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Carol Kuhlthau,  Leslie Maniotes & Anne Caspari

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The icons represent the nuances of each phase.

Open represented as an open circle. In GID we open to a concept to start with wonder and curiosity.

Immerse looks like ripples in a pool of water. Time spent in this phase ripples into the success of later phases of inquiry.

Explore is an explosion. Because of the emotional response students experience of information overload in that phase, the icon reminds us to slow down and pay attention to students' emotions and connections to their own interests.

Identify is the turning point of the inquiry signified by the bending arrow into a dot.

Gather is when students are out and back. Students move from resources to their notes and engage in the processing of each resource to understand their question.

Create is the shape of a hexagon with many shades which indicates a reforming of understanding as students create new meaning through the information they have found.

Share is a talk bubble as students share their learning with their inquiry community and the wider world.

Evaluate is a think bubble because students not only reflect all the way through the GID process, but taking time to reflect at the end helps them become more aware of how they learned, an important skill for today's learners.

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The icons represent the nuances of each phase. Open represented as an open circle. In GID we open to a concept to start with wonder and curiosity. Immerse looks like ripples in a pool of water. Time spent in this phase ripples into the success of later phases of inquiry.

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Carol Kuhlthau

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"Longitudinal Evidence of the Influence of the ISP on Information Workers.", 2018. Read the full paper here.

PowerPoint presentation of the Information Search Process

The model of the Information Search Process (ISP) is one of the most highly cited works in Library and Information Science as noted in the following citation studies:

Timelines of Creativity: A Study of Intellectual Innovators in Information Science. Cronin and Meho. Journal of the American Society of Information Science and Technology, 58(13) 1948-1959, 2007.

Analysis of a Decade in Library Literature: 1994-2004. Blessinger and Frasier. College and Research Libraries, 68(2) 155-169, 2007.

Using the h-Index to Rank Influential Information Scientists. Cronin and Meho. Journal of the American Society of Information Science and Technology, 57(9) 1275-1278, 2006.

The Origins and Contextual use of Theory in Human Information Behavior Research. McKechnie, Pettigrew, and Joyce. New Review of Information Behavior Research, 47-63, 2001.

The Use of Theory in Information Science Research. Pettigrew and McKechnie. Journal of the American Society of Information Science and Technology, 52)1) 62-73, 2001.

Scholarly Productivity of U. S. LIS Faculty: An update. Budd. Library Quarterly, 70(2) 230-245, 2000.

Abstract
The Information Search Process (ISP) is a six stage model of the users' holistic experience in the process of information seeking. The ISP model, based on two decades of empirical research, identifies three realms of experience: the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts) and the physical (actions) common to each stage. Central to the ISP is the notion that uncertainty, both affective and cognitive, increases and decreases in the process of information seeking. A principle of uncertainty for information seeking is proposed that states that information commonly increases uncertainty in the early stages of the search process. Increased uncertainty indicates a zone of intervention for intermediaries and system designers.

INTRODUCTION
The Information Search Process (ISP) presents a holistic view of information seeking from the user's perspective in six stages: task initiation, selection, exploration, focus formulation, collection and presentation. The six stage model of the ISP incorporates three realms of experience: the affective (feelings) the cognitive (thoughts) and the physical (actions) common to each stage (1). The ISP reveals information seeking as a process of construction influenced by Kelly's personal construct theory (2) with information increasing uncertainty in the early stages of the ISP.

The development of the ISP as a conceptual framework is the result of more than two decades of empirical research that began with a qualitative study of secondary school students and the emergence of an initial model, that was verified and refined through quantitative and longitudinal methods of diverse library users and further developed in case studies of people in the workplace. To summarize the findings of these studies of the user's perspective of the ISP, the affective symptoms of uncertainty, confusion and frustration prevalent in the early stages are associated with vague, unclear thoughts about a topic or problem. As knowledge states shifted to clearer, more focused thoughts a corresponding shift was noted in feelings of increased confidence and certainty. Affective aspects, such as uncertainty and confusion can influence relevance judgments as much as cognitive aspects, such as personal knowledge and information content. Central in the model of the ISP is uncertainty described formally as a principle of uncertainty for information seeking. Increased uncertainty in the exploration stage of the ISP indicates a zone of intervention for intermediaries and system designers (3).

MODEL OF THE INFORMATION SEARCH PROCESS (ISP)
The model of the ISP describes users' experience in the process of information seeking as a series of thoughts, feelings, and actions. Thoughts that begin as uncertain, vague, and ambiguous become clearer, more focused, and specific as the search process progresses. Feelings of anxiety and doubt become more confident and certain. Through their actions, people seek information relevant to the general topic in the beginning stages of the search process and pertinent to the focused topic toward closure. Formulation of a focus or a personal perspective of the topic is a pivotal point in the search process. At that point, feelings shift from uncertain to confident, thoughts change from vague to more clear and interest increases. The model was verified in longitudinal case studies and large scale studies of diverse samples of library users (4) (5). Further studies have examined the implementation of a process approach in education contexts and investigated the ISP in the workplace (6).

The ISP describes common experiences in the process of information seeking for a complex task that has a discrete beginning and ending and that requires considerable construction and learning to be accomplished (7). The model reveals a search process in which a person is seeking meaning in the course of seeking information. From the user's perspective the primary objective of information seeking is to accomplish the task that initiated the search, not merely the collection of information as an end in itself. The ISP presents seeking information as a means to accomplish a goal. The model of the ISP is articulated in a holistic view of information seeking from the user's perspective in six stages:

Initiation, when a person first becomes aware of a lack of knowledge or understanding and feelings of uncertainty and apprehension are common.

Selection, when a general area, topic, or problem is identified and initial uncertainty often gives way to a brief sense of optimism and a readiness to begin the search.

Exploration, when inconsistent, incompatible information is encountered and uncertainty, confusion, and doubt frequently increase and people find themselves "in the dip" of confidence.

Formulation, when a focused perspective is formed and uncertainty diminishes as confidence begins to increase.

Collection, when information pertinent to the focused perspective is gathered and uncertainty subsides as interest and involvement deepens.

Presentation, when the search is completed with a new understanding enabling the person to explain his or her learning to others or in someway put the learning to use.

