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"Analysis of a controlled substance: LSD - Marshall University." http://www.marshall.edu/forensics/files/Nunney-Analysis-of-a-controlled-substance-LSD-Final-Version.pdf. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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"LSD - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database - Toxnet - NIH." https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+3920. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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LSD - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database

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0.2.1 SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE A) USES: Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a hallucinogenic substance first synthesized in 1938. The d-isomer is the extremely potent hallucinogen while the l-isomer appears to be inactive. LSD was originally introduced as a drug for psychiatric use under the trade name of Delysid, but it has since been prohibited as a Schedule 1 substance in the United States.

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"The Effects of Acid - DrugAbuse.com." https://drugabuse.com/library/effects-acid-lsd/. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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Is LSD ("Acid") Harmful?

D-lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD or "acid," is a hallucinogenic drug made from lysergic acid, a natural chemical found in a fungus that grows on rye called Claviceps purpurea. LSD was first created in 1938 by a Swiss chemist named Albert Hoffmann who was searching for new drugs to stimulate patients' circulation and breathing.

Dr. Hoffmann discovered LSD's striking mental effects in 1943, and the drug was marketed under the brand name Delysid from 1947 to 1966. It was used to enhance the effectiveness of psychotherapy and to treat psychiatric illnesses such as depression and alcohol addiction. Starting in the 1950s, the United States Central Intelligence Agency and the Army conducted experiments to find out if LSD could be a useful tool for exerting "mind control" on enemies ¹.

Recreational use of LSD began in the 1960s and spread rapidly until the drug was banned in 1970 by categorizing it as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act. As a schedule I drug, LSD has no recognized medical use and those caught in possession of it face serious legal penalties.

LSD is generally considered to be less harmful than other drugs like alcohol, heroin, and cocaine, and overdoses are rare ²,3.4 ⁵. LSD can also cause persistent psychological problems that cause significant distress in the user.

As with many drugs of abuse, young men may appear to be disproportionately impacted by the dangers of LSD-of the 5,000 emergency room visits in 2011, 84% were male and 70% were between 18 and 24 years old ⁵.

Who Answers?

Thinking About Getting Rehab?

LSD's Short-Term Effects

People generally use acid and other classic hallucinogens such as psilocybin (magic mushrooms) and peyote (mescaline) for recreational and spiritual reasons ².

These drugs are also known as "psychedelics" and produce temporary symptoms similar to psychosis that typically last between 6 and 10 hours ². These altered perceptions and sense of unreality are commonly called a "trip" and may result in ³, ⁷:

Amplification of sensations like sounds and smells.

Distorted sense of time.

Blending of senses, such as "seeing" sounds or "hearing" colors.

Sensation of the mind leaving the body.

Quickly shifting emotions.

Mystical or religious sensations.

Side Effects

The side effects of acid are similar to other hallucinogens. LSD is active mainly at certain serotonin receptor sub-types in the brain and body. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved with activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for your body's "fight or flight" reaction ³.

Long-Term Effects of Abusing LSD

People who develop HPPD, also known as "flashbacks," have repeated experiences with symptoms similar to an LSD trip even when they have not taken the drug again. These symptoms include hallucinations and other visual distortions such as halos or trails on moving objects ⁷.

Symptoms of HPPD can last from weeks to years before resolving on their own, and there is no widely recognized treatment ⁸. In some cases, HPPD is severe, long-lasting, and has a significant negative effect on other aspects of a user's life.

The distressing effects of a bad trip normally ease when the drug wears off; however, it can persist for weeks or months in some users ². These long-term side effects are known by the clinical terms "Persistent Psychosis" and "Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD)" ⁵.

Such complications are rare, but can happen after using LSD just one time. Individuals who abuse LSD over a long period ¹ or have a history of abusing multiple drugs may also be at greater risk of developing these conditions ⁸.

Individuals suffering from Persistent Psychosis can have visual disturbances, disorganized thinking, paranoia, and mood disturbances that continue long after the last use of the drug. While this condition is not well understood ⁷, symptoms are sometimes managed with antidepressants or antipsychotics.

LSD Dependence

The scientific evidence indicates that LSD does not produce dependence and is not addictive. However, tolerance to the effects of LSD develops very quickly, meaning that frequent use of the drug will result in diminished effects over time. Essentially, the same dose won't create the same "high."

Some users may increase the dose of LSD they take to overcome this tolerance, which can increase the risk of experiencing the negative effects discussed above.

Compulsive LSD users may also develop a pattern of problematic use defined as a hallucinogen use disorder by the American Psychiatric Association. Signs include:

Trying unsuccessfully to stop using LSD.

