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comparison my BioArea with the BioAreas of other learners

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comparison my BioArea with the BioAreas of other learners

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Now that my BioArea is completed, I have evaluated the corresponding work of my co-learners: Malamatenia's BioArea GR, Mayanja's BioArea, UG,Iasmi's Bioarea GR and
Eric Leeuwerck's BioArea RW,  which was open and I could evaluate and comment. I assessed Malamatenia's BioArea GR to be excellent because it responded thoroughly in all steps with clarity. I rated Mayanja's BioArea, UG and his
Eric Leeuwerck's BioArea RW that she needed some further processing and enrichment because they weren't answering all the questions. I commented Iasmi's Bioarea GR that her job so far seems to be good because there was more information than the two others but it also had some deficiencies.

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Great job! Keep going little explorer!!!

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Towards a core set of landscape metrics for biodiversity assessments: A case study from Dadia National Park, Greece by Stefan Schindler, Kostas Poirazidis Thomas Wrbka

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Towards a core set of landscape metrics for biodiversity assessments: A case study from Dadia National Park, Greece by Stefan Schindler, Kostas Poirazidis Thomas Wrbka

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Spatial heterogeneity has an important influence on a wide range of ecological patterns and processes, and many landscape metrics in GIS environment are used to facilitate the investigation of the relation between landscape structure and biodiversity. Data reduction analyses have been applied to tackle the problem of highly correlated indices, but valid landscape predictors for fine scale Mediterranean forest-mosaics are still missing. Therefore, we analyzed the landscape structure of Dadia National Park, Greece, a Mediterranean forest landscape of high biodiversity, characterized by pine, oak and mixed woodland. By distinguishing nine land cover classes, 119 variables were computed and factor analysis was applied to detect the statistical dimensions of landscape structure and to define a core set of representative metrics. At landscape level, diversity of habitats, fragmentation and patch shape and at class level dominance of mixed forest and the gradient from one pure forest type to another turned out to be the crucial factors across three different scales. Mapping the encountered dimensions and the representative metrics, we detected that the pattern of landscape structure in Dadia National Park was related to dominating habitat types, land use, and level of protection. The evaluated set of metrics will be useful in establishing a landscape monitoring program, to detect the local drivers of biodiversity, and to improve management decisions in Dadia NP and similar mosaic-landscapes.

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  Habitat loss, habitat fragmentation or habitat degradation in Greece

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  Habitat loss, habitat fragmentation or habitat degradation in Greece

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It is identified as a main threat to 85% of all species described in the IUCN's Red List (those species officially classified as "Threatened" and "Endangered").

Increasing food production is a major agent for the conversion of natural habitat into agricultural land.

Why is it happening?

Forest loss and degradation is mostly caused by the expansion of agricultural land, intensive harvesting of timber, wood for fuel and other forest products, as well as overgrazing.

High land conversion rates

The net loss in global forest area during the 1990s was about 94 million ha (equivalent to 2.4% of total forests). It is estimated that in the 1990s, almost 70% of deforested areas were converted to agricultural land.

Around half of the world's original forests have disappeared, and they are still being removed at a rate 10x higher than any possible level of regrowth. As tropical forests contain at least half the Earth's species, the clearance of some 17 million hectares each year is a dramatic loss.

Coastal and marine areas

Human impact on terrestrial and marine natural resources results in marine and coastal degradation. Population growth, urbanization, industrialization and tourism are all factors.

In 1994, it was estimated that 37% of the global population lived within 60 km of the coast. Poverty, consumption and land-use patterns contribute to the degradation of marine habitats and to the destruction of the species that rely on them to survive.

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It is identified as a main threat to 85% of all species described in the IUCN's Red List (those species officially classified as "Threatened" and "Endangered"). Increasing food production is a major agent for the conversion of natural habitat into agricultural land. Why is it happening?

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Annual temperature over the period 1961–1990 showed a trend of statistically significant warming over land in south-east Europe of approximately 0.4–0.6 °C per decade. In the middle of the ’50s a cooling period started in northern Greece and progressively extended also in the southern regions of the country where it started to be detected in the beginning of the’70s. The lowest average annual temperatures in Greece occurred in the decade of 1970 up to the beginning of 1980, due mainly to the very cold summers and autumns. However, during the last years of the ’90s (while a little earlier in some meteorological stations), a progressive increase of temperature was observed. … This seems to be due to a more intensive warming during the summer period. In Greece, as it was also the case of Spain, the frequency of heat waves in the ’90s was about three times higher than the one of the three previous decades. However, there are no signs of a similar reverse trend in the frequency of cold extremes. The data from both stations of Athens and Corfu present statistical important increasing trends with respect to the duration of heat waves, during the summer period as well as on annual basis, while the occurrence of cooling waves during winter as well as on annual basis becomes much less frequent. The time series from the other stations do not show a certain trend or they show negative trends with respect to the duration of heat waves. In the eastern Mediterranean, the intensity, length and number of heat waves have increased by a factor of six to eight since the 1960s

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 Possible signs of climate change in Greece

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 Possible signs of climate change in Greece

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Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future

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the list of 100 World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species

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the list of 100 World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species

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 Possible invasions of alien species in Crete

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 Possible invasions of alien species in Crete

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A preliminary inventory of the alien flora of Crete (Greece)

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 Possible invasions of alien species in Greece

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 Possible invasions of alien species in Greece

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A bumblebee is any of over 250 species in the genus Bombus, part of Apidae, one of the bee families.
Bumblebees are important pollinators of both crops and wildflowers.  Bumblebees are increasingly cultured for agricultural use as pollinators, among other reasons because they can pollinate plants such as tomato in greenhouses by buzz pollination whereas other pollinators cannot.
Bumblebee species are declining in Europe, North America, and Asia due to a number of factors, including land-use change that reduces their food plants. A major impact on bumblebees was caused by the mechanisation of agriculture, accelerated by the urgent need to increase food production during the Second World War. Also a significant increase in pesticide and fertilizer use associated with the industrialization of agriculture has had adverse effects on the genus Bombus. Bumblebees are in danger in many developed countries due to habitat destruction and collateral pesticide damage. The European Food Safety Authority ruled that three neonicotinoid pesticides (clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam) presented a high risk for bees.  Some bumblebees native to North America are also vanishing, such as Bombus balteatus, Bombus terricola,Bombus affinis, and Bombus occidentalis, and one, Bombus franklini, may be extinct. In South America, Bombus bellicosus was extirpated in the northern limit of its distribution range, probably due to intense land use and climate change effects.

