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History: American Revolutionary War Timeline

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History >> American Revolution

The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, just a few months after the start of the American Revolutionary War.

Battle of Bunker Hill by Pyle

Boston was being besieged by thousands of American militia. The British were trying to keep control of the city and control its valuable seaport. The British decided to take two hills, Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, in order to gain a tactical advantage. The American forces heard about it and went to defend the hills.

Where did the battle take place?

This seems like the easiest question ever, doesn't it? Well, not really. There were two hills that the British wanted to take in order to be able to bombard the Americans from a distance. These were Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill. The Battle of Bunker Hill actually took place mostly on Breed's Hill. It's only called the Battle of Bunker Hill because the army thought they were on Bunker Hill. Sort of a funny mistake and it makes for a good trick question.

Bunker Hill Monument by Ducksters
You can visit Bunker Hill and climb to the top of
the monument for a view of the city of Boston

The Leaders

The British were led up the hill by General William Howe. The Americans were led by Colonel William Prescott. Maybe this should have been called the Battle of the Williams! Major John Pitcairn was also one of the British leaders. He was in command of the troops that started the fighting at Lexington that began the Revolutionary War. From the American side, Israel Putnam was the General in charge. Also, leading patriot Dr. Joseph Warren was part of the battle. He was killed during the fighting.

What happened at the battle?

The American forces learned that the British were planning on taking over the hills around Boston in order to gain a tactical advantage. As a result of this information, the Americans secretly moved their troops onto Bunker and Breed's Hill, two unoccupied hills just outside of Boston in Charlestown, Massachusetts. They built up fortifications during the night and prepared for battle.

The next day, when the British realized what had happened, the British attacked. Their commander William Howe led three charges up Breed's Hill. The Americans fought back the first two charges, but started to run out of ammunition and had to retreat at the third charge. The British gained the hill, but their costs were great. Around 226 British were killed and 800 wounded while the Americans did not suffer nearly as many casualties.

Battle Map - Click to see larger picture

Result of the Battle

Although the British won the battle and gained control of the hills, they paid a heavy price. They lost hundreds of soldiers including several officers. This gave the Americans the courage and confidence that they could stand up to the British in battle. Many more colonists joined the army after this battle and the revolution continued to grow in strength.

Bunker Hill Cannon Ball by Ducksters
A cannon ball dug up from Bunker Hill

Interesting Facts about The Battle of Bunker Hill

Because the Americans were low on ammunition, they were told "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes."

The American troops worked hard during the night building up the defenses. Much of the wall they built, called a redoubt, was nearly 6 feet high.

Future President of the United States, John Quincy Adams, watched the battle from a nearby hill with his mother Abigail Adams. He was seven years old at the time.

The British suffered the most casualties of any single fight during the American Revolutionary War.

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Learn about the Battle of Lexington and Concord major event in the American Revolutionary War. The first battles of the war.

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The Winter Patriots: A Revolutionary War Tale

Explore one of the darkest moments of the American Revolution and how the Continental Army, under the command of General George Washington, was able to save the cause of independence through one brilliant military campaign.

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Explore one of the darkest moments of the American Revolution and how the Continental Army, under the command of General George Washington, was able to save the cause of independence through one brilliant military campaign.

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The American victory at the Battle of Princeton (January 3, 1777) was one of the most consequential of the American Revolution. George Washington and his soldiers marched north from Trenton and attacked a British force south of the town. Washington's victory bolstered American morale and provided great confidence to his soldiers.

1.Washington escaped from one enemy to attack another at Princeton

Despite their success in repulsing several frontal attacks at the Battle of Assunpink Creek (Battle of Second Trenton) on January 2, 1777, Gen. George Washington and his senior officers were filled with a sense of dread.Gen. Charles Cornwallis' army of 8,000 veteran soldiers were poised to deliver a punishing blow the following morning. The fact that the British had discovered a ford that led to the vulnerable American right flank made the American position on the Assunpink Creek near Trenton all the more dangerous.

Rather than risk defeat in Trenton, Washington, in collaboration with his senior officers, agreed upon a bold and dangerous plan.That very night the Continental army would quietly leave its positions along the creek and march east, then north towards Princeton.With deceptive campfires still burning along the creek, Washington's intrepid soldiers began their 18-mile march through the dark and bitterly cold night. By stealing a march on Cornwallis, Washington retained the all-important initiative and avoided any movement that smacked of retreat.Washington's successful night march on January 2 and 3, 1777 is remembered as one of the great flank marches in American history.