Spending a lot of time in obtaining and using LSD.

Using LSD instead of fulfilling major personal or professional obligations.

Continuing to use even when doing so is creating interpersonal issues and/or mental/physical health issues.

Giving up hobbies in favor of using.

Needing to take more and more LSD to get "high."

Despite the lack of evidence supporting a classic picture of physiologic dependence and addiction development, people can still be profoundly and negatively impacted by frequent LSD use, and could benefit from some sort of substance abuse treatment intervention.

LSD Withdrawal Treatment

Even in individuals who have taken LSD chronically for a long period of time, there are usually no withdrawal symptoms when they stop, and there are no FDA-approved medications available to treat LSD withdrawal ⁷. However, the intense effects LSD has on perceptions, moods, and thoughts may cause ongoing psychological distress that may lead to impaired functioning in the user's life, and drug treatment programs or professional psychological support may be beneficial to abusers who want to stop.

Little is known about treating hallucinogen abuse, and more research is needed. Currently, there are no specific treatments for LSD abuse, and general strategies such as counseling and cognitive-behavioral therapy are used to change problematic behaviors and support sobriety. Call 1-888-744-0069 Who Answers? to learn more about how to find LSD treatment options.

References:

1. Mucke, H. A. (2016). From Psychiatry to Flower Power and Back Again: The Amazing Story of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. Assay Drug Dev Technol. doi:10.1089/adt.2016.747

2. Passie, T., Halpern, J. H., Stichtenoth, D. O., Emrich, H. M., & Hintzen, A. (2008). The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci Ther, 14(4), 295-314. doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x

3. Center for Substance Abuse Research. (2013). LSD. Retrieved from http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/lsd.asp

4. Mayo Clinic. (2014). Drug Addiction. Diseases and Conditions. Retrieved fromhttp://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/basics/symptoms/con-20020970

5. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2015). Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs. Retrieved fromhttp://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/hallucinogens-dissociative-drugs/director:

6. Drug Enforcement Administration. (2013). D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. Retrieved fromhttp://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/lsd.pdf

7. Johnson, M., Richards, W., & Griffiths, R. (2008). Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol, 22(6), 603-620. doi:10.1177/0269881108093587

8. Litjens, R. P., Brunt, T. M., Alderliefste, G. J., & Westerink, R. H. (2014). Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and the serotonergic system: a comprehensive review including new MDMA-related clinical cases. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 24(8), 1309-1323. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.05.008

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D-lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD or "acid," is a hallucinogenic drug made from lysergic acid, a natural chemical found in a fungus that grows on rye called Claviceps purpurea. LSD was first created in 1938 by a Swiss chemist named Albert Hoffmann who was searching for new drugs to stimulate patients' circulation and breathing.

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"LSD: Everything You Need to Know | TripSafe.org." https://tripsafe.org/lsd/. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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The Complete Guide to LSD, by TripSafe

Overview

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a common recreational drug. It is also commonly known as acid. LSD is usually consumed on small pieces of paper called blotter.

LSD has been taken by about 25 million Americans at least once, and 1.5 million Americans in the past year, based on 2015 numbers.

We do not endorse the acquisition and use of illegal drugs. If you make the choice to use psychedelic drugs, please do your research.

What is a psychedelic?

Psychedelics are drugs that can induce an altered state, perhaps best described as a dreamlike state, for some number of minutes or hours, depending on the specific psychedelic.

Psychedelics have been used by indigenous people for thousands of years.

Intelligent and creative researchers discovered this indigenous use in the 1950s and 1960s and introduced psychedelics to a tight community of psychotherapists and psychiatrists who found that these tools were very useful.

Psychedelics then entered the popular culture, and were made illegal.

Psychedelic research is now approaching a renaissance.

Are psychedelics good?

If used with care and expertise, there's a solid argument that psychedelics can do the world a lot of good.

Now Rick had an opportunity to work within the system, by the system's rules, to find, or force, common ground around what he believed to be an incontrovertible truth: psychedelics, used with care and expertise, could do people and the world a lot of good.

Is acid the same as LSD?

Sort of. Acid is a street name for LSD, and LSD is a chemical compound. Unfortunately, not all substances sold as "acid" or "LSD" contain just the pure LSD compound. Pure acid would contain 100% LSD. We will try to use the term LSD in this guide, instead of acid.

See more at: LSD vs acid.

Is LSD (acid) safe?

LSD is relatively safe if it pure LSD, and if you have a trusted and experienced guide who can prevent any risk of harming yourself or others due to intoxication.