In the first stage, initiation, a person becomes aware of a gap in knowledge or a lack of understanding, where feelings of uncertainty and apprehension are common. At this point,the task is merely to recognize a need for information. Thoughts center on contemplating the problem, comprehending the task, and relating the problem to prior experience and personal knowledge. Actions frequently involve discussing possible avenues of approach or topics to pursue.

In the second stage, selection, the task is to identify and select the general topic to be investigated and the approach to be pursued. Feelings of uncertainty often give way to optimism after the selection as been made and there is a readiness to begin the search. Thoughts center on weighing prospective topics against the criteria of task requirements, time allotted, personal interest, and information available. The outcome of the possible choices is predicted, and the topic or approach judged to have the greatest potential for success is selected. Typical actions are to confer with others or to make a preliminary search of information available and then to skim and scan for an overview of alternative topics. When, for whatever reason, selection is delayed or postponed, feelings of anxiety are likely to intensify until the choice is made.

The third stage is Exploration characterized by feelings of confusion, uncertainty, and doubt which frequently increase during this time. The task is to investigate information on the general topic in order to extend personal understanding. Thoughts center on becoming oriented and sufficiently informed about the topic to form a focus or a personal point of view. At this stage in the ISP, an inability to express precisely what information is needed can make communication between the user and the system awkward. Actions involve locating information about the general topic, reading to become informed, and relating new information to what is already known. In this stage the information encountered rarely fits smoothly with previously-held constructs, and information from different sources frequently seems inconsistent and incompatible. People may find the situation quite discouraging and even threatening, causing a sense of personal inadequacy as well as frustration with the system. Some actually may be inclined to abandon the search altogether at this stage. Exploration is considered the most difficult stage in the ISP when the information encountered can increase uncertainty prompting a dip in confidence.

The fourth stage in the ISP, Formulation, is the turning point of the ISP, when feelings of uncertainty diminish and confidence increases. The task is to form a focus from the information encountered. Thoughts involve identifying and selecting ideas in the information from which to form a focused perspective of the topic. A focus in the search process is comparable to a hypothesis in the process of construction. The topic becomes more personalized at this stage if construction is taking place. While a focus may be formed in a sudden moment of insight, it is more likely to emerge gradually as constructs become clearer. During this time, a change in feelings is commonly noted, with indications of increased confidence and a sense of clarity.People often express an awareness of being involved in finding meaning such as purposefully engaging in "focusing and narrowing," in seeking "a thread," "a story," "answers to all my questions," "a central theme" or "a guiding idea." The four criteria used to select a topic may be again employed to choose a focus: Task; What am I trying to accomplish? Time; How much time do I have? Interest; What do I find personally interesting? Availability; What information is available to me?

Collection is the fifth stage in the ISP when interaction between the user and the information system functions most effectively and efficiently. At this point, the task is to gather information related to the focused topic. Thoughts center on defining, extending, and supporting the focus. Actions involve selecting information relevant to the focused perspective of the topic and making detailed notes on that which pertains specifically to the focus. General information on the topic is no longer relevant after formulation. The person, with a clearer sense of direction, can specify the need for pertinent, focused information to intermediaries and to systems, thereby facilitating a comprehensive search of available resources. Feelings of confidence continue to increase as uncertainty subsides, with interest in the project deepening.

In presentation, the sixth stage, feelings of relief are common with a sense of satisfaction if the search has gone well or disappointment if it has not. The task is to complete the search and to prepare to present or otherwise use the findings. Thoughts concentrate on culminating the search with a personalized synthesis of the topic or problem. Actions involve a summary search in which decreasing relevance and increasing redundancy are noted in the information encountered.

ROLE OF AFFECT IN INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOR
These studies were among the first to investigate the affective aspects or feelings in the process of information seeking along with the cognitive and physical aspects. Prior to the introduction of the ISP the affective dimension of information seeking had not been fully recognized in library and information services and systems. One of the important findings of this research was the discovery of a sharp increase in uncertainty and decrease in confidence after a search had been initiated. A person "in the dip" commonly experienced uncertainty, confusion and anxiety until a focus or a personal perspective had been formed.

The ISP presents information seeking as a process of construction influenced by George Kelly's personal construct theory (2). Information seeking involves construction in which the person actively pursues understanding and seeks meaning from the information encountered over a period of time. The process is commonly experienced as a series of thoughts and feelings that shift from vague and anxious to clear and confident as the search progresses.

Kelly describes the emotional experience of constructing meaning from new information. The information is assimilated in a series of phases, beginning with confusion. Confusion increases as inconsistencies and incompatibilities are confronted between the information and the constructs the person already holds. As confusion mounts, it frequently causes doubt in the ability to assimilate the new information. The disruption caused by the new ideas may become so threatening that the new information is discarded and construction abandoned. At this point, Kelly proposes another alternative to move the process of construction along. The person may form a tentative hypothesis to move toward incorporating the new construct into the existing system of personally held constructs.

The ISP is a process of seeking meaning not just finding and reproducing information. This is a process of construction involving exploration and formulation that rarely proceeds directly from selection to collection. Experience influences the decisions and choices a person makes throughout the process of information seeking. Studies of the ISP in the workplace reveal that a person's experience of the stages in the ISP is related to how much the person knows about the problem and the degree of construction that should be undertaken during information seeking. In more routine tasks, where the goal is to answer a simple question or to monitor periodic change, people do not usually experience stages in their information seeking. In more complex tasks, where the goal requires considerable construction and learning, people are likely to experience a process as described in the ISP model (6).

Focus formulation as a pivotal point in the ISP
The formulation of a focus or personal perspective is a pivotal point in the ISP. Focus formulation calls for reflective thinking about the information encountered in the exploration stage of the ISP that provides a direction for the completion of the search. A focus is a guiding idea to concentrate on to complete the search and accomplish the task. People often find the period preceding formulation of a focus the most difficult phase in the search process. Exploration is a difficult stage because uncertainty commonly increases, rather than gradually decreases, during this time. Peoples can experience anxiety and frustration as they encounter information from many different perspectives, much of which may not be compatible with their specific constructs and personal knowledge. The connection between feelings and formulating is evident from the rise in confidence that parallels increased clarity as formulation unfolds. Formulation, the central task in the ISP, is frequently misunderstood when the search process is thought of as merely a process of collection not a construction activity.

