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2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. (3 marks) (75 words)

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2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. (3 marks) (75 words)

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Once ATP stores present in muscles have been depleted (occurs within seconds) from explosive movement, the muscle must switch to an energy releasing process that doesn't require oxygen, named anaerobic glycolysis (Tortora et al., 2019). Within this process energy stores are broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce ATP.
However, anaerobic glycolysis produces ATP about 2.5 times faster than aerobic respiration, therefore allowing the sudden power for an effective bench press (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Q1 - Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer. (3 marks) (50 words)

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Q1 - Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer. (3 marks) (50 words)

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The muscle type best suited to Ben for powerlifting is Fast Glycolytic (Fast Twitch B)(Tortora et al., 2019).
The primary function of this fibre type is rapid, powerful and intense movements of short duration which pertains to the movements required for powerlifting (Serrano et al., 2019).

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3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting. (3 marks) (75 words)

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3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting. (3 marks) (75 words)

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Resistance to fatigue is low for Fast Glycolytic muscle fibres meaning that fatigue happens quickly (Tortora et al., 2019).

Two factors that may contribute to this metabolic fatigue:
1. Build-up of lactic acid – when lactic acid builds up faster than it can be removed from the muscle, it can lead to muscle fatigue (Westerblad, Allen & Lannergren, 2002).

2. Substrate Shortage - Anaerobic glycolysis uses up a large amount of glucose to make relatively small amounts of ATP. Depletion of required glycogen within a muscle results in fatigue as the body is not able to generate adequate energy needed to power the lift (Tesch, Colliander & Kaiser, 1986).

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4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods. (3 marks) (75 words)

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4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods. (3 marks) (75 words)

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1. Latent period: Takes around 2 milliseconds. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Slack is being removed but contraction has not yet occurred (Tortora et al., 2019).

2. Contraction period: Takes between 10 to 100 milliseconds – Calcium binds to troponin, the myosin-binding site is exposed and sarcomeres actively shorten to the point of peak tension (Tortora et al., 2019).

3. Relaxation period: Also takes between 10 to 100 milliseconds and is where there is active transport of calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and muscle fibres return to their resting state (Tortora et al., 2019).

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5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length. (3 marks) (75 words)

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5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length. (3 marks) (75 words)

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1.     Isometric – supports the weight that ben is holding in the starting position of a bench press before he lowers it down to his chest (Tortora, 2019).

2.     Isotonic contractions – a concentric contraction will be performed when ben lowers the weight towards his chest, causing the muscle to shorten and an eccentric contraction will occur when he pushes the weight back up away from his chest causing the muscle to lengthen (Tortora, 2019).

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As described in Online Study Australia, it is just as important to keep etiquette on the internet just as you would in person, especially when collaborating in a group assignment.

As per previous discussion, the following netiquette guidelines have been considered by all members and should be agreed to and adhered to when working together for the E-workbook:
1. Always respect each another's views to promote a comfortable online working environment
2. Be open to healthy discussion and participation even when in disagreement
3. Be polite, professional and precise in posts to avoid confusion
4.  If you are confused or have any concerns let the group know
5. Approach differences of opinion in a polite way
6. Encourage each other and stay positive!!

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Hey Guys!
Liv I know you re-created our padlet to include this new layout so I have imported our netiquette rules from our previous padlet. Isabel I added rule number 6. as per your suggestion! I think we may all have to comment again on this just saying that you agree with them :) Also if you've thought of anything additional feel free to add to the list!

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Tortora, J. G., Derrickson, B., Burkett, B., People, G., Dye, D., Cooke, J., … Mellifont, R. (2019). Principles of anatomy and physiology (2nd Asia-Pacific ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons.

Westerblad, H., Allen, D., Lannergren, J. (2002). Muscle Fatigue: Lactic Acid or Inorganic Phosphate the Major Cause? News Physiology Science, 17(17-20). https://doi.org/10.1152/physiologyonline.2002.17.1.17

Lumen Learning. Muscle Metabolism. Retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/muscle-metabolism/

Tesch, P. A., Colliander, E. B., & Kaiser, P. 1986. Muscle metabolism
during intense, heavy- resistance exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 55 (362-3). Retrieved from:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00422734

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Serrano, N., Colenso-Semple, L. M., Lazauskus, K. K., Siu, J. W., Bagley, J. R., Lockie, R. G., … Galpin, A. J. (2019). Extraordinary fast-twitch fiber abundance in elite weightlifters. PLoS ONE, 14(3), 1–12. https://doi-org.ezproxy.endeavour.edu.au/10.1371/journal.pone.0207975

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Hi friends,
If you wanna have a look on these two articles for the Skeletal system. If you find them great I will add the most relevant one to the questions
bisous!
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30535547

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464690/

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Hey, just made the padlet public so it can be moderated.
PLEASE SUBMIT WORK BY SAT ARVO so I can go over everything
(spell check, layout, wording, referencing etc.) as Sunday I will be busy :)
Thanks guys x

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1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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The major area of damage is the frontal lobe. One of the two damaged major functional areas of the brain is the left side of the primary motor cortex and the other is the broca’s area (Tortora et al., 2019), consequently affecting Maria’s capacity to speak coherently and perform movement simultaneously.