"Hallucinogens generally possess relatively low physiological toxicity, and have not been shown to result in organ damage or neuropsychological deficits (Strassman, 1984; Gable, 1993, 2004; Halpern and Pope, 1999; Hasler, et al., 2004; Nichols, 2004; Halpern, et al., 2005)."

LSD has been taken by about 25 million Americans at least once, and 1.5 million Americans in the past year, based on 2015 numbers. This 2008 paper noted that "there have been no documented human deaths from an LSD overdose."

"Since the early 1990s, approximately 2000 doses of psilocybin (ranging from low to high doses) have been safely administered to humans in the United States and Europe, in carefully controlled scientific settings, with no reports of any medical or psychiatric serious AEs, including no reported cases of prolonged psychosis or HPPD (Studerus et al., 2011)." Psilocybin is not the same as LSD, though we should expect an extremely similar dosage dependent safety profile.

"This finding is consistent with a US population (2001-2004 data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health) based study that found no associations between lifetime use of any of the serotoninergic psychedelics (including psilocybin) and increased rates of mental illness (Krebs and Johansen, 2013)."

"The incidence of risky behavior or enduring psychological distress is extremely low when psilocybin is given in laboratory studies to screened, prepared, and supported participants."

"There is no evidence of such potential neurotoxic effects with the prototypical classical hallucinogens (i.e. LSD, mescaline and psilocybin)."

"Cohen (1960) reported that only a single case of a psychotic reaction lasting more than 48 hours occurred in 1200 experimental (non-patient) research participants (a rate of 0.8 per 1000). Notably, the individual was an identical twin of a schizophrenic patient and thus would have been excluded under the proposed guidelines." The key methods to minimize this risk are the medical condition guidlines below.

Acid was ranked as the third safest drug by Nutt et al. All drugs can still be harmful under certain circumstances.

How can LSD be most beneficial?

What had been clear to Hofmann almost immediately had by this time been observed independently by Osmond and a host of others: for LSD to have the greatest positive effect, subjects needed to take it in a safe, supportive, and aesthetically pleasing environment with a clear idea of what to expect. When difficult issues arose-as they often did-the safe setting and supportive presence of a therapist would allow the subject to process this emotional dynamite, defuse it, and transcend it.

Psychedelic usage was associated with improved mental health indicators

"Lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a significantly reduced odds of past month psychological distress (weighted odds ratio (OR)=0.81 (0.72-0.91)), past year suicidal thinking (weighted OR=0.86 (0.78-0.94)), past year suicidal planning (weighted OR=0.71 (0.54-0.94)), and past year suicide attempt (weighted OR=0.64 (0.46-0.89))"

The two biggest risks of LSD

Fake acid: Ingesting what you believe to be pure acid (pure LSD), but is actually something else, particularly NBOMe which has been involved in a few deaths in the last few years

Doing something unsafe during the ~10 hours of being in a decently altered mindstate on the drug. "If someone experiences high anxiety, fear, or paranoia during a psilocybin session, itʼs not hard to imagine them behaving in ways harmful to themselves or others."

What are the effects of LSD (acid)?

This assumes pure acid, i.e. 100% LSD.

Acid feels like "seeing the world for the first time," with stimulated and profound seeming thoughts, and sort of a dreamlike feeling. Hallucinations also exist, though it would be more accurate to think of them as visual distortions - i.e. seeing extra patterns in the grass, a photo of a waterfall might look like the water is moving when it's actually not - but don't think of it as you'll be seeing green leprechauns that will talk to you.

See the first few images on this page for an accurate depiction of low to moderate acid dosage visual effects.

Read more on the effects of LSD here.
How long does LSD last?
LSD generally lasts ~8-13 hours, though it's wise to plan for ~16-18 hours.

During and after use
Side effects during use
Possible side effects during use include: anxiety, paranoid thinking, discomfort, temporary moderate increases in blood pressure.
Side effects after use
"Cohen (1960) reported that only a single case of a psychotic reaction lasting more than 48 hours occurred in 1200 experimental (non-patient) research participants (a rate of 0.8 per 1000). Notably, the individual was an identical twin of a schizophrenic patient and thus would have been excluded under the proposed guidelines."

If you have close schizophrenic relatives, you should not take LSD. This will be discussed futher in the safety section below.

Read the full page on LSD's side effects.
Desirable effects during use
Possible desirable effects during use: joy/intense happiness and peace/harmony.
Desirable long-term benefits
Users following a specific guided trip protocol experienced a variety of benefits including increased purpose, more energy for work, more initiative, getting more work done, increased self-confidence, marriage satisfaction, and more friends at and outside work.