Exploration facilitates formulating a focus during the search process. However, people often attempt to move from selection directly to collection without the essential exploration for the formulation that gives direction to the search. Exploring uncovers information for formulating new constructs, whereas collecting gathers information for documenting established constructs. Tolerance for the mounting uncertainty in the exploration stage is important for formulation within the ISP. Using information involves interpreting and creating. No matter the amount or the quality of the information gathered, the problem is not solved or the topic understood until the information has been interpreted. Understanding develops through extending and defining a topic by reflecting on the information encountered to solidify personal understanding.

Acquiring more information can increase uncertainty
The axiom that information reduces uncertainty is not necessarily the user's experience in information seeking. In some situations, new information actually increases uncertainty. Prior to formulation users are likely to experience heightened uncertainty in the fact of unique, incompatible, inconsistent information that requires construction and interpretation. It seems helpful for users to expect uncertainty to increase during the exploration stage of the ISP rather than thinking that increased uncertainty is a symptom that something has gone wrong. The tolerance of uncertainty is introduced as enabling the early stages of the ISP, when the experience of uncertainty may overwhelm the person and deter progress in the process. Uncertainty from the user's perspective is a natural experience in the search process. If unexpected, the presence of uncertainty and particularly any increase in uncertainty can heighten anxiety.

Central to the ISP model is the notion that uncertainty, both cognitive and affective, increases and decreases in the process of information seeking. Uncertainty, the predominant experience in the early stages of the search process, had not been sufficiently addressed in library and information services.

PRINCIPLE OF UNCERTAINTY FOR INFORMATION SEEKING
Uncertainty is a cognitive state that commonly causes affective symptoms of anxiety and lack of confidence. Uncertainty and anxiety can be expected in the early stages of the ISP. The affective symptoms of uncertainty, confusion and frustration are associated with vague, unclear thought about a topic or question. As knowledge states shift to more clearly focused thoughts, a parallel shift occurs in feelings of increased confidence. Uncertainty due to a lack of understanding, a gap in meaning, or a limited construct initiates the process of information seeking (8).

The principle is expanded by six corollaries: process corollary, formulation corollary, redundancy corollary, mood corollary, prediction corollary, and interest corollary.

Six Corollaries of the principle of uncertainty
1. Process Corollary
The process of information seeking involves construction in which the person actively pursues understanding and meaning from the information encountered over a period of time. The process is commonly experienced in a series of thoughts and feelings that shift from vague and anxious to clear and confident, as the search progresses.

2. Formulation Corollary
Formulation is thinking, developing an understanding and extending and defining a topic from the information encountered in the early stages of a search. The formulation of a focus or a guiding idea is a critical, pivotal point in the ISP when a general topic becomes clearer and a particular perspective is formed as the person moves from uncertainty to understanding.

3. Redundancy Corollary
The interplay of seeking what is expected or redundant and encountering what is unexpected or unique results in an underlying tension of the ISP. Redundant information fits into what the user already knows and is readily recognized as being relevant or not. Unique information is new and extends knowledge and does not match the person's constructs requiring reconstruction to be recognized as useful. Too much redundant information leads to boredom, whereas too much unique information causes anxiety. The lack of redundancy in the early stages of the ISP may be an underlying cause of anxiety related to uncertainty. Uncertainty may decrease as redundancy increases.

4. Mood Corollary
Mood, a stance or attitude that the person assumes, opens or closes the range of possibilities in a search. According to Kelly, an invitational mood leads to expansive, exploratory actions, whereas an indicative mood fosters conclusive actions that lead to closure. The person's mood is likely to shift during the ISP. An invitational mood may be helpful in the early stages and an indicative mood in the later stages. A person in an invitational mood would tend to take more expansive, exploratory actions, while a user in an indicative mood prefers conclusive actions that lead to closure.

5. Prediction Corollary
The ISP is a series of personal choices based on the person's predictions of what will happen if a particular action is taken. People make predictions derived from constructs built on past experience about what sources, information and strategies will be relevant and effective. These predictions lead to the choices they make in the stages of the ISP. People develop expectations and make predictions about the sources used or not used, the sequence of source use, and the information selected from the sources as relevant or irrelevant. Relevance is not absolute or constant but varies considerably from person to person.

6. Interest Corollary
Interest increases as the exploratory inquiry leads to formulation in the ISP. Motivation and intellectual engagement intensify along with construction. Personal interest may be expected to increase as uncertainty decreases. The person's interest and motivation grows as the search progresses. Interest is higher in later stages after the person has formed a focus and has enough understanding of the topic to become intellectually engaged.

IMPLICATION OF ISP FOR INFORMATION SERVICES AND SYSTEMS
Information searching is traditionally portrayed as a systematic, orderly, and rational procedure rather than the uncertain, confusing process that users commonly experience. After the search is completed, the topic understood, and the problem solved, a person may look back and deny the chaos and confusion that was actually experienced in the process. A gap exists between users' expectations in information use and search design.

The ISP considers uncertainty as natural and essential for constructing personal knowledge in the process of information seeking rather than regarding the reduction of uncertainty as the primary objective of information seeking. Uncertainty is a concept that offers insight into the user's quest for meaning within the ISP. If uncertainty is viewed as a sign of the beginning of innovation and creativity, the goal of library and information services shifts from reducing uncertainty to supporting the user's constructive process. Increased uncertainty in the ISP indicates a need for intervention that enables the person to move on to further construction and understanding. Uncertainty in the ISP indicates a zone of intervention in the ISP for information intermediaries (9).

Zone of intervention for information services and systems
The zone of intervention is a concept modeled on Vygotsky's notion of a zone of proximal development (10). Vygotsky, the soviet psychologist whose work has had a profound influence on learning theory, developed the concept of identifying an area or zone in which intervention would be most helpful to a learner. The zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under professional guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. This concept provides a way of understanding intervention in the constructive process of another person.

The zone of intervention in information seeking may be thought of in a similar way. The zone of intervention is that area in which an information user can do with advice and assistance what he or she cannot do alone or can do only with difficulty. Intervention within this zone enables individuals to progress in the accomplishment of their task. Intervention outside this zone is inefficient and unnecessary, experienced by users as intrusive on the one hand and overwhelming on the other.

