words, no demonstratives, and no particles.

Genie also failed to construct sentences derived by syntactic movement. This demonstrates a crucial point regarding critical periods for first language acquisition: different language domains may show different acquisition paths, with different critical periods and some may not be constrained by critical periods at all. Syntax, and specifically syntactic movement, are affected by lack of language input early in life, whereas single lexical items may still be acquired once language exposure begins or resumes. Genie’s language was thoroughly studied. Not all later studies of isolated children explored various domains of their language and specifically syntax, but the pattern seems to be similar: whereas single words can be acquired later in life, syntax can no longer be acquired normally This suggests that language input during the early years of life is crucial for the development of syntax.

(Cambodian Jungle girl)
In another case of Rochom P’ngieng or known as a Cambodian jungle girl, she was lost in the Cambodian jungle for eight years and was found at the age of 29. Rochom P’ngieng was lost in the jungle of Ratanakiri province, Cambodia, at the age of eight when herding buffalo with her six-year-old sister who also disappeared. She was discovered on 13 January 2007 after a villager noticed some of his food had been taken. He staked out the area and sighted a naked woman stealing his rice. Then, she was recognized by her father, policeman Ksor Lu long, because of a scar on her back. The girls probably lost their way back home and kept wandering in the woods.

Rochom was unable to speak any intelligible language. After spending almost 19 years in the jungle, the girl forgot all vocabulary and could only speak three words: ‘mother’ ‘father’ and ‘stomachache’. Besides, there is a difference between Genie and Rochom where Genie never communicated with humans for her whole life but Rochom might be used to it before she lost at the age of 8. Thus, she is considered to have faced the first language acquisition even though she already passed the critical period like Genie. However, she is still unable to acquire language fluently and syntactically because of the long-term period of isolation without human exposure.

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Chomsky claimed that there was a critical period for language learning which was first proposed by Eric Lenneberg. He claimed, as Cook Newson (1996:301) explains, that there is a critical period during which the human mind can learn language; before or after this period language cannot be acquired naturally. Although the rare cases of feral children who had been deprived of the first language in early childhood seem to support the idea of the critical period it is not known for definite if deprivation was the only reason for their language learning difficulties as Sampson (1997:37) points out, “it is not certain if children in cases of extreme deprivation have trouble learning a language because they have missed their so-called “critical period” or if it is because of the extreme trauma they have experienced. ”Although Chomsky was a very influential and successful nativist, Sampson (1997:159) claims ‘his theories were given a helping hand by external circumstances.’

The first theory regarding the critical period for language was suggested by Penfield and Roberts and later developed by Lenneberg [6]. According to Lenneberg’s theory, natural acquisition of (a first or a second) language from mere exposure occurs during a critical period that begins at the age of two years and ends in puberty. The revolutionary idea behind this critical period hypothesis was that there is a period in which language is acquired more naturally and accurately, and this period has a certain onset and offset. According to Lenneberg, the critical period for language begins after a certain maturation of the brain and ends with a certain loss of cerebral plasticity. Lenneberg and other researchers who tested the ages in which a child can still acquire various aspects of a new language reached various ages, all around puberty.

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A critical period for learning a language is shown by the decline in language ability (fluency) of non-native speakers of English as a function of their age upon arrival in the United States. The ability to score well on tests of English grammar and vocabulary declines from approximately age 7 onward. (After Johnson and Newport, 1989.)

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Able to show progress in acquiring language

After about five months, Genie acquired enough vocabulary to produce single words spontaneously and was able to express emotions. Meanwhile, Rochom enables to understand a few words in Khmer and ethnic Phnang language but is unable to reply.

The invention of a new language

Although Rochom P'ngieng doesn’t speak normally and is only able to say a few words through her progress in rehabilitation, she knows how to do a lot of things and especially talking to herself in her animal-jungle language that others cannot understand. The ‘Animal-jungle language’ is an advantage for her to communicate with nature.

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Children have maturational constraints

That is a critical period, during which they can best acquire language. The later the language is learned, the less it will be native-like. Genie, for instance, who was exposed to the language after puberty, was skilled at basic word order and grammar but was awkward with its morphology.

Children need two-way communication to develop their first language acquisition

Both of them were not having two-way communication well enough as Genie was never exposed to humans while Rochom was isolated in the jungle for a long-term period. Thus, this makes them lack language development and only the right brain function to raise the possibility in acquiring language.

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To sum up, isolated children show that the lexicon seems to have no age limit after they have already passed the critical period. Hence, everyone should emphasize the importance of language acquisition for children's development. Usually, people take language as a biological feature that humans have and take it for granted. However, by those two examples, one can see that lack of language can not only affect a child on a short-term basis, but also during his or her whole life.