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The European hare (Lepus europaeus), also known as the brown hare, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. Their natural predators include large birds of prey,  canids and felids. They rely on high-speed endurance running to escape predation, having long, powerful limbs and large nostrils. The European hare is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant. However, populations have been declining in mainland Europe since the 1960s, at least partly due to changes in farming practices. The hare has been hunted across Europe for centuries, with more than five million being shot each year; in Britain, it has traditionally been hunted by beagling and hare coursing , but these field sportsare now illegal

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The latest update of the world's list of threatened animals and plant species, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, carried out by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) reveals mixed fortunes for many species.

The latest update of the world's list of threatened animals and plant species, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species reveals mixed fortunes for many species.

The revised list finds that an alarming 40% of Madagascar's terrestrial reptiles are threatened. WWF's wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC has drawn attention to the rampant illegal trade in many of the country's threatened reptile species, which unless addressed will undermine the creation of conservation areas to protect species like Tarzans Chameleon ( Calumma tarzan), Bizarre-nosed Chameleon ( Calumma hafahafa) and Limbless Skink ( Paracontias fasika).

Decline of some plant species

Although the number of plant species assessed remains relatively low, some have deteriorated in status, likeTaxus contorta, which has declined from vulnerable to endangered because of over-harvesting. In 2007, TRAFFIC drew attention to China's role in the continuing and unsustainable trade in wild Yew trees in the Genus Taxus, whose bark and needles are harvested for the production of anti-cancer medicines.

Others, like the Coco de Mer from the Seychelles, known for its supposed aphrodisiac properties, have declined partly because, although all collection and sale of its seed is highly regulated, there is thought to be a significant black market trade in its seed kernels.

Eight tuna species threatened or near-threatened

The assessment of the world's tuna species is particularly serious, with five of the eight tuna species in the threatened or near threatened categories. TRAFFIC has drawn attention to the over-fishing of some tuna species, which is placing them in at risk of extinction.

Frogs under pressure

In this update, 26 recently discovered amphibian species have been assessed for the first time, including two, the Blessed Poison Frog ( Ranitomeya benedicta) and Summers Poison Frog ( Ranitomeya summersi) that are classified as vulnerable and endangered respectively. Both are threatened through a combination of habitat loss and harvesting for the international pet trade.

Record rhino poaching reflected in decline of some subspecies

The ongoing poaching of rhinos is also reflected in the revised Red List, with the status of a number of subspecies deteriorating. Poaching rates are at record highs in South Africa, home to the largest number of rhinos, largely resulting from demand for rhino horn in Asia where it is used in traditional medicine.

With proper resources and the political will, declines can be reversed

This update offers both good and bad news on the status of many species around the world, says Jane Smart, Director, IUCN Global Species Programme.

"We have the knowledge that conservation works if executed in a timely manner, yet, without strong political will in combination with targeted efforts and resources, the wonders of nature and the services it provides can be lost forever," Smart says.

"Even a quick perusal of the threats facing the worlds wild plants and animals identified through the IUCN Red List process reveal the problems caused by unsustainble trade and the danger it poses as a major driver of extinction," said Steven Broad, Executive Director of TRAFFIC.

TRAFFIC is a joint programme of WWF and IUCN.

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List of endangered species highlights threats from over-exploitation

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The latest update of the world's list of threatened animals and plant species, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, carried out by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) reveals mixed fortunes for many species. The latest update of the world's list of threatened animals and plant species, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species reveals mixed fortunes for many species.

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Species of your BioArea that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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Species of your BioArea that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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The Cretan frog (Pelophylax cretensis) is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to Greece. A medium-sized frog reaching up to 6.5 cm in length. The Cretan frog is generally light grey to brown and mottled with brown or olive-grey spots on its back, while the throat and underside of the body are whitish-grey. Occasionally, the upperparts of the Cretan frog may be grass-green with distinct brown spots. The insides of the hind legs are yellow, and the sides of the body may also have yellowish colouration. This species has a prominent dark brown fold of skin down the back

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Species of your BioArea that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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Species of your BioArea that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) is a small falcon. This species breeds from the Mediterranean across Afghanistan and Central Asia, to China and Mongolia. It is a summer migrant, wintering in Africa and Pakistan and sometimes even to India and Iraq. It is rare north of its breeding range, and declining in its European range. In Greece it comes in the summer for breeding. The lesser kestrel is one of the most famous species of hawk in Crete, but it is threatened with extinction.

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Visit Macedonia - Florina, Arktouros Environmental center.