Taken together the stages of the ISP, uncertainty principle and the concept of a zone of intervention proposes a conceptual framework for understanding information seeking as a process of construction from the user's perspective. In summary, the ISP model describes the experience and behavior of people involved in extensive research projects. People using libraries and information systems to learn about a particular subject or to investigate a problem or issue often have difficulty in the early stages of information seeking. Even when they begin with great enthusiasm and initial success, many become confused and uncertain as to how to proceed after a short period of time. This is particularly noticeable with students who have been assigned a research paper but is not limited to students. Initial hesitation, confusion, and uncertainty are reported by people in all types of libraries and in the workplace. In fact, we have no way of knowing just how many people give up after initiating a search because they become uncertain and feel incompetent to continue (11).

CONCLUSION
People engage in an information search experience holistically, with an interplay of thoughts, feelings and actions. Common patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting are characteristic in each phase. These studies were among the first to investigate the affective aspects or the feelings of a person in the process of information seeking along with the cognitive and physical aspects. Rather than a steady increase in confidence from the beginning of a search to the conclusion, as might be expected, a dip in confidence is commonly experienced once an individual has initiated a search and begins to encounter conflicting and inconsistent information. A person "in the dip" is increasingly uncertain and confused until a focus is formed to provide a path for seeking meaning and criteria for judging relevance. Advances in information technology, that open access to a vast assortment of sources, have not helped the user's dilemma and may have intensified the sense of confusion and uncertainty. Information systems may intensify the problem particularly in the early stages of the ISP by overwhelming the user with "everything" all at once. Increased uncertainty indicates a zone of intervention in the process of information seeking for information intermediaries.

References

1. Kuhlthau, C. C. Developing a model of the library search process: Investigation of cognitive and affective aspects. Reference Quarterly 1988, 28 (2), 232-242.

2. Kelly, G. A. A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Norton, New York, 1963.

3. Kuhlthau, C. C. Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user's perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 1991, 42 (5), 361-371.

4. Kuhlthau, C. C. Longitudinal case studies of the information search process of users in libraries. Library and Information Science Research 1988, 10, 257-304.

5. Kuhlthau, C. C., Turock, B. J, & George, M. W. Validating a model of the search process: A comparison of academic, public and school library users. Library and Information Science Research 1990, 12 (1). 5-13.

6. Kuhlthau, C. C. The role of experience in the information search process of an early career information worker: Perceptions of uncertainty, complexity, construction and sources. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 1999, 50 (5), 399-412.

7. Kuhlthau, C. C. Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services, 2nd edition, Libraries Unlimited, Westport, CT., 2004.

8. Kuhlthau, C. C. A principle of uncertainty for information seeking. Journal of Documentation 1993, 49 (4), 339-355.

9. Kuhlthau, C. C. The concept of a zone of intervention for identifying the role of intermediaries in the information search process. In Global Complexity; Information, Chaos and Control, Proceedings of the 59th American Society for Information Science Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD., October 21-24, 1996; Hardin, S, Eds.; Information Today, Medford NJ, 1996, 91-94.

10. Vygotsky, L. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA., 1978.

11. Kuhlthau, C. C. Accommodating the user's information search process: Challenges for information retrieval system designers. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 1999, 25, 12-16.

Progression and Development of
Kuhlthau's Information Search Process

Guided Inquiry: Learning in the 21st Century, second edition with Maniotes and Caspari

A thorough explanation of Guided Inquiry Design including Information Literacy Curriculum.

Children's Reading in Guided Inquiry. Keynote at the International Reading Literacy Symposium, University of Tokyo, Japan.

Each stage of the ISP requires different kinds of reading.

Guided Inquiry Design with Maniotes and Caspari

A complete framework for designing learning for preK-12 students

Research Matters: The Long Reach of the Model of the ISP. Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults (JRLYA)

The triad of tradition, experience and research work together to build, sustain and develop library services for children and youth

Guided Inquiry for School Libraries in the 21st Century. School Libraries Worldwide

Guided Inquiry based on the ISP equips student for the challenges of a changing technological world.

Information Search Process. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences Taylor Francis.

A summary of research on the Information Search Process

From Information to Meaning: Confronting Challenges of the Twenty-first Century. Libri, vol. 58, 66-73.

Moving away from concentration on technology of searching to using
information for learning, problem solving and creativity.

Meeting the Challenge of Intellectual Access: Vital roles for librarians. Margaret Mann Lecture, School of Information, University of Michigan.

ISP in the context of education and the workplace that indicate new roles for librarians

Information Search Process of Lawyers: A Call For 'Just For Me' Information Services. Journal of Documentation, 57 (1), 31-46.

Evidence of ISP in the workplace and need for creating meaning
With Tama

Information Seeking for Learning: A Study of Librarians Perceptions of Learning in School Libraries. New Review of Information Behaviour Research, 2, 31-46.

ISP of students in science projects
With McNally

Validating A Model of the Search Process: A Comparison of Academic, Public, and School Library Users. Library and Information Science Research, 12 (1), 5-32.

Confirmation of the ISP in various types of libraries
With Turock, George and Belvin

Books authored by Kuhlthau on research and application of the ISP:

Teaching the Library Research Process. 1st ed. 1985; 2nd ed.1994; paperback ed. 2002. Available through Scarecrow Press.

Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services. 1st ed. 1993; 2nd ed. 2004. Available through Libraries Unlimited,

Guided Inquiry: Learning in the 21st Century. With Leslie K. Maniotes and Ann K. Caspari. 2007. Available through Libraries Unlimited,

"ISP Revisited: Is the ISP model still useful?" With Jannica Heinstrom and Ross Todd. Presentation at the Information Seeking in Context conference, Vilnius Lithuania, September 17, 2008. Information Research, an International Electronic Journal, 13 (4) 2008.

"Research Matters: The Long Reach of the Model of the ISP." Journal of Research on Libraries and Young adults (JRLYA) 2, 2, 17-28. Available at http://www.yalsa.ala.org/jrlya/.

"Reflections on the development of a theoretical perspective." In Theory Development in the Information Sciences. edited by Diane H. Sonnenwald, chapter 4, pp.68-86. University of Texas Press, 2016.