Read the rest at the page on LSD's effects, including positive effects.

"Bad" trips

What is the probability of having a bad trip on LSD?

This depends heavily on the dosage, your mindstate going into the trip, and the environment where you take LSD.

We can approximate from a psilocybin mushroom study:

At a dosage of 200 micrograms of LSD in a therapeutic clinical environment, we might expect 86% of people to experience some extreme fear, for an LSD-adjusted (increase time to account for longer trip with LSD vs psilocybin) average of around ~22 minutes of strong anxiety, and we might expect around ~65% to report a persisting positive increase in mood from this dosage assuming they had first tried 35 micrograms, then 67, then 133, then 200

At a dosage of 133 micrograms in a therapeutic clinical environment, we might expect 14% of people to experience some extreme fear, for an LSD-adjusted average of around ~4 minutes of strong anxiety , and we might expect around ~60% to report a persisting positive increase in mood from this dosage assuming they had first tried 35 micrograms, then 67, then 133

At a dosage of 67 micrograms in a therapeutic clinical environment, we might expect 0% of people to experience some extreme fear, for an LSD-adjusted average of around ~2 minutes of strong anxiety, and we might expect around ~45% to report a persisting positive increase in mood from this dosage assuming they had first tried 35 micrograms, then 67

Bad trips can increase long-term well-being, so call them "challenging trips" instead

Challenging or "bad" acid trips can be most beneficial if they are short, but difficult.

"Multiple regression analysis showed degree of difficulty was positively associated, and duration was negatively associated, with enduring increases in well-being."

Are you currently having a bad trip?

Please visit tripsit chat if you need immediate assistance.

"Say hi, tell us your substance and dose, and describe your issue.

If no one responds within 30 seconds, say ~tripsit and someone will be with you immediately."

Also, see these two calming videos for if you are having a "bad" trip:

Medical benefits

"For example, a recent meta-analysis of six randomized clinical trials of treatment for alcoholism conducted between 1966-1970 found that a single dose of LSD [acid] reduced the probability of alcohol misuse almost two-fold relative to comparison conditions (Krebs and Johansen, 2012)."

There is less medical research into LSD (acid) vs psilocybin (shrooms), because psilocybin is less stigmatized, and psilocybin also has a shorter duration, which is easier for researchers as with psilocybin they can spend more like 8 hours with a participant instead of having to spend ~16 hours with the participant.

Researchers are also interested in studying LSD microdosing, which involves taking around 10 micrograms of LSD, often with the goal of boosting mood or boosting productivity / entering a flow state. See this article for more.

With psilocybin (we would expect similar results for LSD) for cancer-related emotional distress, "83 percent said it [psilocybin + psychotherapy] increased their well-being or life satisfaction moderately or very much, and 89 percent said it lead to moderate, strong, or extreme improvements in their behaviors. Of the 90 total sessions conducted during the study, none were rated as having decreased well-being or life satisfaction."

Watch this video, this video, or this video to get a sense for the therapeutic uses of LSD - these videos are using psilocybin, but they should be useful to anyone evaluating LSD, too.

Psychedelic retreats

While not LSD, magic mushrooms are decently similar in effects and therapeutic potential to LSD.

It is our understanding that magic truffles are legal in the Netherlands, and in Jamaica magic mushrooms are either outright legal or the laws don't seem to be enforced.

Retreats for therapeutic use of psilocybin:

How to take LSD (Acid) the TripSafe way 👽
Thank you to Matthew Johnson, Bill Richards, and Roland Griffiths, for all of their work, and particularly their safety research.
These guidelines are designed to maximize the chance of lasting positive benefits, and to minimize the chance of any offputting experience.

Many LSD users are instead seeking to optimize fun instead of lasting positive benefits and safety, in which case some of these guidelines may not apply. For example, if optimizing more for fun and less for safety, a user may prefer not to use a blindfold and headphones, and may choose to drop acid at a festival or in nature instead of in a safe home environment.

We believe the most important tips that should be followed by everyone regardless of their purpose for using acid are:

1. Avoid with LSD-dangerous health conditions

2. Avoid drugs that interact with LSD

3. Have a trusted, sober guide who is experienced in supporting psychedelic sessions

4. Respect psychedelics

5. Test your LSD

🙋 Safe use is important to avoid adverse reactions

These safe use guidelines are based off research into the clinical and research use of psychedelics.
"Persisting adverse reactions are rare when research is conducted along these guidelines. Incautious research may jeopardize participant safety and future research."
☑️ Safer and more enjoyable usage checklist

Many LSD users are instead seeking to optimize fun instead of lasting positive benefits and safety, in which case some of these guidelines may not apply. For example, if optimizing more for fun and less for safety, a user may prefer not to use a blindfold and headphones, and may choose to drop acid at a festival or in nature instead of in a safe home environment.