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Exploring the Beautiful Island of Crete 2017

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EV0Wev-lWhw

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Niche Partitioning in Three Sympatric Congeneric Species of Dragonfly, Orthetrum chrysostigma, O. coerulescens anceps, and O. nitidinerve: The Importance of Microhabitat

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Niche Partitioning in Three Sympatric Congeneric Species of Dragonfly, Orthetrum chrysostigma, O. coerulescens anceps, and O. nitidinerve: The Importance of Microhabitat

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Abstract

Habitat heterogeneity has been shown to promote co-existence of closely related species. Based on this concept, a field study was conducted on the niche partitioning of three territorial congeneric species of skimmers (Anisoptera: Libellulidae) in Northeast Algeria during the breeding season of 2011. According to their size, there is a descending hierarchy between Orthetrum nitidinerve Sélys, O. chrysostigma (Burmeister), and O. coerulescens anceps (Schneider). After being marked and surveyed, the two latter species had the same breeding behavior sequence. Knowing that they had almost the same size, such species could not co-occur in the same habitat according to the competitive exclusion principle. The spatial distribution of the three species was investigated at two different microhabitats, and it was found that these two species were actually isolated at this scale. O. chrysostigma and O. nitidinerve preferred open areas, while O. c. anceps occurred in highly vegetated waters. This study highlights the role of microhabitat in community structure as an important niche axis that maintains closely related species in the same habitat.

Keywords: breeding behavior, habitat preferences, niche overlap

Introduction

Processes that determine species' coexistence and exclusion are central topics in community ecology. According to Hutchinson ( 1957), an ecological niche is an n-dimensional hyperspace where each axis (dimension) represents a resource or an environmental condition. A common assumption is that sympatric species with a similar phenotype tend to reduce conflict by occupying different niches ( Colwell and Fuentes 1975). The more the overlap in species' niche, the stronger the competitive interactions between them ( Hardin 1960). Of course, given the many aspects of a niche, measuring a species' entire niche is impossible. However, Schoener ( 1974) proposed microhabitat, diet, and temporal activity as the three most important niche axes, and subsequently a large range of empirical data regarding these components in several animal groups has become available, for example in mammals ( Doniol-Valcroze 2008), birds ( Salewski et al. 2002; Parra et al. 2004), reptiles ( Metzger et al., 2009), amphibians ( Kuzmin 1990; Behangana and Luiselli 2008), and insects ( Heinrich 1976; Coderre 1987; Crowley and Johnson 1982; Gilbert et al. 2008; Prieto and Dahners 2009; Venner et al. 2011).

Another determining factor in community structure is body size. Resource use (e.g., prey) depends on the body size of predators and often determines competition with heterospecifics. As a result, body size is not randomly distributed among species within the same community, but rather it is evenly spaced ( Hutchinson 1959). In other words, there is a critical size similarity threshold that allows species coexistence ( Horn and May 1977). Otherwise, interspecific competition would act like a limiting force inducing regu-lar exclusions between morphologically similar species. Brown and Wilson ( 1956) stated that such species would adopt character displacement (morphological differences between closely related species coexisting in the same area) as a solution when they live in sympatry. Moreover, predation and competition for resources have also been shown to determine species coexistence by specifically excluding groups of species ( McPeek 1989, 1990). For example, within the genus of Enallagma, some species were found resident in fishless lakes while others were only found in lakes containing fish in many North American lakes ( Johnson and Crowley 1980; Crowley and Johnson 1982; McPeek 1989, 1990).

Adult odonates, which are usually territorial during the breeding season, are a good biological model for inter- and intraspecific competition studies ( Moore 1964). Usually, mature males defend a specific territory against intruders and thus attempt to dominate access to females ( Corbet 1999). Given the limited availability of suitable breeding habitats and females, territories can be considered as a limited resource for which territorial males regularly compete during this period. Usually, the intensity of intra- and interspecific competition is not equal, with the former being the stronger. However, it can almost be the same when species show similar morphological characteristics, like it has been shown for some species of Coenagrionidae ( Moore 1964; Beukema 2004), Calopterygidae ( De Marchi 1990; Nomakuchi and Higashi 1996; Tynkkynen et al. 2004; 2005), and others.

In odonates, many congenerics have apparently similar habitat requirements and usually live in sympatry. These species are a good model to study interspecific competition and niche partitioning. In a recent study on the inventory of adult odonates dwelling in the Seybouse watershed in northeast Algeria, three species of Orthetrum, the yellow veined skimmer, Orthetrum nitidinerve Sélys (Anisoptera: Libellulidae), the Epaulet skimmer, O. chrysostigma (Burmeister), and the keeled skimmer, O. coerulescens anceps (Schneider), were usually found sharing the same locality during their flight period ( Khelifa et al. 2011). In a context of ecological niche, these three species are quite similar morphologically and behaviorally, share the same resource (territories in the breeding area that increase the breeding success of males), live in the same habitat, and at the same time their coexistence is almost, or totally, impossible for many theorist biologists ( Volterra 1928; MacArthur and Levins 1964; Levin 1986; and others). However, if these species co-occur in a natural environment, they must necessarily have, to some extent, separate niches by at least one axis.

Odonates have been well-studied in the field of niche partitioning, but most work has been focused on the larval stage ( Crowley and Johnson 1982; Dudgeon 1989; Sternberg 1991, Wissinger 1992; Mahato 2000). In the present study, the breeding behavior and microhabitat use of adults of three congeneric dragonfly species, O. chrysostigma, O. coerulescens anceps, and O. nitidinerve, were surveyed to discover the ecological mechanisms that maintain their coexistence.

Materials and Methods

The study was undertaken upstream of the Seybouse River in Northeast Algeria at the Old Bridge canal, which is situated 5 km west of Guelma city (36° 28′ N, 7° 22′ E). The watercourse is 450 m long, and has an average depth and width of 7 and 120 cm respectively. At its lower part, it splits in two streamlets flowing on both sides of a dense reed for about 80 m, which then meet at 30 m from its outlet to the Seybouse River (). To our knowledge, the canal has never been used for irrigation. The dominant vegetation at the edge of the canal was exclusively shrubs of oleander, Nerium oleander L. (Gentianales: Apocynaceae), at its upper region, but the rest was dominated by cattail, Typha angustifolia L. (Poales: Typhaceae), sea rush, Juncus maritimus Lamark, and knotgrass, Paspalum distichum L. near its outlet. In addition to the three study species, other species of Odanata were also present, including the copper demoiselle, Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis Vander Linden, the Iberian bluetail, Ischnura graellsii Rambur, featherleg, Platycnemis subdilatata Sélys, small red damselfly, Ceriagrion tenellum De Villers, and Mediterranean bluet, Coenagrion caerulescens Fonscolombe.