2.  Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria. (3 marks) (max. 100 words)
Maria’s impaired speech is a result of damage to the Broca’s speech area. This damage called Broca’s aphasia results in agrammatism and reduced fluency in speech pattern, as experienced by Maria (Fridriksson, J., Fillmore, P., Guo, D., Rorden, C. (2014)).
The other deficit Maria experienced was a lack of motor function to her right hand. This is a result of damage to the left hemisphere of the primary motor cortex, which is predominantly responsible for voluntary movement of Maria’s right side (Yu, Z., Prado, R., Quinlan, E. B., Cramer, S., & Ombao, H. 2016).

3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? Give rationale for answer. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)
Unlike neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System that readily regenerate, there has been no substantial evidence to suggest that neurons of the CNS repair spontaneously (Huebner, E. A., Strittmatter, S. A. 2010) to an adequate extent. Inhibitory factors for neurogenesis within the CNS include growth inhibitory proteins such as Nogo-A, as well as slower debris clearance in the CNS to that of the PNS (Huebner, E. A., Strittmatter, S. A. 2010).

4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case? Give a rationale for the answer. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)
The first-order upper motor neurons responsible for carrying electrical impulses to initiate and regulate voluntary movement have been damaged.
Thus, preventing electrical impulses from entering the pyramidal tract, meeting with a lower motor neuron and reaching the effector. Which, ultimately causes deficits in movement of Maria’s right hand. (Emos, M. C & Agarwal, S. 2018).

5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways - the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)
In Maria’s circumstance the direct motor pathway is affected. Via this pathway, from the motor cortex, neurons controlling voluntary movement descend to the medulla where most fibres of the corticospinal tract cross over to the opposite side of the body.
They then synapse with the lower motor neurons, directly supplying the ability to move hand muscles.
Due to crossing over, the neurons on the left side of the body control movement of Maria’s right side (Premkumar, K. 2004).

Primary sources:
Yu, Z., Prado, R., Quinlan, E. B., Cramer, S., & Ombao, H. (2016). Understanding the Impact of Stroke on Brain Motor Function: A Hierarchical Bayesian Approach. US National Library of Medicine: National Institutes of Health, 111 (514), para. 66. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5270649/

Fridriksson, J., Fillmore, P., Guo, D., Rorden, C. (2014). Chronic Broca’s Aphasia is Caused by Damage to Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas. Oxford Journals, 25 (12), para. 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4669036/

Secondary sources:
Tortora, G. J., Derrickson, B. H., Burkett, B., Peoples, G., Dye, Cooke. J., … Mellifont, R. (2018). Principles of anatomy and physiology (2nd ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd.

Huebner, E. A., Strittmatter, S. A. (2010). Axon Regeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous Systems. US National Library of Medicine: National Institutes of Health, 48, para. 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846285/

Emos, M. C & Agarwal, S. (2018). Neuroanatomy, Upper Motor Neuron Lesion. NCBI, para. 2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537305/

Premkumar, K. (2004). The Massage Connection: Anatomy & Physiology (2nd ed.). Maryland, US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

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1. Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of the cells contained in each zone. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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1. Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of the cells contained in each zone. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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The zone of resting cartilage is composed of small and scattered chondrocytes.

The zone of proliferating of cartilage is composed of chondrocytes.

The zone of hypertrophic cartilage is composed of large chondrocytes arranged in columns.

And finally, the zone of calcified cartilage is composed of dead chondrocytes; osteoclasts and osteoblasts.

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2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

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The interstitial growth of cartilage occurs on the epiphyseal side of the plate with a proliferation of chondrocytes before birth.
Bone then replaces cartilage on the diaphysial side of the plate.
This is followed by a lengthening of diaphysis and closing of the plate, to form an epiphyseal line (occurring at the end of adolescence).

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3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline (including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair. (3 marks) (max.100 words) 

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3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline (including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair. (3 marks) (max.100 words) 

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Phase 1: The reactive phase includes clot formation around the site of fracture. Along with bone cells dying, swelling/inflammation arising within minutes and phagocytes with help from osteoclasts remove damaged tissue.

Phase 2: The reparative phase, lasts days to weeks. The fracture haematoma (the clot) is replaced by a thick layer of soft callus around the bone ends, which is then remodelled into hard callus. This soft callus is achieved by fibroblasts producing the collagen fibres, chondroblasts producing the fibrocartilage. The hard callus is achieved by osteoprogenitor cells developing into osteoblasts and spongy bone trabeculae produced.