We believe the most important tips that should be followed by everyone regardless of their purpose for taking LSD are:

1. Avoid with certain health conditions

2. Avoid drugs that interact with LSD

3. Have a trusted, sober guide who is experienced in supporting psychedelic sessions

4. Respect psychedelics

5. Test your LSD

🚫 Risks to avoid
Serious risks:

1. Death or injurity due to ingesting fake LSD (i.e. not pure LSD).

2. Doing something unsafe while on the drug. Users may not have their regular common sense about them, and may cause minor or serious harm to themselves or others.

3. Psychotic episodes if you have a pre-disposition to mental illness

These risks can be reduced to near zero with proper precautions.

It's also preferrable and possible to reduce the risk of having a bad trip.

Extra info

Myths

LSD is probably one of the most mythologized and demonised drugs, and its history is full of episodes which are as outlandish as the stories, such as the illegal experiments with the drug carried out by American and British intelligence agencies. Countless urban myths exist about bizarre and frightening things people did whilst tripping.
"Bad Acid"
People have believed in batches of so-called "bad acid" which are blamed for horrible effects and bad trips. Doses of different batches can be very variable and 'bad' experiences with LSD can usually be related to unwanted high doses, irresponsibility or unpreparedness and/or the ingestion of a different substance. There are no different types of LSD.
LSD stays in your spinal fluid, causing flashbacks years later
LSD does not stay in your body for long. Flashbacks and HPPD are poorly understood, but the symptoms occur in the absence of LSD.
Orange Juice/ Vitamin C can be used as an antidote to stop a bad trip
This is not true, there are no easy home remedies to end a trip, although doctors use benzodiazepines to ease agitation. However, people are very suggestible when tripping and this can contribute to the perception of such effects.
You can be declared legally insane if you take LSD more than seven times
There is an old rumour that taking LSD more than seven times means that you can be declared legally insane. This is not true and there are plenty of people who have taken LSD more than seven times and are not insane.
People going blind staring at the sun
The rumour about people going blind from taking LSD and staring at the sun was created by a TV show in the 1960s. However, there have been a few case reports of people partially damaging their eyes from staring at the sun whilst on LSD. People do strange things whilst on LSD and LSD dilates your pupils which exposes your eyes to more light than usual.
People think they can fly and jump out of a window
People have fallen out of windows and off cliffs whilst on LSD, but these were probably accidents due to impaired judgement, or suicides, rather than thinking they could fly.

Source: Professor David Nutt and others at DrugScience.org.uk

Alternatives to LSD

Shrooms

DMT (substantially shorter duration)

Ayahuasca

Mescaline

2C-B. Shulgin, a well respected chemist who synthesized thousands of drugs, said 2C-B was "one of his favorite drugs".

Other means of reaching altered states of consciousness: holotropic breathwork, chanting/drumming, sweat lodges, meditation, yoga, float/isolation tanks

Actively recruiting LSD clinical studies
View the studies here.
Email [email protected] to advertise your study here for free.

Actively recruiting LSD surveys

What are your motives for using LSD or other drugs?

Take this questionnaire from Maastricht University about the motives of your drug use: Survey

"Imperial College has set up a new study to investigate the psychological effects of psychedelics. Everyone who has planned to take a psychedelic in the near future can sign up!

You will receive a survey on different time-points, before and after your psychedelic experience. See the website for more information: www.psychedelicsurvey.com

Share your experience and contribute to science!"

Have you overcome alcohol or drug addiction after using psychedelics?

Take this anonymous online survey from Johns Hopkins
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/AddictionFree
Disclaimer

Do not consume any drugs without consulting a medical professional. This is for informational purposes only.
Full Disclaimer
Organizations we recommend supporting

Heffter
Donate to Heffter to make psilocybin a medicine
Do you contribute to any Patreon campaigns? If so, please contact Heffter and say that you'd love to contribute to them on Patreon.

Other organizations

Other recommended guides
😍 RollSafe.org, guides on MDMA❤️ Datewell.org, a romantic relationship guide🔥 )'( BurnerList.org, a more useful version of the burning man shopping checklist
Things to learn next
What you need to know about Shrooms About the research into psilocybin (active ingredient from magic mushrooms)How to help someone having a bad trip What the effects of LSD are How to take LSD Drug Harm Reduction: A List of What You Should Know If You're Considering Using Other Drugs, like Salvia, Tobacco, Alcohol, etc.
References

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Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a common recreational drug. It is also commonly known as acid. LSD is usually consumed on small pieces of paper called blotter. LSD has been taken by about 25 million Americans at least once, and 1.5 million Americans in the past year, based on 2015 numbers.