Breeding behavior observations

Daily observations were made on the breeding behavior of the three skimmer species from 20 June to 25 July 2011 in the morning (10:30- 12:30) and afternoon (13:30-15:30). Mature adults were individually marked on their right hind wing with a permanent marker and followed from an observation point at a distance of 3 m. At this position, the observer can both easily detect the conspicuous marks and avoid any disturbance on active individuals. The classification of Sakagami et al. ( 1974) was followed to place each species in its breeding behavior category (). Quantitative data (the duration of each behavior component) were not reported here because they were not thought to have a crucial role in the interspecific competition intensity. Every dragonfly species has a complete breeding behavior sequence that starts with the encounter of the two sexes and ends with oviposition. The purpose of this study was only to highlight potential qualitative (presence or absence) similarities in the breeding behavior components of the three congeneric species. Since they were all territorial, and resembled one another in coloration (for the three species, mature males and females are blue and brownish-yellow, respectively), it was assumed that an individual of a skimmer species displaying a particular behavior (like oviposition in females) within a breeding area is more likely to be interfered or intercepted (when it is a female) by a male belonging to a different species and have a similar behavior in its species ethogram. Therefore, the more the similarities in breeding behavior sequence between species, the stronger the interference competition.

Table 1.

Body size measurements

Mature skimmers (of the three skimmer species) were captured by a hand net, marked individually by a permanent marker on the right hind wing and thorax, and some of them were measured (the total body length from the head to the end of the abdomen including cerci and the left hind wing length) by a digital caliper to the nearest 0.01 mm.

Microhabitat survey

The three skimmers were not common at the upper part of the watercourse, which was dominated by a large population of C. haemorrhoidalis. Therefore, our study was only focused on downstream of the canal, limited to approximately 200 m, and divided to 4 sections according to the watercourse's physical characteristics () and especially vegetation cover. Section a and c were open areas, while section b and d were highly vegetated (covered) areas. Some abiotic factors were randomly taken from 10 points within each section, recording the water width, depth, velocity, emergent vegetation height and density, bank vegetation height and density, and emergent stone density. A quadrat (1 m ²) was used to estimate densities. The flight period of O. chrysostigma and O. nitidinerve started in late May, while O. c. anceps adultsstarted to be observed only in early June. The investigation was initiated when the three species became reproductively active. The spatial distribution of the three skimmers was surveyed daily from 10:00 until 16:00 from 12 June until 28 July 2011 by slowly walking along the canal and hourly recording the number of individuals (males and females) of each species within each section. Sex was not considered for further analysis. Immature individuals were not included in the analysis, because they could bias the results because mature adults could easily influence their distribution. For further analysis, only the maximum number recorded within a day was taken (usually at 12:00).

Translocation experiment

O. c. anceps was the smallest species within the three studied skimmers, and one might think that its distribution could be substantially affected by the two larger ones inducing its exclusion from its preferred (micro-) habitat. To examine this, removal and translocation experiments were done in section c during 3 consecutive days (26-28 July). This section was chosen because its small size enabled a quite perfect control (see .2), and also no skimmer individual would enter the section coming from the river through the canal outlet (). This period was also chosen because the numbers of the two larger species had begun to decrease in late-July, which was advantageous for the experiment. First, each skimmer was captured and kept in a cage (they were released after the experiment). Then, 30 marked mature males (10/day) of O. c. anceps coming from section b and d were translocated to section c. It is important to point out that individuals were not released in the air because that induced their instant dispersal out of the section. Instead, they were taken by the wings, deposited carefully on a plant support in the middle of the section, and were released after they were able to grasp the vegetation. By doing so, individuals tended to stay in the same position. After 15 minutes (during which few skimmer individuals entered the section), the host section was first checked and then the 3 remaining sections were intensely searched for potential marked individuals, which were recorded in their respective position.

Statistical analysis

Most statistical analyses were computed by SPSS 17.0. To analyze the spatial distribution data, data of sections with similar physical and environmental characteristics () were pulled together after a principal component analysis (, ). In other words section a with section c, and section b with section d for open and covered areas, respectively. To compare the number of individual adults counted in open versus covered sections, a Mann-Whitney test was performed using an alpha-value of 0.05. A Kruskal-Wallis test was carried out to illustrate the difference of body and hind wing lengths between species (alpha-value = 0.05), and a Dwass-Steel-Chritchlow-Fligner post hoc test was computed for pair-wise comparisons ( Critchlow and Fligner 1991). EcoSim 7.0 software ( Gotelli and Entsminger 2001) was used for the analysis of niche and size overlap. Pianka's index was used to calculate the niche overlap for each pair of species using microhabitat use data ( Pianka 1973). Regarding the size overlap analysis, the null model hypothesis supposes that there is an even interspecific spacing in body size of adjacent species, i.e., the smaller the segment length (δ ²), the more homogeneity in size ratios between coexisting congeneric species ( Gotelli and Illison 2002). Variance in segment length metric, the Log uniform distribution, and Log transformed data were used.