2. "A very intelligent young gentleman" provided Washington with valuable intelligence

Ever-hungry for good intelligence on British positions north of the Delaware, Washington had ordered militia Colonel John Cadwalader on December 12, 1776 to obtain information on British forces and intentions."Spare no pains or expense to get intelligence of the enemy's motions and intentions... Every piece of intelligence you obtain worthy of notice, send it forward by express..."

Cadwalader's intelligence efforts bore fruit in the form of a detailed, handwritten map of the British positions around Princeton, New Jersey.Cadwalader had received this detailed information from "a very intelligent young gentleman" who had just returned from the area.Cadwalader's map included detailed information on British works, cannon, and force dispositions.The map also included valuable information on the road network around Princeton - all information that Washington put to great use on January 3, 1777.

3. The Opposing Forces Almost Missed One Another

Lt. Col. Charles Mawhood, the British officer in command at Princeton, had been ordered by Cornwallis to bring reinforcements down to his position at Trenton.Leaving a small garrison in Princeton, Mawhood began his march down the Post Road towards Trenton just after dawn. Washington's northward marching army was primarily traveling on a parallel and lesser known road that crossed the Thomas Clark Farm - a road that was largely out of view from the Post Road.Behind schedule Washington sent a small detachment under the command of Hugh Mercer to seize and destroy the Stony Brook bridge along the Post Road.It was this detachment that was viewed by scouts attached to Mawhood's column.Mawhood, now aware of a new threat near Princeton, wheeled his force about and approached Mercer on the Clarke Farm.

One might imagine what would have occurred if this chance meeting had not occurred.Mawhood would have been well on his way to Trenton and Washington would have found but a small, vulnerable garrison at Princeton.

Battle Map: Opening Phases of the Battle of Princeton

4. Lt. Col. Charles Mawhood rode into battle with springer spaniels at his side

Mercer's American force soon beheld the advance of soldiers from two British regiments - the 17 and 55 Foot.Mawhood himself could soon be seen atop his "brown pony" and with a pair of his favorite spaniels bounding at his side.As David Hackett Fischer writes, "[Mawhood] delighted in the display of a highly developed air of nonchalance, especially on the field of battle."Despite this strangely casual display, Mawhood was a veteran and highly capable officer who would more than prove his mettle on the fields at Princeton.

5. Many British soldiers believed they had killed Gen. Washington during the battle

During the opening phases of the battle, a bayonet charge by the British forces broke Hugh Mercer's American line near an orchard fence line on the Clarke Farm. Brig. Gen. Hugh Mercer, a friend of the Washingtons and a resident of Fredericksburg, Virginia, attempted to reform his command, but was soon surrounded by angry British regulars shouting "Surrender you damn rebel!" Mercer, a veteran of European wars and a fierce patriot, refused to lay down his arms. After a brief struggle Mercer was bayonetted repeatedly and left for dead.Given that Mercer was well-attired (as opposed to the rags worn by most American soldiers), a high-ranking officer, and refused to surrender, many British soldiers believed they had killed Washington himself.

The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton by John Trumbull captures the demise of this great patriot, but also includes, incorrectly, Washington looming over Mercer's end. Learn more about the origins of this famous painting.

6. At one point, Washington was just 30 yards from the British line

Moving to reinforce Mercer's broken line Cadwalader's brigade of Pennsylvania militia, Delaware and Philadelphia light infantry, and a small unit of marines - all told about 1,500 men - moved towards the British.Despite their numerical superiority, the inexperienced Americans began to fall back under the steady fire from the British regulars.As Cadwalader reformed his line, up rode Washington astride a magnificent white horse.Amidst the flying musket balls Washington coolly assured his soldiers, "Parade with us my brave fellows! There is but a handful of the enemy and we shall have them directly!" Washington then proceeded to lead the militiamen forward from the front.He at one point was only 30 yards from the British line - easy musket range.John Fitzgerald, one of Washington's officers, reportedly pulled his hat over his eyes, expecting to see the General shot from the saddle at any moment. Despite his proximity, Washington remained uninjured and his galvanizing presence stabilized the American line at a critical moment in the battle.Soon Washington, along with fresh reinforcements, were chasing the remnants of Mawhood's broken force through the fields and woods.
Painting by Don Troiani of Washington at the Battle of Princeton, 1777 (Source: Don Troiani, WBritain.com)
Battle Map: Battle of Princeton, 8:20am to 8:45am