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"Longitudinal Evidence of the Influence of the ISP on Information Workers.", 2018. Read the full paper here. PowerPoint presentation of the Information Search Process The model of the Information Search Process (ISP) is one of the most highly cited works in Library and Information Science as noted in the following citation studies: Timelines of Creativity: A Study of Intellectual Innovators in Information Science.

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Kath Murdoch

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Kathleen Gordon

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The TELSTAR model of inquiry is just one of many models that can be used in the guided inquiry process. This model assists the teacher and students in using simple language and an acronym to...

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British Columbia Teacher-Librarians Association – based on Barbara Stripling’s model

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Gourley

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If you are citizen of an European Union member nation, you may not use this service unless you are at least 16 years old.

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Youth Learn

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Includes a model of  steps of the information process

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Annette Lamb, Larry Johnson, and Nancy Smith

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Children don't just "do" information, technology, and Internet. A inquiry or project-based learning environment involves wondering about a topic, wiggling through information, and weaving elements together. Each student learns and expresses themselves in a unique way.

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Annette Lamb, Larry Johnson, and Nancy Smith

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Promoting The Big6 model, approach, and programs to promote essential, lifelong information problem-solving skills thinking, learning, and teaching in schools and informal learning contexts. The Big6 is an information literacy process, a research process, and an inquiry process because it describes the way we complete assignments and solve problems in any situation.
The Big6 is a six-stage model to help anyone solve problems or make decisions by using information. Some call it information literacy, inquiry, research skills, or an information problem-solving process...but we call it the Big6!

Using the Big6, you will identify goals, seek, use, and assemble relevant, credible information, then reflect-is the final product effective and was my process efficient? The Big6 works anywhere-the classroom, workplace, or at home. Moreover, it works across content areas and aligns easily with state and national learning standards.
Read our press release announcing the new Big6.org!

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Kay Oddone

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John Willison & Kerry O’Regan (K-12 & HE)

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Roger Bybee

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Primary Connections | 5Es Teaching and Learning Model

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Primary Connections 5Es teaching and learning model

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comparison of models from SAP User Community

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Introduction to Design Thinking - SAP User Experience Community

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Design Thinking is one of the more recent buzz words in the design community. In this introductory article, I will investigate what Design Thinking is, what its main characteristics are, and take a look at the process and the methods associated with it. I will also take a brief look at the history of Design Thinking.

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John Larmer

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An overview of the 7 Essential Project Design Elements in the PBLWorks model for Gold Standard PBL. Adapted from "Gold Standard PBL: The Essential Project Design Elements" white paper by John Larmer and John Mergendoller (2015).
Gold Standard Project Based Learning

Project Based Learning is a powerful and transformative pedagogy that-when done well-can help all of our students learn and thrive. But what are the features that differentiate Project Based Learning (PBL) from other instructional approaches, and how can teachers ensure that they are implementing PBL in ways that will be most impactful for their students? In order to help teachers do PBL effectively, PBLWorks has developed a comprehensive, research-informed model for PBL - a "gold standard" to help teachers, schools, and organizations to reflect on and grow their practice. Our framework for Gold Standard PBL is designed to meet the needs of all learners, and includes several key components:

Essential Project Design Elements: These seven elements (the focus of this article) are the characteristics that differentiate a Gold Standard project from other forms of instruction- the key features that are evident in the design of an effective project.

Project Based Teaching Practices: These practices are the instructional moves teachers make to bring a project to life in the classroom. Many of them are familiar practices to teachers, but they look different in the context of a project. In addition to focus areas such as scaffolding and assessment, these teaching practices include the intentional practices teachers use to build a culture of interdependence in the classroom. (Learn more.)

An Equity-Centered Vision for PBL: In addition to knowing the nuts and bolts of PBL pedagogy, effective PBL teachers hold a clear vision for how their project design and implementation will meet the needs of all of their learners. This includes attending to four "levers" for equitable PBL- knowledge of students, cognitive demand, literacy, and shared power- and regularly using these levers to reflect on and refine practice. (Learn more.)

Each component of the Gold Standard frameworks is intended to support all students in deep learning of meaningful and relevant learning goals, so let's begin our discussion there.

Student Learning Goals

Student learning of academic content and skill development are at the center of any well-designed project. Like the lens of a camera, our framework puts the focus of PBL on helping students gain the knowledge, understanding, and success skills they need to thrive:

Key Knowledge and Understanding: Gold Standard PBL teaches students the important content standards, concepts, and in-depth understandings that are fundamental to school subject areas and academic disciplines. In good projects, students learn how to apply knowledge to the real world, and use it to solve problems, answer complex questions, and create high-quality products.

Key Success Skills: Content knowledge and conceptual understanding, by themselves, are not enough. In school and college, in the workplace, as community members, and in their lives generally, people need to be able to think critically and solve problems, work well with others, and communicate effectively. They also need to manage projects and approach novel tasks with creativity and innovation. We call these kinds of competencies "success skills." They are also known as "College and Career Readiness Skills" and are often seen in "Graduate Profiles" created by schools and districts.

It's important to note that success skills can only be taught through the acquisition of content knowledge and understanding. For example, students don't learn critical thinking skills in the abstract, isolated from subject matter; they gain them by thinking critically about math, science, history, English, career/tech subjects, the arts, and so on.

We recommend that each project explicitly teach and assess one or two specific success skills, even though students may learn other skills as well. Projects can also help students to develop and strengthen other personal qualities (such as perseverance and compassion), rooted in the needs and values of students and their local community.

Essential Project Design Elements

So what characterizes an effective project? Based on an extensive literature review and the distilled experience of the many educators we have worked with over the past several decades, we believe the following Essential Project Design Elements outline what is necessary for an effective project that maximizes student learning and engagement.