Results

Description of the breeding behavior

During the study period, observation were made for 175 hours over 35 days, and 39, 31, and 19 complete breeding behavior sequences of O. nitidinerve, O. chrysostigma, and O. c. anceps were observed, respectively. The low observation number of the last species was due to its tendency to copulate at high vegetation cover, which made observation difficult. Also, a complete sequence of the reproductivebehavior was not easy to survey, due to disturbances produced by conspecifics, other skimmer species, or cattle crossing the canal. A total of 102 individuals of O. nitidinerve (58 females, 44 males), 34 O. chrysostigma (16 females and 18 males), and 53 O. c. anceps (19 females and 34 males) were individually marked during our survey.

Interspecific interferences were frequent between males of O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma. Contests between O. nitidinerve and O. c. anceps were less common. However, males of O. chrysostigma and O. c. anceps rarely interacted. Attempts for heterospecific pairing were observed between all species. Pre-copulatory tandems between O. nitidinerve males and O. chrysostigma females and between O. chrysostigma males and O. c. anceps females were detected. Although pairs tried to form the copulatory wheel, interspecific copulation was never noted.

A summary of the reproductive behavior of the three species is presented in the . It was noticed that O. chrysostigma and O. c. anceps had the same complete behavioral sequences, and O. nitidinerve behaved in the same way before copulation but substantially different just after. All the study species were territorial. Males remained perched on a support, expressing strong agonistic behavior toward any skimmer male (irrespective of species) approaching their territory. Once the female arrived, males rapidly went in her direction, intercepted her in the air, and formed the pre-copulatory tandem. This state did not last a long time, just few seconds (sometimes 1 sec) before the copulatory wheel establishment. However, pre-copulatory tandems were sometimes recorded perched on a support in the same state for some minutes. Observations from marked individuals revealed that those couples were the ones usually chased by other males. If copulation is considered to begin when the copulatory wheel occurs, then for the three species the copulation started in the air but the majority of its duration was spent at a perching site.

After copulation, the male O. nitidinerve went to the oviposition site in copula, hovered above it with some up-and-down movements at 20 cm from the water surface, released the female, and undertook few patrols around her before perching next to her for guarding. The female immersed her abdomen in the water,stayed in an immobile state by holding a support, and wriggled her abdomen from time to time. Strings of eggs produced by the female were fixed to the support surface, which was either a plant stem or a stone. On the other hand, the O. chrysostigma and O. c. anceps male released the female at the perching site and then patrolled and ended up perched next to her. The female, on the other hand, rested alone at the perching site for a while and then headed to the oviposition site to lay her eggs, followed closely and synchronously by the male. The oviposition behavior of both species was completely different from O. nitidinerve. She beat the end of her abdomem many times on the water surface in flight and regularly changed her laying points.

Size overlap

The size of the three species was significantly different (Kruskal-Wallis test for body and hind wing length respectively: x2 = 75.20, df = 2, p < 0.0001; x2 = 73.73, df = 2, p < 0.0001) (). Multiple comparison revealed that the size of each species differed significantly from the others (body length: O. nitidinerve > O. chrysostigma: p < 0.0001; O. nitidinerve > O. c. anceps: p < 0.0001; O. chrysostigma > O. c. anceps: p < 0.0001; hind wing length: O. nitidinerve > O. chrysostigma: p < 0.0001; O. nitidinerve > O. c. anceps: p < 0.0001; O. chrysostigma > O. c. anceps: p < 0.0001). The two morphological parameters were used to measure the size overlap between the three species. For both traits, there were quite large variances of segment lengths, indicating that although the three species differed significantly in size, the ratios of adjacent species did not appear more evenly spaced than expected by chance (). shows that O. nitidinerve was the largest species and that O. c. anceps was the smallest. O. chrysostigma and O. c. anceps were the most similar skimmers, differing only by approximately 2 mm, while the larger O. nitidinerve exceeded them by at least 6 and 8 mm respectively in both body and hind wing length ().

Spatial distribution

Figure 4 reveals that O. chrysostigma was the least abundant species (mean of maximum per day = 1.71), never exceeding 10 individuals. The two other species, clearly more abundant with 6.10 for O. nitidinerve and 6.64 for O. c. anceps, showed a substantial increase in July, especially for the latter. Abrupt and usually synchronous decreases in the three species numbers were due to bad weather conditions. For example, on 25 June, no skimmer individual was recorded because of heavy wind.

The spatial distribution of the three species was not homogeneous along the two microhabitat types (U = 258, p < 0.0001; U = 93, p < 0.0001; U = 117.5, p < 0.0001, for O. nitidinerve, O. chrysostigma, and O. c. anceps, respectively). presents the adult proportions of the three skimmers recorded in the two microhabitats. It shows the occurrence of O. chrysostigma and O. nitidinerve in open areas, and O. c. anceps in covered ones. It may inferred that the former species was exclusively confined to open areas, since only 4 individuals were observed in covered sections during the whole study period. Similarly, O. nitidinerve predominately occurred in open sections, but a quite substantial proportion also frequented vegetated ones probably because its high numbers elicited strong intraspecific competition. In fact, a male was often observed chasing another one from his territory, travelling up to 50 m. The loser of the contest usually perched in peripheral sections. On the other hand, O. c. anceps was mainly located in covered sections, and its occurrence in open ones was generally due to the presence of some small vegetated parts usually occupied by 1 individual male. Two species, O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma, mainly co-occurred in the same open microhabitat, and one species, O. c. anceps, occupied highly vegetated microhabitat.

Translocation experiment

The translocation experiment, which moved 30 marked individuals (males) of O. c. anceps from covered sections to an open and empty (absence of skimmers) one, showed that no individual remained at the same host section, and 16 returned to the covered ones (three of them were recorded at the same position (territory) where they had been captured). The remaining 14 individuals were not recovered, probably because of their displacement out of the canal. Therefore, it can be inferred that the smaller ( O. c. anceps) species was not excluded from open areas by the two larger ones, but rather simply preferred areas with high vegetation cover.