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Nureen Fathiah Binti Mohd Fardzly - 214412

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Relationship of real-world examples to second language acquisition:

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Relationship of real-world examples to second language acquisition:

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The behavior from the real world example is under sociocultural factors in prosocial behavior. Sociocultural background is clearly important, to the extent to which second language acquisition is viewed as normal rather than extraordinary by the peer group of origin. It is important to highlight that the sociocultural background of the students is one of the main aspect of the communicative approach. This has a class dimension in education, and a cultural dimension regardless of class, in how many other people speak second languages. Better education provides better structures. Even in one language, students who went to suburban high schools tend to have a better mastery of mother tongue for writing than students from rural schools. Finally, there is an element of natural ability. Children in the same family can have different levels of skill in mastering a second language, despite identical socioeconomic, culture, class background, life history, and exposure.

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Have you ever heard the phrase “Do as I say, not as I do?” Children, it turns out, will actually do both. Children learn and imitate behaviors by watching and listening to others. This is sometimes called “observational learning,” when children can learn things simply by observing others. The models do not have to be people that the child directly interacts with. Children learn from models all around them, on television, in the grocery store, at school and at home.

What modeled behaviors children will imitate depends partly on what sort of reinforcement those behaviors receive. People are more likely to imitate a behavior if they get some sort of positive reinforcement for it. For example, if a child overhears another child swearing, he might learn new words, but may not necessarily use them. If, however, the child gets some sort of reward for swearing, such as acceptance or encouragement from an adult, an observing child might be more likely to copy this behavior. Don’t forget that laughter can be an unintended positive reinforcement. The same can be said if someone witnesses a negative reinforcement, such as scolding for swearing. A child may be less likely to imitate the behavior. On the opposite end of the spectrum, children can also acquire prosocial behaviors through observational learning. Watching someone cooperate, share, take turns and demonstrate altruistic acts can teach children to show those behaviors too. Education should be associated with learning to learn and making learning experiences meaningful and relevant to the learners

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(Google) The report was published by Michigan State University Extension ;

Model behavior in childhood: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/monkey_see_monkey_do_model_behavior_in_early_childhood

(Google Scholar) Research about relation between sociocultural theories and second language acquisition:
https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/3747/Sociocultural_Theories_in_Second_Language_Acquisition.pdf

Sociocultural theories differ fundamentally from other perspectives in second language acquisition because of their understanding that social environment is not the context for, but rather the source of, mental development (Swain & Deters, 2007). Whereas other perspectives focus on an individual and what the individual is doing, SCT takes into account the complex interaction between the individual acting with mediational means and the sociocultural context (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). In other words, sociocultural theories emphasise what tools the person is acting with, where the action takes place, and why the person is acting (Swain & Deters, 2007).

(Youtube) Sociocultural factors of second language acquisition:
https://youtu.be/WEB5CobZYG8

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Contributes to the well-being of the person giving the help

For one, helping others feels good: it often leads to a positive mood and reduced stress. Over time, prosocial behavior is associated with greater psychological well-being, better social relationships, and better physical health, including greater longevity. Thus, prosocial behavior is valuable for both those who receive help and those who do the helping

Stress-reducing effects

Research has found that engaging in prosocial behaviors helps mitigate the negative emotional effects of stress. Helping others may actually be a great way to reduce the impact of stress in your life.

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From my point of view, I think that a fundamental theoretical tenet of sociocultural theory is a higher forms of human consciousness being semiotically mediated as well as the zone of proximal development, internalization, imitation, and private speech

the behavior of the second  language learner  toward the

second language appears to be the most factors that affect second language acquisition. There is a strong relationship between learners' behavior toward the second language and success in second language acquisition. Behavior is a series of values that play an important role in the acquisition process. The learners' positive  behavior encourages  learners to make serious endeavors to acquire the language. On the contrary, negative attitudes detain learning. Competence of a second language is reached  when there  is an ability to be in continuous contact with the second language. This continual contact depends

on the learner's attitude toward the second community

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To sum up, learning in Vygotsky‘s view , can be defined as what an individual is able to do with assistance of another person or an artifact created by others. Assistance can be offered in the form of direct and explicit instructions, such as those happening in schools or educational institutes or indirect and implicit instruction, such as those occurring in the case of everyday unreflective activity. On the other hand, development can take place only when that assistance is adopted and internalized, which enables individuals to function independently and apply and extend what they have acquired to broader contexts.

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Nursyahida Nadia Binti Saidi
-214581

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William Labov and Peter Trudgill

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Relationship of real-world examples to social variation in language:

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Relationship of real-world examples to social variation in language:

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People all around the world speak differently from one another and they also change their speech according to the situations to connect with social factors such as social class, gender and region. Sociolinguists are concerned not with how people ''ought to'' speak, but how they actually do speak. A non- standard variety of a particular language may be different from the standard language on all linguistic levels. It may be characterized by differences in pronunciation, grammar and in vocabulary. The studies of William Labov and Peter Trudgill are known examples of social variation in language.

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(William Labov)
William Labov was born in 1927, Rutherford, New Jersey. He worked in a discipline of variationist sociolinguistics. He became a director of the university’s Linguistics Laboratory (1977). He worked on a classic study on social stratification for New York City speech. He was able to illustrate the social stratification of (r) in New York City department stores. For example fourth and floor. These pronunciations was tested by Labov, /r/ was either pronounced or not.