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"Is LSD toxic? - NCBI." 2 Feb. 2018, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29408722. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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"Monkshood - AACC.org." https://www.aacc.org/community/divisions/tdm-and-toxicology/toxin-library/monkshood. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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"Aconitum napellus (Monkshood): A Purple Poison - Poison Control." https://www.poison.org/articles/why-is-monkshood-considered-a-poison--174. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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The Full Story

Aconitum napellus (A. napellus, also known as monkshood or wolfsbane) is a perennial herb often grown as an ornamental plant due to its attractive blue to dark purple flowers. All parts of the plant, especially the roots, contain toxins. Aconitine is the most dangerous of these toxins. It is most noted as a heart poison but is also a potent nerve poison. Raw aconite plants are very poisonous.They are used as herbs only after processing by boiling or steaming to reduce their toxicity.

A. napellus has been used since ancient times as a poison used on spears and arrows for hunting and battle. As wolfsbane, it was believed to repel werewolves (and real wolves!). Ancient Romans used it as a method of execution.

A. napellus is native to western and central Europe where it is considered one of the most poisonous plants. Aconitine poisoning is rare in North America. When it does occur, it is generally due to confusion with an edible plant or unintentional ingestion by children. However, with the increasing popularity and availability of herbal medicines containing A. napellus, aconitine poisoning could occur more frequently.

Aconitine poisoning is most common in Asia due to the widespread use of herbal medications. In Hong Kong, aconitine is responsible for the majority of serious poisonings from Chinese herbal preparations. While the source of aconitine, especially in China, is usually Aconitum carmichaeli (chuanwu) or Aconitum kuznezoffii (caowu), the toxicity is similar to A. napellus.

Alleged therapeutic uses of A. napellus include treatment of joint and muscle pain. As a tincture applied to the skin, it is claimed to slow the heart rate in cardiac patients. Other claimed uses include reduction of fevers and cold symptoms.

In poisonings, the onset of symptoms occurs within minutes to a few hours after swallowing. The severity of aconitine poisoning is related to the rapid onset of life-threatening heart rhythm changes. Other symptoms can include numbness and tingling, slow or fast heart rate, and gastrointestinal manifestations such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Respiratory paralysis and heart rhythm abnormalities can lead to death. The treatment is symptomatic and supportive; there is no specific antidote.

There is a very low margin of safety between therapeutic and toxic doses of aconitine. For example, a 66-year-old woman with no known heart disease obtained some from an herbalist. She was instructed to make a tea with it to treat her osteoarthritis. About 90 minutes after drinking the tea she developed numbness of her face, arms, and legs. This was rapidly followed by nausea, weakness, and chest pressure. In an ER, she was found to have an abnormal heart rhythm. After 4 hours of treatment with drugs and electrical shocks to her heart, a normal heart rhythm was restored.

There are cases of poisoning in which people intentionally swallow A. napellus they grow for themselves because of its claimed therapeutic effects. A 21-year-old man acquired Aconitum napellus plants after reading a book on herbal medicine. He ground up the roots of the plants and filled capsules with the dried material. He then took 1 capsule daily for several months to treat his anxiety. In order to increase the effects one evening, he swallowed 3 capsules and went to sleep. Five hours later he awoke with generalized numbness, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, chest pain, shortness of breath, and defective color vision (he was seeing purple). It was believed that early symptoms went unnoticed because he was asleep. In an ER, his heart rate was very slow at 43 beats per minute, and he had an abnormal heart rhythm. Plasma concentrations of aconitine supported poisoning by A. napellus. He spent 48 days in the hospital.

If you think someone has swallowed Acotinum napellus, do not make the person vomit. Immediately check the online tool for guidance or call Poison Control at 1-800-222-1222.

Mary Elizabeth May, RN, BA, MPH
Certified Specialist in Poison Information

Let your healthcare provider know about all medications you are taking, including herbals.

Never eat any plant found in a wilderness setting.

Keep all plants out of the reach of children.

Case 3. A 25-year-old man in good health took an afternoon walk with friends on an uninhabited island off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. He ate some wildflowers with purple and pink petals along with some blackberries at 2:30 PM. The flowers were later identified as A. napellus. At 5:00 PM he had nausea and abdominal pain and then vomited. He suddenly collapsed at 6:15 PM; resuscitation attempts were unsuccessful. Lab testing of his blood confirmed the presence of aconitine. The cause of death was declared aconitine poisoning due to ingestion of A. napellus.