Niche overlap

Niche overlap estimates using Pianka's index are presented in for the three species pairs. The lowest niche overlap value (0.20) was between O. c. anceps and O. chrysostigma, an intermediate one (0.45) was observed between O. nitidinerve and O. c. anceps, while the highest (0.96) was between O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma (). Like the spatial distribution revealed, the two former species rarely occupied the same area, whereas the third species pair consisted of skimmers with the same microhabitat preferences.

Discussion

Our study emphasized the role of habitat heterogeneity in maintaining the coexistence of closely similar congeneric species living in sympatry. The main question was how congeneric species with similar morphology and behavior living in the same system and at the same time could coexist. Reproductive behavior, size overlap, and microhabitat use were investigated to reveal potential biological and ecological isolation between three sympatic congeneric species of dragonflies (genus Orthetrum).

Breeding behavior and ecology of the subspecies O. c. coerulescens have been well documented ( Parr 1983; Buchwald 1989; Miller and Miller 1989; Buchwald and Schmidt 1990; White 2006; White 2008), probably because of its large distribution in the Western Palearctic. Similarly, O. chrysostigma was also studied extensively in sub-Saharan Africa ( Miller 1983; Schenk et al. 2004; Koch 2005; Koch and Suhling 2005; Suhling et al. 2006). However, data regarding O. nitidinerve, a species with a distribution restricted to the Mediterranean basin ( Dijkstra et al. 2007), are still lacking ( Khelifa et al. 2012).

Similarities in appearance, behavior, and body size support the view that at least two species could not live in the same habitat. The three study species belonged to the Orthetrum genus and had broadly the same blue coloration. After surveying them during their breeding season, it was found that two of them, O. c. anceps and O. chrysostigma, had similar breeding behavior sequences. It has been shown that coloration ( Andrew 1966) and flight pattern ( Pajunen 1966) affect visual recognition of adult Odonata so that individuals can display predatory, agonistic, breeding, or no behavior accordingly. Waage ( 1975) showed that two sympatric Calopterygidae, Calopteryx maculata and C. aequabilis, in North America used wing pigmentation to discriminate between congenerics, but reproductive isolation was not absolute, because interspecific copulation often occurred. The breeding behavior of O. c. anceps was similar to that of the subspecies O. c. coerulescens reported by Parr ( 1983), Miller and Miller ( 1989), and White ( 2006), matching also that of its congeneric O. chrysostigma, which was already investigated by Miller ( 1983). However, O. nitidinerve had a quite different behavior, first described in our study and rarely observed in dragonflies ( Corbet 1999).

In terms of interspecific interference, O. c. anceps was not totally isolated from the two other species. Open sections also supported small, vegetated patches that could be occupied by an individual mature male. Within a plot of 4 m ², for example, the three species maintained different perching sites and agonistic behaviors often took place regardless of size (the smallest could interfer with the largest), as was observed in three coexisting species of Leucorrhinia ( Singer 1990). Similarly, using marked individuals, interspecific pairing was observed, but copulation was never observed, apparently because males had difficulty maintaining the copulatory tandem. Similar observations were recorded between Libellula quadrimaculata females and L. depressa males ( Paine 1994). It is probable that there is a degree of similarity in anal appendages and female prothorax of the three congeneric species that enabled heterospecific pairing ( Pinhey 1963; Lieftinck 1981). In addition, intra- (between males) and intersexual interactions with congenerics suggested a poor recognition between the three dragonfly species. Such mistaken species recognition was also reported between two closely related species of damselflies, Calopteryx virgo and C. splendens ( Tynkkynen et al. 2005).

In Odonata, interspecific interference was shown to exclude conspecifics from foragingareas ( Baker 1981) and affect larval habitat use ( Suhling 1996; Suutari et al. 2004). Near the Indian Ocean, two arboreal day geckos, Phelsuma ornata and P. cepediana, shared the same tropical forest ( Harmon et al. 2007). Removal experiments of the latter species induced the increase in abundance of the later one, which highlighted the effect of interspecific interactions between these two congenerics. Based on this assumption, our field experiment was performed to investigate potential shifts in resource utilization (microhabitat occupancy) of the smaller species ( O. c. anceps) after removal of larger congenerics. It showed that O. c. anceps preferred highlyvegetated areas, and in contrast to the study on geckos ( Harmon et al. 2007), its occurrence in that specific microhabitat was not the result of exclusion by larger species.

The even spacing of body size of species dictated by Hutchinson ( 1959) was not found in the three species studied when the whole system was considered (excluding habitat heterogeneity), because O. c. anceps and O. chrysostigma, displaying the same breeding behavior, also had quite similar size. Brown and Wilson ( 1956) and Hutchinson ( 1959) concluded that coexistence is not possible in such a case. Even spacing of morphology and body size has been noticed in some insect groups, such as Coleopterans ( Brandl and Topp 1985) and Dipterans (Syrphidae) ( Gilbert et al. 1985).

Many animals need territories to increase their fitness during the breeding season. Dragonflies show elaborate territorial behavior ( Corbet 1999). The mature male guards an area within a wetland and struggles with other males in order to maintain his territory and reproduce ( Corbet 1999). By occupying it, the individual will reduce the limited resource, which is space, not only for conspecifics butalso for heterospecifics with similar morphological traits (color, size, or structural morphology) and similar habitat preferences. Such cases are common between congenerics ( Warren and Lawton 1987; Juliano and Lawton 1990). In our study, it was supposed that the three species interacted regularly to own breeding territories. Since territories are valuable for territorial dragonflies during the breeding season, a close examination of one of the three main resources in species ecological niche proposed by Schoener ( 1974), namely the microhabitat.