Moreover, New York City speech known as r-less. However, Labov found that in New York City the pronunciation of /r/ occurred and its frequency of use depended on the speaker’s socioeconomic status groups which is social classes. After do the research, it turns out the results illustrated that /r/ in New York City was stratified by class. The pronunciation of /r/ depended on the social-class of the employees.

(Peter Trudgill)
Peter Trudgill who was born in 7 November 1943, Norwich, England. He is a sociolinguist, academic and also an author. Trudgill studied Norwich speech in the 1970s to find out how and why people’s ways of speaking varied. Trudgill studied the final consonant in words like walking and running. In the standard of British English, the sound spelled-ng is a velar nasal. However, in Norwich the pronunciation of walkin’, talkin’ are frequently heard.

Trudgill discovered that in all social classes, the more careful the speech, the more likely people saying walking than walkin’. The proportion of walkin’ type forms was higher in lower social classes. Trudgill’s figures for social class and sex differences in the use of the standard. People in Norwich prestige -ing form in a formal style of speaking.

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The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of his 1939 article "Sociolinguistics in India" that published in Man in India. Then, The study of sociolinguistics in the West was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.

According to Ronald Wardhaugh, sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and how languages function in communication. This shows that the sociolinguistics is important that occurred in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.

The study by William Labov was published in http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/Exemplarystudylabov

Peter Trudgill worked in bibliography https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Trudgill

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Able to get the results of overall stratification of /r/

Labov do the social stratification of /r/ in three department stores. It is Saks Fifth Avenue (highest), Macy’s (middle) and S. Klein (lowest). He gathered the data through interviews and used the formal speech in the interview. The results are 62% of Saks, 51% of Macy’s and 20% of Kleins. Those with higher socioeconomic status pronounced /r/ more frequently than those with lower socioeconomic status.

Interpretation between women and men

The use of nonstandard -in’ forms occurred much more often in men’s speech than in women’s speech. Women tended to say they use the standard -ing forms more often while men tended to say they used the nonstandard -in’ forms more often than they really did.

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In my opinion,  all social factors such as social class and gender involves in pronunciation and grammar of the words according to the situations. People with different social class and gender speak differently.

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In conclusion, social class plays important role in pronunciation. Whether it is lowest, middle or highest class, they have different ways in order to pronounce a word. Other than social class, gender also one of the social factors that change the speaker's speech according to the situations.

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Nurin Faqihah binti Yusoff
214490

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Bilingualism in Malaysia

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Relationship of real-world example to Regional Variation in Language: 

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Relationship of real-world example to Regional Variation in Language: 

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In many countries, regional variation is not simply a matter of two or more dialects of a single language but can involve two or more quite distinct and different languages. For example, Bilingual education has been practiced in Malaysia at least since the sixteenth century.  Since that era, bilingualism has carried with it prestige and opportunities denied to the monolingual. During the British colonial era, they kept rural children monolingual while urban children could become bilingual. The result was social stratification along ethnic and geographic lines.

Since it linked education to upward social mobility, it has become the education system to enable students to function in over one language. This would give students equality of access to educational and job opportunities in the future.

Hence, Malaysian education encourages bilingualism. Therefore, many forms of bilingual education have emerged.

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On 11 September 2012, the Prime Minister of Malaysia unveiled the National Education Blueprint that laid the foundation for transforming the Malaysian education system. Among the issues addressed was the strengthening of the teaching and learning of the English language alongside the reinforcement of the learning of the national language. It gave attention to ensuring students' English language proficiency through an emphasis on bilingualism (Bahasa Malaysia and English), which is one of the six key "attributes" addressed in the blueprint.

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http://jurnal.unsyiah.ac.id/EEIC/article/view/15855

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298091549_Bilingualism_in_Malaysia_Language_education_policy_and_local_needs

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As we all know Malaysia was majority by Malay, Chinese & Indians. Therefore, most Malaysian citizens are bilingual or multilingual as they learn at least two languages in school in addition to their mother tongue.  Although the medium of instruction in international schools is English, additional languages are commonly offered such as Mandarin, Malay, French, Japanese, and Spanish. That’s why we can see many Malaysian can speak multiple languages fluently plus with the influence of multi races, multi-culture countries.

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In my opinion, because of the geographical factor & variation of races, ethnicities, languages, and religions in Malaysia,we are able to create a language variation. I love how different races can come together as one and live peacefully as 'Satu Malaysia'. I’m so grateful to have been taught to appreciate cultural diversity and was brought up to respect everyone regardless of race. I love how we embrace diversity while retaining the culture, language, and identity of all ethnicities and yet still being united as one.

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Knowing more than one language has many advantages especially when students leave secondary school. The educational benefits experienced in school by bilingual children will continue when they pursue higher education. Multilingual or bilingual individuals are also highly sought after in the workplace, especially by multinational companies.

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Nurin Irdina bt Mohamad Zawawi – 214502