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Aconitum napellus (Monkshood): A Purple Poison

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Aconitum napellus (A. napellus, also known as monkshood or wolfsbane) is a perennial herb often grown as an ornamental plant due to its attractive blue to dark purple flowers. All parts of the plant, especially the roots, contain toxins. Aconitine is the most dangerous of these toxins.

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"Monkshood (Wolfsbane) poisoning - Monica Wilde." 28 Jun. 2015, https://monicawilde.com/monkshood-wolfsbane-poisoning/. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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Monkshood ( Aconitum napellus) also called Wolfsbane, is pictured here growing in a hawthorn bush. This is a very poisonous plant. Aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine and other alkaloids have potent cardiotoxins and neurotoxins found in all parts of the Aconitum species, especially in the tubers and roots.

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"Wolfsbane: fictitous plant contains very real dangers | - The Evergreen ...." 31 Jan. 2017, https://sites.evergreen.edu/plantchemeco/wolfsbane-fictious-plant-contains-very-real-dangers/. Accessed 19 Nov. 2018.

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A howl echoes in the distance, we a see a person transform into a gigantic wolf. It approaches, snarling, towards a small, terrified group of humans. One person dares to approach , brandishing a small purple flower, when the flower comes into contact with the wolf's fur they let out a shriek of pain. END SCENE.
The above story may sound familiar to those who are interested in fantasy or folklore.The plant, Aconitum napellus, or Wolfsbane, is the common known cure or weapon against the fantastical creatures, known as werewolves.Though this isn't just a mythical plant whose only purpose is to fight those creatures of the night, it also contains many other dark and deadly secrets.

About Wolfsbane

Aconitum napellus can be found in mountains to temperate regions throughout western and central Europe. This plant has leaves that are rounded and it is palmately divided into 5-7 well lobed segments. It has purple flowers that are helmet shaped, from which it gets another name, monkshood.It can grow up to 1 meter or 3 feet tall. There is also a second species of Aconite, Aconitum lycocotonum, that has yellow flowers and is very similar to A. napellus.

Wolfsbane gets it's name for being the poison used to kill carnivores such as, wolves and panthers, in the 18th century (Aggrawal 2009), it was put into raw meat to bait the animals (Blaisdell 1995). Some believed that it was even aconite that caused rabies in these animals later on because of its horrifying side affects (Blaisdell 1995). Aconite shows up all across history. In Greece it was thought to have been one of the first poisons ever created, in Rome it was used to poison enemies, it was even used by Shakespeare as a deadly weapon for a aconite covered blade in "Hamlet" (Aggrawal 2009). These are just a few of the gruesome events that took place in aconite's past. In ancient Chinese culture, aconite, along with other plants, was used to poison arrows (Chakravarty and D. Chakravarti 1954). It was also thought that aconite's deadly powers were used by Nazi scientists to poison bullets (Stewart 2009). A plant found in Nepal within the same family is one of the most poisonous plants in the world (Elpel 1998). Aconitum lycoctonum, often had the same uses, as A.napellus, mentioned above (Been 1992).

Why does this plant pack such a bite?

The alkaloid chemical, aconitine, is thought to contribute to the toxicity of the plant (Dr.Duke's 2016). Aconitine is the most concentrated in the plant's roots and seeds (Steger 1972). When consumed, it works by opening up sodium channels that are already sensitive to tetrodotoxins, that increases the influx of sodium through the channels and delays re polarization, causing the victim to become easily excited and more vulnerable to heart failure (Roberts and Wink 1999). The poison further paralyzes the nerves, lowers blood pressure, then gradually stops the heart (Stewart 2009). This poisoning occurs from a large dosage of aconite. A much smaller amount only causes some stomach upset and numbing of the face and mouth. Aconite can even be dangerous when the flowers are touched and if gardening with A.napellus, it is recommended that one wear gloves (Stewart 2009). Though deadly, aconitine is used to relieve aches and pains, a practice in Chinese medicine (Chan 1994).In the past it has been used to soothe fevers (Chakravarty and D.Chakravrti 1954).

There is much debate and further amazement about the plant Aconitum napellus. For those excited about this mythical plant, should further investigate its unique abilities and past uses.

Sources cited:

Aggrawal A. 2009. Poisons in Myths, Legends, Folklore, Literature, and Movies. Internet Journal of Forensic Med. & Toxicology.