One of the most common examples of habitat partitioning between sympatic congeneric species in ecological communities is that of Caribbean Lizards ( Anolis spp), in which species use different perching heights and diameters within trees to gain spatial isolation ( Schoener 1975; Losos 1994). During our study, the spatial distribution survey revealed that two species, O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma, mainly occupied open areas while the other one, O. c. anceps, occurred in highlyvegetated (covered) ones. Since niche overlap measure was based on microhabitat use, its value was highest between O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma (0.96), intermediate between O. nitidinerve and O. c. anceps (0.45), and lowest between O. chrysostigma and O. c. anceps (0.20). Thus, the two species with similar sizes and behaviors were spatially isolated.

Previous studies conducted on the subspecies O. c. coerulescens in Europe reported similar habitat preferences to that of O. c. anceps, with vegetated water as the typical suitable habitat ( Heymer 1969), but the former subspecies is known to frequent other intermediate habitats ( Buchwald 1989; Buchwald and Schmidt 1990; White 2008; Wildermuth 2008;). O. nitidinerve and O. chrysostigma had approximately the same habitat characteristics as those presented by Heymer ( 1969) for O. brunneum.

It is reasonable to think that sympatric congeneric species diverge at the microhabitat scale because they usually exploit local food in the same way ( Benke and Benke 1975; Joahannsson 1978), which results in the exclusion of the less competitive. For example, in the eastern United States, two congeneric Zygopterans, Enallagma aspersum and E. traviatum, had different habitat preferences, with the former restricted to small fishless ponds and the latter to ponds with insectivorious fish ( Pierce et al. 1985). Although spatial isolation of closely related species is the general pattern, other studies have shown that congeners and morphologically similar species converge in both time and space ( Wissinger 1992; Crowley and Johnson 1982). In the current study, the two species with the same ecological preferences in terms of breeding territories interacted regularly, and the exclusion of O. chrysostigma by O. nitidinerve was thought to occur. Sokolovska et al. (2002) and Thompson and Fincke ( 2002) reviewed the effect of body size on territorial odonates' fitness, and they concluded that larger insects mate with more females (higher male mating rate) by winning more contests with other males. Since both species were phenotypically alike, the larger species ( O. nitidinerve) might potentially win territorial contests more frequently. This could explain the low numbers of the latter species during the entire study period. In addition, three marked O. chrysostigma mature males were recovered in a channel at 300 m from the canal, but no individual male of the larger species was found to have displaced so far.

We inferred that both spatial heterogeneity and differential microhabitat preferences could maintain a mixed population of conge-neric species in the same system. We assume that similar patterns of microhabitat preferences might occur between the two congeneric species, Orthetrum trinacria and O. sabina, that coexist in the northern limits of the Algerian Sahara ( Dijkstra et al. 2007). Our results suggest that the three studied species, especially O. c. anceps, were genetically predisposed to choose their respective microhabitats, as is usual in arthropods ( Jaenike and Holt 1991). Further studies should focus on the larval stage to investigate if: (1) similar spatial patterns also occur during their aquatic life, (2) strong interspecific competition (exploitative or interference) or intraguild cannibalism occurs and to what extent, and 3) niche axes other than microhabitat act to maintain their coexistence.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to two anonymous referees for their constructive comments that improved the paper. We are indebted to A. Cordero and P. Watts for kindly reviewing an earlier version of the paper. Many thanks to N. Gotelli for his assistance in size overlap interpretation. We also thank A. Cordero, R. Stoks, and J. Sweagers for providing us with useful field material. We sincerely thank S. Ferreira for helping us with the documentation. The work was supported by the University of Guelma.

References

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Niche Partitioning in Three Sympatric Congeneric Species of Dragonfly, Orthetrum chrysostigma, O. coerulescens anceps, and O. nitidinerve: The Importance of Microhabitat

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Habitat heterogeneity has been shown to promote co-existence of closely related species. Based on this concept, a field study was conducted on the niche partitioning of three territorial congeneric species of skimmers (Anisoptera: Libellulidae) in Northeast Algeria during the breeding season of 2011. According to their size, there is a descending hierarchy between Orthetrum nitidinerve Sélys, O.

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organisms that share the same food (niche partitioning) and the way that they manage it

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organisms that share the same food (niche partitioning) and the way that they manage it

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An example of niche partitioning, several anole lizards in the Caribbean islands share common food needs—mainly insects. They avoid competition by occupying different physical locations. For example, some live on the leaf litter floor while others live on branches. Species who live in different areas compete less for food and other resources, which minimizes competition between species. However, species who live in similar areas compete strongly

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Species Interactions and Competition | Learn Science at Scitable

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Organisms live in complex assemblages in which individuals and species interact in a variety of ways. We can better understand this complexity by considering how they compete with, prey upon and parasitize each other.

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Niche partitioning and the role of intraspecific niche variation in structuring a guild of generalist anurans

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Niche partitioning and the role of intraspecific niche variation in structuring a guild of generalist anurans

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Intra-population niche differences in generalist foragers have captured the interest of ecologists, because such individuality can have important ecological and evolutionary implications. Few researchers have investigated how these differences affect the relationships among ecologically similar, sympatric species. Using stable isotopes, stomach contents, morphology and habitat preference, we examined niche partitioning within a group of five anurans and determined whether variation within species could facilitate resource partitioning. Species partitioned their niches by trophic level and by foraging habitat. However, there was considerable intraspecific variation in trophic level, with larger individuals generally feeding at higher trophic levels. For species at intermediate trophic levels, smaller individuals overlapped in trophic level with individuals of smaller species and larger individuals overlapped with the smallest individuals from larger species. Species varied in carbon isotopes; species with enriched carbon isotope ratios foraged farther from ponds, whereas species with depleted carbon isotope values foraged closer to ponds. Our study shows that these species partition their niches by feeding at different trophic levels and foraging at different distances from ponds. The intraspecific variation in trophic level decreased the number of individuals from each species that overlapped in trophic level with individuals from other species, which can facilitate species coexistence.