Challenging Problem or Question

The What: The heart of a project - what it is "about" - is a problem to investigate and solve, or a question to explore and answer. This question should be aligned to learning goals and, as much as possible, should connect to students' interests, identities, and communities. The challenge could be concrete (the school needs to do a better job of recycling waste) or abstract (deciding if and when war is justified). When teachers design and conduct a project, we suggest they (sometimes with students) write the central problem or question in the form of an open-ended, student-friendly "driving question" that focuses their task, like a thesis focuses an essay (e.g., "How can we improve our school's recycling system, so we can reduce waste?" or "Should the U.S. have fought the Vietnam War?"). Note that this problem or question should not be simple to answer, but should be cognitively demanding for students and require them to engage in deep and original thought.
The Why: A well-designed problem or question makes learning meaningful for students. They are not just gaining knowledge to remember it; they are learning because they have a real need to know something, so they can use this knowledge to solve a problem or answer a question that matters to them. This also helps students develop a problem-solving disposition, and creates the context for building skills and confidence that students can apply to other challenges in their lives, communities, and work.

Sustained Inquiry

The What: To inquire is to seek information or to investigate - it's a more active, in-depth process than just "looking something up" in a book or online. The inquiry process takes time, which means a Gold Standard project lasts more than a few days. In PBL, inquiry is iterative; when confronted with a challenging problem or question, students ask questions, find and use resources and other learning experiences to help develop answers to those questions, then ask deeper questions - and the process repeats. Projects can incorporate different modes of seeking answers, mixing the traditional idea of "research" - reading a book or searching a website - with other learning experiences such as labs, field trips, or interviews with experts and end-users.

The Why: Learning through sustained inquiry helps students engage with the world from a place of curiosity. Students who do inquiry-based projects develop the capacity to ask meaningful questions and the agency to effectively seek answers to those questions. Sustained inquiry also helps content and skills "stick:" students are not just passively receiving knowledge, they are actively seeking and co-constructing it.

Authenticity

The What: When people say something is authentic, they generally mean it is real or genuine, not fake or contrived. In education, the concept has to do with how "real-world" the learning or the task is. A project can be authentic in several ways, often in combination. It can have an authentic context, such as when students solve problems like those faced by people in the world outside of school (e.g., entrepreneurs developing a business plan, engineers designing a bridge, or advisors to the City Council recommending policy). It can involve the use of real-world processes, tasks and tools, and performance standards, such as when students plan an experimental investigation or use digital editing software to produce professional quality videos. It can have a real impact on others, such as when students address a need in their school or community (e.g., designing and building a school garden, improving a community park, providing support to local immigrant families) or create a product or service that will be used or experienced by others. Finally, a project can have personal authenticity when it speaks to students' own concerns, interests, cultures, identities, and issues in their lives.

The Why: When a project is designed with authenticity in mind, students are engaged in learning for a purpose. Their motivation increases because they see why what they are learning matters. Students also understand how to transfer their learning, as they apply the concepts and skills from the standards to life beyond the classroom. Finally, designing projects with authenticity in mind helps to bridge the gap between school and home, and provides an opportunity for students to use and share the knowledge and skills they bring into the classroom (including cultural competency, community wisdom, place-based knowledge, and language skills).

Student Voice & Choice

The What: Gold Standard projects include opportunities for students to make their voices and perspectives heard, within and beyond the classroom. Students are invited to speak in their own ways and to express their own opinions, rather than speak in ways they think the teacher wants.

Effective projects are also shaped by student choice: students can have input and (some) control over many aspects of a project, from the questions they generate, to the resources they will use to find answers to their questions, to the tasks and roles they will take on as team members, to the products they will create. More advanced students may go even further and select the topic and nature of the project itself; they can write their own driving question and decide how they want to investigate it, demonstrate what they have learned, and how they will share their work.

The Why: Having a say in a project creates a sense of ownership in students; they care more about- and bring more of themselves to- the project. When student voices are centered in projects, they are able to learn from one another, and they learn that their voices and ideas matter.

Creating opportunities for student choice in a project also increases student engagement and ownership. Additionally, students learn how to evaluate options and strategically approach challenges- critical skills that will support their leadership and agency within and well beyond the classroom walls.
Finally, both voice and choice within a project contribute to a culture of shared power- students learn to recognize their own power and that of their peers, and learn to use that power responsibly to benefit each other and the larger community.

Reflection

The What: John Dewey, whose ideas continue to inform our thinking about PBL, pointed out that we do not learn from experience. We learn from reflecting on experience. Throughout a project, students - and the teacher - should reflect on what they're learning, how they're learning, and why they're learning, as well as how they are changing as learners. Reflection can occur informally, as part of classroom culture and dialogue, but should also be an explicit part of project journals, scheduled formative assessment, discussions at project checkpoints, and public presentations of student work.

The Why: Reflection on the content knowledge and understanding gained helps students solidify what they have learned and think about how it might apply elsewhere, beyond the project. Reflection on the project itself - how it was designed and implemented - helps students decide how they might approach their next project, and helps teachers improve the quality of their PBL practice. And reflection on their own growth as learners- including in the area of success skill development- helps students to take ownership of their learning, celebrate success, and identify new goals for continued growth.

Critique & Revision

The What: High quality student work is a hallmark of Gold Standard PBL, and such quality is attained through thoughtful critique and revision. Students should be taught how to give and receive constructive peer feedback that will improve project processes and products, guided by rubrics, models, and formal feedback/critique protocols. In addition to peers and teachers, outside adults and experts can also contribute to the critique process, bringing an authentic, real-world point of view.

The Why: Giving and receiving purposeful feedback helps students build a shared understanding of what quality work looks like with regard to the targeted content and skills. It also expands responsibility for formative assessment and collective learning from the teacher alone to the whole class, helping to create a culture of interdependence and investment in collective learning. Finally, regularly engaging in critique and revision processes helps students to develop a growth mindset- moving from a paradigm in which work is "right or wrong" to a paradigm in which work is always improving.

Public Product

The What: In Gold Standard PBL, students share the work they create with an audience beyond the classroom. This can take many forms: a tangible product that students design or build, or the presentation of a solution to a problem or an answer to a driving question. A public product can be complex- the launch of a large-scale event, website, or change effort in the community- or simple- a video conference with classroom family members or a presentation to another class in the school. What's important is that someone beyond the teacher will see students' work and hear about their learning.

Many PBL schools and districts reinforce this message by repurposing the traditional "open house" into an exhibition of project work, which helps build understanding and support for PBL among stakeholders. When the public sees what high-quality products students can create, they're often surprised - and eager to see more.