Been A.1992. Aconitum: Genus of Powerful and Sensational Plants. Pharm. in History. 34 (1): 35-39.

Blaisdell JD. 1995. A frightful but not necessarily, fatal, madness: rabies in eighteenth-century England and English North America. Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 24.

Chakravarty H, Chakravarti D.1954. Indian Aconites . Ecology Botany, 8(4): 366-376.

ChanTY, et al. 1994. Aconitine poisoning due to Chinese herbal medicines: a review. Vet and human toxicology,

Dr.Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases.2016. Aconitum lycoctonum (Ranunculaceae)[Internet][cited 2016 Jan 17]. Available from https://phytochem.nal.usda.gov/phytochem/ethnoPlants/show/1444?qlookup=wolfsbane&offset=0&max=20&et

Elpel TJ.1998. Botany in a Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification. 6 th Edition. Pony (MT): HOPS Press, LLC. 235 p.

Roberts MF, Wink M.1998. Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal applications. Plenum press (NY).18.

Steger RE.1972. Native Plants Poisonous to Humans. Journal of Range management ,25(1): 71-72.

Stewart A. 2009 Aconite . Chapel Hill(NC): Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill.1-2., Aconitum napellus In: Wicked Plants: The weed that killed Lincoln's mother and other botanical atrocities

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Wolfsbane: fictitous plant contains very real dangers

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A howl echoes in the distance, we a see a person transform into a gigantic wolf. It approaches, snarling, towards a small, terrified group of humans. One person dares to approach , brandishing a small purple flower, when the flower comes into contact with the wolf's fur they let out a shriek of pain.

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First developed by Albert Hoffmann in 1938 and marketed for medicinal use under the name of Delysid.

The CIA and US Army started experiments for mind control with LSD in the 1950s.

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Schedule I drug
Sale, possession, and use is illegal in the United States because there are no significant medicinal uses.

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joy

happiness

decrease depression

stimulate circulation

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Fluorescence- blue florescence

Ehrlich Reagent- color testing

TLC- hromatography

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sedated with benzodiazepines (lorazepam or diazepam)

rapid fluid hydration

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8-18 hours

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Rare overdoses

hypothermia

increased blood pressure

increased heart rate

seizures

stroke

kidney failure

paranoia lead accidents

gastric bleeding

coma

Usually trauma related injuries

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50-200μg or 75 and 150 micrograms

hallucinations

low self-awareness

anxiety

paranoid thinking

discomfort

confusion

increase in blood pressure

increased heart rate

joy

happiness

possible catatonic state

increase time if schizophrenic traits

dryness of mouth

profuse sweating

nausea

numbness

weakness

tremors

dilated pupils

paranoia of not returning to normal

poor judgement

feelings of invincibility

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>200μg or not pure Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

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Central Nervous System

body temperature regulation

hypothermia

Agonist for Serotonin receptors

Cardiovascular

temporary moderate increased heart rate

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Hallucinogen

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Acid, LSD

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Wolfsbane was used to poison carnivores by putting it in raw meat for the animals to eat.

Shakespeare wrote about wolfsbane acting as a poison on the blade in Hamlet.

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Wolfsbane is grown in the wild but illegal as a method of poison.

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reduce joint and muscle pain

in Chinese and Ayurveda medicine

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Autopsies- Alkaloid

concentration of Aconite in blood and urine

highest levels in liver and kidneys

lower levels in heart and cerebrum

Pathological and histopathological tests
Scene

residue

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No known antidotes.
Wear gloves when working around it and don't ingest it.
Overdose is death.

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Aconite can be spit out if not fully ingested otherwise will kill the animal or person rapidly.
Aconite can be processed for medicinal purposes without scientific reports of how long the results last.

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heart failure

paralysis

convulsions

low blood pressure

dangerously low heart rate/pulse

irregular heart rate

gastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea

mouth, face, or tongue burning, tingling, or numb

inflammation

burning in the abdomen

difficulty breathing

cold and clammy skin

confusion

mania

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skin irritation

upset stomach

face and mouth numbing

cold and clammy skin

dizziness

chest pain

defective color vision

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2 mg of aconitine

death within 4 hours

5 ml of aconite tincture

1 g of the raw aconite plant

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Neurological

Activate sodium channels with excessive depolarization

convulsions, paralysis, pain

Cardiovascular

slows and stops heart

monoesters block sodium channel and cause irregular rhythms

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Family: Ranunculaceae
Genus: Aconitum
Species: A. napellus

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monkshood, wolf's bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket,

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Aconitum Napellus

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Lysergic Acid Diethylamide