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The nematodes or roundworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects in the clade Ecdysozoa. Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem: from marine to fresh water, soils, from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and are found in locations as diverse as mountains, deserts, and oceanic trenches. Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which is garden pests such as cutworms and corn earthworm moths, and the pest nematodes, such as the root-knot nematode, which attack plants, and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants.

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Varroa destructor  is an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis. The Varroa mite can only reproduce in a honey bee colony. It attaches to the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking. In this process, RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus(DWV) spread to bees. A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the late autumn through early spring. The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most considered to be one of multiple stress factors contributing to the higher levels of bee losses around the world.

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the ecological niche of an characteristic animal: sea turtle (Caretta caretta)

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Two species of sea turtle live in the Mediterranean, the green sea turtle (Cehlonia mydes) and the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). Both can grow to be 1 m to 1.5 m in length. The Caretta caretta are returning in growing numbers to lay their eggs on the sandy beaches of Crete, ever since their nests have been protected by volunteers and holidaymakers have been made aware of the turtles' needs.

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Example of an animal with a predator-prey relation

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Example of an animal with a predator-prey relation

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the ecological niche of an characteristic animal: Cretan Wild Goat

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the ecological niche of an characteristic animal: Cretan Wild Goat

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Cretan Wild Goats
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Fauna of CreteCrete certainly isn't famed as a safari destination. The average holidaymaker on Crete will only see very few living wild animals.

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Fauna of CreteCrete certainly isn't famed as a safari destination. The average holidaymaker on Crete will only see very few living wild animals.

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The wolves were brought in because the increased elk population was overgrazing the deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood.

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The wolves were brought in because the increased elk population was overgrazing the deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood.

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Μουσείο Φυσικής Ιστορίας Κρήτης

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To BIOTALENT είναι ένα πρόγραμμα ERASMUS PLUS - Key Action 2 για την προώθηση "Στρατηγική Εταιρικών Σχέσεων (Strategic Partnerships)", που ενισχύουν τη συνεργασία για την καινοτομία και την ανταλλαγή ορθών πρακτικών.

Η υλοποίηση του προγράμματος θα διαρκέσει τρία χρόνια.

Το Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης συμμετέχει με τρεις αντιπροσώπους: μία ομάδα από το ΜΦΙΚ, μία ομάδα από το UCNET και τον κ. Παναγιώτη Αναστασιάδη, Αναπληρωτή Καθηγητή Δια Βίου και Εξ Αποστάσεως Εκπαίδευσης με την χρήση των Τ.Π.Ε, από το Παιδαγωγικό στο Ρέθυμνο.

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Η θεματολογία αφορά τη σημασία των συλλογών των ΜΦΙ, τη σχέση τους με τη βιοποικιλότητα, και κατ' επέκταση με ότι σχετίζεται με τη διατάραξη της ισορροπίας και τη μείωση της βιοποικιλότητας στον πλανήτη. Επίσης, θα δοθεί η δυνατότητα στους εκπαιδευόμενους να επιλέξουν επιπλέον ένα από δύο θέματα, είτε "Φαρμακευτικά φυτά" ή "Ερπετοπανίδα" ("Medicinal Plants" ή "Herpetofauna") για μια πιο εξειδικευμένη προσέγγιση.

Για τα διαδικτυακά μαθήματα θα στηθεί μια πλατφόρμα σε Moodle 3.0 που με το τέλος του προγράμματος θα είναι διαθέσιμη και προσβάσιμη από όλα τα μουσεία-μέλη της CETAF, τα οποία θα μπορούν να δημιουργήσουν τα δικά τους μαθήματα. Όσο για τη face-to-face φάση των πιλοτικών μαθημάτων, αυτή θα γίνει στο ΜΦΙΚ και θα περιλαμβάνει μάθημα στις συλλογές αλλά και στο πεδίο.

Το πιλοτικό αυτό μάθημα θα καλύψει συνολικά 80 ώρες παρακολούθησης.

Οι εκπαιδευόμενοι θα λάβουν επίσημο ευρωπαϊκό πιστοποιητικό παρακολούθησης.

Τα μαθήματα θα μπορούν να παρακολουθήσουν:

δάσκαλοι,

καθηγητές βιολογίας αλλά και άλλων φυσικών επιστημών (STEM),

εκπαιδευτικοί και άλλοι εργαζόμενοι σε μουσεία φυσικής ιστορίας, βοτανικούς κήπους, επιστημονικά κέντρα και άλλους οργανισμούς που ασχολούνται με τη φύση (π.χ. ΜΚΟ, Σύλλογοι, κ.ά.),

άνεργοι που έχουν όμως σπουδάσει σχετικές με το περιβάλλον επιστήμες, κ.ά.

Στο δικτυακό τόπο του προγράμματος BIOTALENT (biotalent.myspecies.info), ο οποίος θα είναι σύντομα διαθέσιμος, θα αναρτώνται όλα τα παραδοτέα και τα νέα του προγράμματος.

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BIOTALENT - Talent in biodiversity. Innovative education and new skills to increase engagement in science.

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To BIOTALENT είναι ένα πρόγραμμα ERASMUS PLUS - Key Action 2 για την προώθηση "Στρατηγική Εταιρικών Σχέσεων (Strategic Partnerships)", που ενισχύουν τη συνεργασία για την καινοτομία και την ανταλλαγή ορθών πρακτικών. Η υλοποίηση του προγράμματος θα διαρκέσει τρία χρόνια.

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Example of an animal with a predator-prey relation

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Example of an animal with a predator-prey relation

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Acrocephalus arundinaceus. In contrast to other insectivorous bird species, it has a thick and long beak. It usually eats insects, but other small animals, even vertebrates such as tadpoles can eat.