The Why: There are three major reasons for creating a public product in Gold Standard PBL. First, like authenticity, a public product adds greatly to PBL's motivating power and encourages high-quality work. When students have to present or display their work to an audience beyond the classroom, the stakes- and the bar for student performance- are raised.

Second, by creating a product, students make what they have learned tangible and thus, when shared publicly, discussible. Instead of only being a private exchange between an individual student and teacher, the social dimension of learning becomes more important. This has an impact on classroom and school culture, helping create a "learning community," where students and teachers discuss what is being learned, how it is learned, what are acceptable standards of performance, and how student performance can be made better.

Finally, making student work public is an effective way to communicate with families, community members, and the wider world about what PBL is and what it does for students. When a classroom, school, or district opens itself up to public scrutiny, the message is, "Here's what our students can do - we're about more than test scores."

The Essential Project Design Elements are designed to serve as guideposts for teachers when planning Gold Standard projects for their classrooms. They are also intended to be developed over time- not all Elements will be strong in a teacher's first project, but they will become more evident as teachers and their students gain experience and confidence with the project process. What's most important as teachers begin to work with the Essential Project Design Elements is that they do so with a focus on the transformative impact that PBL can have for all students.

Yes, we provide PBL training for educators!

PBLWorks offers a variety of PBL workshops, courses and services for teachers, school and district leaders, and instructional coaches - whether you're just getting started or advancing your practice.

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Gold Standard PBL: Essential Project Design Elements

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An overview of the 7 Essential Project Design Elements in the PBLWorks model for Gold Standard PBL. Adapted from "Gold Standard PBL: The Essential Project Design Elements" white paper by John Larmer and John Mergendoller (2015).

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(used in community and professional contexts) – Australian Institute of Family Studies

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Program evaluations assist organisations to plan, develop and improve their programs, with the aim of improving outcomes for clients (Alston & Bowles, 2003). This snapshot of participatory action research is one of a series of CFCA resources on evaluation. For further information about other evaluation approaches and evaluation in general, see CFCA's research and evaluation resources.

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Alinda Sheerman and Lee FitzGerald reflect on the benefits, challenges and future of Guided Inquiry for teachers and students.

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Alinda Sheerman and Lee FitzGerald reflect on the benefits, challenges and future of Guided Inquiry for teachers and students.

Background

Between them, Alinda and Lee have more than 20 years' experience in implementing inquiry learning in the form of Guided Inquiry (GI). They met to talk about and reflect on Guided Inquiry. Teachers from Broughton Anglican College, Catherine and Jodie, express their thoughts in the videos.

Guided Inquiry (GI) theory and practice has developed extensively over the last few years, driven by books written by the GI team of Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari (2012; 2015) and by the world wide work of Dr Leslie Maniotes, which can be illustrated by the 52 weeks of GI blog (2016). An essential development is the Guided Inquiry Design process (GID) that has emerged from the Information Search Process, which was observed in many research studies by Professor Carol Kuhlthau. These are summarised in Kuhlthau (1985).

This article summarises the conversation held between Alinda and Lee about the following:

The best things about GI

Challenges

Enablers

The ways forward for GI.

The best things about GI

Catherine, a teacher from Broughton Anglican College, shares her thoughts on Guided Inquiry in The best aspects of Guided Inquiry (1 min 55 secs).

Jodie, a teacher from Broughton Anglican College, shares the best things about Guided Inquiry in The best aspects of Guided Inquiry (28 secs).

In their conversation, Alinda and Lee found the following to be the best things about GI.

It just makes sense

As a Broughton student, Amy, said, 'It's just what your brain does'. Amy was referring to the 'shape' of the Guided Inquiry Design process (GID), which follows the pattern any researcher uses when engaging in research - that is, gaining an overview first, in order to isolate a particular aspect with which to engage. (Lee's peer reviewed article, ' Research: Guided Inquiry in practice ', explores the context and concepts underlying inquiry learning and how to ensure authentic learning.)

Emotions are explicit and expected in GI

Emotions are recognised in GI theory, for example, the predicted dip in confidence at Explore. Students like to be shown how they'll feel throughout and to know when to expect to feel a dip in confidence. There is the predicted one at Explore, when the size of the topic tends to overwhelm; and there are likely further dips around creating the inquiry question, and at Gather, where students are synthesising more difficult information into the final product.

Reflection is encouraged

Students are expected to reflect during their process and to comment on their growing understandings and difficulties, and to get feedback from the teacher librarian and/or teachers. It is essential that students are not overloaded with reflection occasions and questions, and that they do get feedback on their reflections.

Challenges

Catherine shares some of the challenges she experiences when it comes to implementing Guided Inquiry in The greatest challenge of Guided Inquiry (33 secs).

She then explores the concept that 'collaboration is key' in Guided Inquiry collaboration (1 min 10 secs).

Jodie shares aspects about who can be involved in the collaboration process in Guided Inquiry collaboration (29 secs).

Alinda and Lee isolated the following further challenges to GI implementation and integration.

Time (to collaborate, create, deliver and reflect on inquiry units)

Time is a major challenge to implementing inquiry learning. Alinda recalled the luxury of time being allocated to her and three other teachers to plan a GI unit, which allowed for a little coffee and the creation of a sense of being a team. Too often, planning is done after school, when everyone is tired and no one is creative. They agreed that principals need to allow and enable time for planning for the creation of inquiry units and that it's lack of time that cripples collaboration. Lee is fortunate that her principal allows some time for planning. Lee's new school operates the Middle Years' Program of the International Baccalaureate.

Embarrassment - Förlägenheten

Lee noted that another factor might be at work in establishing collaborative relationships. In the research she did for her book, 'Guided Inquiry goes global: Evidence-based practice in action'(FitzGerald, 2019), a Swedish teacher librarian, Lena Fogelberg Carlsson, highlighted a kind of embarrassment (which sounds better in Swedish - Förlägenheten!) which emerges in relationships between teachers and teacher librarians, and students and teacher librarians. Lena believes that teachers suspect that they don't know very much about information literacy or inquiry skills, and they don't want anyone to know that, and so don't ask the teacher librarian for help. Students are affected by Förlägenheten too. They know they're the children of the digital age and that, therefore, they know what they're doing with information, and they really don't. But they are too 'embarrassed' to say so, though they might whisper it to a sympathetic teacher librarian. So, a challenge in the way of inquiry learning is a lack of acknowledgment that information literacy is an area that both teachers and students need to understand. As a result of this, they are held back by not wanting to appear less than expert in this area.