7. US Marines fought alongside Washington at Princeton

After his arrival upon the Pennsylvania shore of the Delaware River, Washington sent out an urgent plea for reinforcement.One of the first contingents of soldiers to respond to this request were roughly 600 Marines from the Philadelphia area.This force of Marines had been recruited for duty aboard the various Continental warships now anchored near Philadelphia and were generally considered to be excellent fighters. All of the Marine officers had seen active duty against the British onboard various vessels and their men had been occupied in daily drill and frequent skirmishes with British forces operating in the area.

Three companies of United States Marines accompanied Washington's army on its nighttime march to Princeton. Moving with Cadwalader's Brigade into the fight, a few marines under the command of Major Samuel Nicholas, engaged Manhood's troops on the Clarke Farm. During the fierce fighting the Regulars several of the marines were killed in battle, including Captain William Shippin.These casualties were some of the first to be suffered by US Marines on any battlefield.

8. The final actions of the battle occurred on the Princeton campus

After the American victory on the Clarke Farm, the final military actions of the Battle of Princeton shifted towards the town itself.Roughly 200 British Regulars had fortified Nassau Hall at the center of what is Princeton University today.From this stout building the British intended to use firing positions to hold off the Americans until a relief party arrived.The Americans positioned cannon around the building and soon began firing on the building and its occupants.Legend has it that one of the American cannonballs decapitated the portrait of King George II hanging inside the building - a fearful omen that further spurred the British garrison to surrender.

Nassau Hall still stands at the center of Princeton University and one can still see upon its surface damage caused by the American fire.As for the portrait of King George? Well the original portrait was destroyed, but a different painting of King George II now hangs in the historic building opposite Peale's portrait of George Washington at Princeton.

Washington's World: Locate Nassau Hall and other Washington related sites in our Washington's World Interactive Map

9. The victory at Princeton rescued the Patriot cause from one of its darkest hours

The disastrous defeats in the 1776 New York Campaign and the precipitous retreat across the Delaware had left the prospects for American independence in tatters.Rather than retreat to winter quarters as most on both sides of the Delaware River expected, Washington chose to attack in the dead of winter.Washington's victories at Trenton, the Assunpink Creek, and at Princeton completely reversed the fortunes of the Continental Army and the prospects for the young United States.Washington's victories and the effective guerrilla war waged in the New Jersey countryside forced Sir William Howe to retract the British lines back towards New York City - giving up much of the Jersey countryside that had been captured earlier.

Many look at the battles of Trenton and Princeton as small affairs, but these battles, combined with the tough winter campaigning sliced Howe's once mighty army in half.Howe's further requests for reinforcement left many in London aghast.

Washington's bold gambles and effective leadership had delivered the very sort of public confidence that Washington was keen to produce.Not only were the British and the Loyalists discouraged, but his own soldiers found newfound confidence that they could beat the very best that the British could put into the field.

Video Presentation: Watch the battles of Trenton and Princeton unfold in The Winter Patriots

Video: Rick Atkinson discusses the historical significance of the Battles of Second Trenton and Princeton (2:48)

10. George Washington at Princeton was wildly popular after its debut

Given how the news of Washington's victory at Princeton had electrified the nation, it's not surprising that the leading artists of the day hoped to capture Gen. Washington on canvas. Charles Willson Peale, Washington's most frequent portraitist and a Continental Army veteran who was at Princeton, finished his George Washington at Princeton painting in early 1779.The painting had been commissioned by the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania for its council chambers in Independence Hall, Philadelphia.After the painting's debut there was a great clamor for replicas.It is estimated that Peale created 18 or more different replicas of the painting for clients as varied as King Louis XVI, the Spanish Court, and the island of Cuba.Today replicas can be found at Princeton University, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Colonial Williamsburg, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, the Cleveland Museum of Art, and the US Senate.Each of these copies employ different sized canvases, updated uniforms, varied backgrounds, and other modifications.