Phase 3: Remodelling occurs over months and years. Dead external callus fragments are resorbed by osteoclasts. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone. The fracture area is shaped/smoothed until it looks normal.

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4. Name ONE (1) possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom’s L) femur and outline why this occurs. (3 marks) (max. 50 words) 

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4. Name ONE (1) possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom’s L) femur and outline why this occurs. (3 marks) (max. 50 words) 

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A possible consequence of Tom’s growth plate fracture would be to end up with his leg crooked.  This would occur because the undamaged part of the epiphyseal plate would continue to grow normally while the broken part will struggle (National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, 2014).

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5. Describe THREE (3) factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years. (3 marks) (max. 100 words)

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5. Describe THREE (3) factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years. (3 marks) (max. 100 words)

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If the epiphysis is not aligned correctly during the phase of reparation, the growth of the fractured bone can be disrupted, immobilisation with a splint or bivalve cast is key.

For the growth plate to repair, the area needs a good blood supply.  It is essential to make sure that there is no neurovascular compression with the leg immobilisation.

Preventing further damage or a second trauma is critical to help repair/growth. As a soccer player Tom should protect his knee with a compression sleeve (The Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne, n.d).

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National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases. (n.d). Growth Plate Injuries, 2014. Retrieved from https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/growth-plate-injuries#tab-living-with

The Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne. (n.d). Fracture Education, n.d. Retrieved from https:https://www.rch.org.au/fracture-education/fracture_healing/

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Hey Everyone, (except for Katie who already did it herself), I have 'transferred' from our old padlet to this new one, all of our peer evaluation forms- even though I don't love the padlet program, how good is technology?!!!
Oh, and Flo's, as she didn't do one. Please can you add yours Flo?

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Just letting you all know I just polished off/changed a bit of the wording of Flo's questions and will do the rest after work.

Feel free to check over changes if you wish.
Thanks

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Einhorn, T., & Gerstenfeld, L. (2015). Fracture healing: mechanisms and interventions. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464690/

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1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

The Pancreas acts as an exocrine and endocrine gland, consisting of pancreatic islets (islets of Langherans) for its endocrine function.
The islets secrete glucagon via the Alpha cells when blood glucose levels are low. They secrete insulin via the Beta cells when blood glucose levels are too high to maintain glucose homeostasis.

2.  Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)

Once in a Hyperglycaemic state the pancreas begins the ‘negative feedback regulation’ to reduce the blood glucose level. First, the Beta cells of the pancreatic islets detect an excess amount of glucose, initiating the excretion of insulin. The insulin targets tissue cells to diffuse the glucose. Then transforms the glucose into glycogen. Next, it speeds up the absorption of amino acids and stimulates both protein and fatty acid synthesis.
This reduces the blood glucose level.

3.   Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her pre-diabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)

Once in a Hypoglycaemic state the pancreas begins the ‘negative feedback regulation’ to raise the blood glucose level.
First, the Alpha cells of the pancreatic islets detect the low glucose level, initiating the excretion of glucagon.
The glucagon targets the liver cells to transform glycogen into glucose and stimulate glucose production via lactic acid and amino acids.
This results in an increase of glucose being released into the blood via the liver cells (hepatocytes).

4. Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)

Epinephrine (adrenaline) is another hormone that contributes to an elevation in blood glucose levels through the fight or flight mechanism.
Epinephrine is released when the body is affected by stressors such as exercise and stressful situations, in turn increasing the production of glucose via the liver.
The liver transforms the glucose from glycogen in order to raise blood glucose levels and provide an instant form of energy.

5.   For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. (3 marks) (max. 50 words)

Epinephrine (adrenaline) is secreted via the chromaffin cells which are found within the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland. Norepinephrine is another hormone that is released at the same time as epinephrine in order to maintain a balance between the two, with 80% being epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine.

Primary research article:

Bai, D, Zhang. Y, Shen. M, Sun. Y, Xia. Q, Zhang . Y, Liu . X, Wang. H, Yuan. L (2016). Hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia blunts the Insulin-Inpp5f negative feedback loop in the diabetic heart. Sci Rep. 2016; 6: 22068.

Published online 2016 Feb 24. doi: 10.1038/srep22068

Via https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4764951/

Secondary sources:

Tortora, J. G., Derrickson, B., Burkett, B., People, G., Dye, D., Cooke, J., … Mellifont, R. (2019). Principles of anatomy and physiology (2nd Asia-Pacific ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons.

Sherwin, R. S, and Sacca, L (1984). Effect of Epinephrine on Glucose Metabolism in Humans: Contribution to the Liver. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 247, Issue 2. Pages E157-E165

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Good job everyone. Thanks. Ready for export!