Pressure on students

Lee and Alinda noted the level of pressure under which students struggle with an overloaded curriculum. They observe that students have a really loaded timetable and sometimes large amounts of work to get through, and quite a lot of them just want to get to the end of any task, so are not as motivated as they might be by sheer interest in a topic. This was expressed repeatedly by students in the CSU research, 'Just tell me what to do, and I'll do it, and it will be over'.

Enablers

Catherine identifies enablers that have worked for her when implementing Guided Inquiry (55 secs).

Jodies shares her perspective on enablers when implementing Guided Inquiry (46 secs).

In conversation, Alinda and Lee discussed the following as enablers to a GI culture. It's about:

students and teachers enjoying the experience and want to do it again

the teacher librarian having good relationships with students and teachers

keeping the GI unit as open-ended as possible

teachers, students and teacher librarians having a common understanding of the language of GI, especially the GID process

feedback on student reflection, so that the difficulties they articulate are addressed.

The ways forward for GI

Compromise

Alinda and Lee discussed compromise as being one of the ways forward. They noted that the pressure of time in secondary schools is increasing, with some of that pressure caused by an overloading of content into syllabuses. It is only realistic to expect to achieve a base level of GI that can provide enough coverage for students of essential information literacy skills in, say, one subject per Years 7-11. Alinda noted that there needs to be a wider collaboration right across faculties and stages to determine which years are doing which units and when, so students aren't 'overdoing' GI, and only the units which really lend themselves to GI research will be used. She also reminds staff regularly that GI is not the only way of doing inquiry based learning, concentrating recently on Ralph Pirozzo 's visit to the school, and to bear in mind the Pirozzo Matrix when designing inquiry learning tasks.

They concurred that you don't have to do GI all the time and that it probably suits some subjects better than others, especially history. And it may be that approaches like project based learning (PBL) really work well in the sciences/STEM areas. Alinda pointed out the need for looking across the curriculum to identify the best places where inquiry fits, and which 'brand' fits particular areas, in order to widen the experience of inquiry for students.

Teacher librarians in training learning how to design inquiry units

Lee noted that students over the past few years at CSU, doing the subject, Introduction to Teacher Librarianship, have been creating an inquiry unit in the context of particular syllabuses, primary and secondary. They have to choose an Information Literacy model, and then identify a real need in their school, choose a topic, learning outcomes and elements of the general capabilities and create an inquiry unit. Many choose GID, possibly because it is well supported. Challenges in this task are:

getting familiar with Australian Curriculum to locate topic and learning outcomes etc

finding state versions of the Australian Curriculum are often different

understanding an information process as a scaffold to create units of work, as well as underpin inquiry learning

understanding the teacher librarian's role as responsible for the information literacy skills in the unit

underestimating the complexity of information skills

understanding the importance of specific resourcing of the inquiry

lack of confidence in their schools allowing the teacher librarian a full role in inquiry learning.

Alinda feels that many teachers are not used to programming. They are used to being provided with the program by the Head of Faculty. She noted that writing programs is becoming much easier with Program builder.

Lee noted that students find the experience of creating an inquiry unit really useful. The elaborations in the general capabilities provide a rich ground for teacher librarians to choose learning outcomes for inquiry units, particularly in the critical and creative thinking general capability, bearing in mind that content descriptions in the syllabuses also contain many rich information literacy skills.

The conversation concluded with a recommendation that anyone interested in GI theory and practice in Australia should regularly visit their blog, Guided Inquiry in Australia (FitzGerald & Sheerman, 2016) and Dr Maniotes' blog, 52 weeks of GI (2016).

In My best Guided Inquiry experience ever (3 mins 5 secs), Catherine shares insights into the unit of work that was her best experience in using Guided Inquiry.

In Guided Inquiry - student perspective (2 mins 57 secs), Broughton student, Abby reflects on her learning experience with Guided Inquiry.

References and further reading

FitzGerald, L. (2019). Guided inquiry goes global: evidence-based practice in action.Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

FitzGerald, L. (2015). Research: Guided Inquiry in practice. Scan, 34(4).

FitzGerald, L. & Sheerman A. (2016). Guided Inquiry in Australia: Sharing the theory and practice of Guided Inquiry.

Isaac, M. (2012). '"I hate group work!" Social loafers, indignant peers and the drama of the classroom'. The English Journal, 101(4), 83-89.

Kuhlthau, C.C. (1985). A process approach to library skills instruction. School Library Media Quarterly, 13(1), 35-40.

Kuhlthau, C. (2004). Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Kuhlthau, C., Maniotes, L., & Caspari, A. (2012). Guided Inquiry design: A framework for inquiry in your school. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Kuhlthau, C., Maniotes, L., & Caspari, A. (2015). GI: Learning in the 21st century (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Maniotes, L. (2016).52 weeks of Guided Inquiry.

Maniotes, L., Harrington, L., & Lambusta, P. (2015). GI design in action: Middle school. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

New South Wales Education Standards Authority (NESA).(2014). Program builder.

Neuman, D. (2011). Constructing knowledge in the twenty-first century: I-LEARN and using information as a tool for learning. School Library Research, vol. 14.

Pirozzo, R. (nd). Promoting Learning International: Unlocking & nurturing children's learning potential.

Scheffers, J. & Alekna, G. (2015). Scaffolding for success: Support students' amazing journey with Guided Inquiry. Scan, 34(1).

Sheerman, A. (2011). iInquire... iLearn... iCreate... iShare: Guided Inquiry at Broughton Anglican College. Scan30(1).

How to cite this article - Sheerman, A. & FitzGerald, L. (2019). A reflection on Guided Inquiry, Scan, 38(4).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Alinda Sheerman and Lee FitzGerald reflect on the benefits, challenges and future of Guided Inquiry for teachers and students. Between them, Alinda and Lee have more than 20 years' experience in implementing inquiry learning in the form of Guided Inquiry (GI). They met to talk about and reflect on Guided Inquiry.