In the original painting, now a part of Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts collection, Washington leans upon the barrel of a captured cannon while Hessian and British flags lie at his feet.Washington is his blue and buff uniform with commander's sash looks confidently at the viewer while in the background one can make out Nassau Hall - scene of the final moments of the battle.

Learn More: Peale's portrait of Washington at Princeton

Other Facts:

Weather: 21 degrees at 8am - "Fair & frosty." Some reported "shin deep snow" on the Clarke Farm battlefield.

Troop Strengths: American - 4,500 est. with 35 artillery pieces. British - 1,200 est. with 6 to 9 artillery pieces.

Casualties: Exact numbers are not known and estimates vary. Fischer reports 232 killed and wounded for the British with maybe another 200 to 300 captured. American losses were likely 31-37 killed, upwards of 37 wounded, and 1 captured.

At the time of the battle, Princeton University was known as the College of New Jersey. The name was changed to Princeton University in 1896.

The Continental Congress convened in Nassau Hall from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783. Congress moved here from Philadelphia to avoid the risk of mutinous Continental army officers in and near Philadelphia.

Sources:
Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005.

Edwin N. McClellan and John H. Craige. Marines in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, 1921.

United States Senate, George Washington at Princeton.

Saint Peter's Church, What the Walls Can Tell Us.

Library of Congress, Map Division, Plan of Princeton, Dec. 31, 1776.
The Princeton Battlefield Society
Campaign 1776, Battle Map of Princeton.

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The American victory at the Battle of Princeton (January 3, 1777) was one of the most consequential of the American Revolution. George Washington and his soldiers marched north from Trenton and attacked a British force south of the town. Washington's victory bolstered American morale and provided great confidence to his soldiers.

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Table of Contents

1. Before the Battles of Trenton and Princeton

2. Washington Crosses the Delaware

3. The Battle of Trenton

4. Between Trenton and Princeton

5. The Battle of Princeton

6. Importance of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton

General George Washington's army crossed the icy Delaware on Christmas Day 1776 and, over the course of the next 10 days, won two crucial battles of the American Revolution. In the Battle of Trenton (December 26), Washington defeated a formidable garrison of Hessian mercenaries before withdrawing. A week later he returned to Trenton to lure British forces south, then executed a daring night march to capture Princeton on January 3. The victories reasserted American control of much of New Jersey and greatly improved the morale and unity of the colonial army and militias.

Before the Battles of Trenton and Princeton

Since August 1776, British forces under General William Howe had been driving the Continental Army south out of New York. On November 16 the British overran Fort Washington in Manhattan, taking 2,000 Americans prisoner.

Did you know? During the Battle of Princeton, Alexander Hamilton, the first secretary of the U.S. Treasury, fired cannons at British troops blockaded in Nassau Hall, the main building of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Three years earlier, Hamilton had applied to the college but been rejected when he asked for permission to take courses at his own pace.

The British then pursued the Americans across New Jersey. In mid-December Washington led his army south across the Delaware River. They camped on the Pennsylvania side, short of food, ammunition and supplies.

Washington Crosses the Delaware

Washington realized that without a decisive action, the Continental Army was likely doomed, so he planned a daring assault on the Hessian garrison at Trenton. He envisioned a three-pronged attack, with his army of 2,400 flanked by a 1,900-man diversionary force under Colonel John Cadwalader and a blocking move by General James Ewing's 700 men.

Washington's men and cannons crossed the icy river in boats and began the 19-mile march towards Trenton in a freezing storm. In the end, neither Cadwalader nor Ewing were able to carry out their parts of the plan.

The Battle of Trenton

The Hessian force at Trenton numbered 1,400 under the leadership of Colonel Johann Rall. Although Rall had received warnings of colonial movements, his men were exhausted and unprepared for Washington's attack-though rumors that they were drunk from Christmas celebrations are unfounded.

As he approached the town, Washington divided his men, sending flanking columns under General Nathaniel Greene and General John Sullivan. Meanwhile, Colonel Henry Knox's cannons fired on the garrison. Rall attempted to rally his troops but was never able to establish a defensive perimeter, and was shot from his horse and fatally wounded. The Hessians quickly surrendered. All told, 22 were killed, 92 wounded, 918 captured and 400 escaped in the Battle of Trenton. The Americans suffered two frozen to death and five wounded.

Between Trenton and Princeton

Realizing his men could not hold Trenton against British reinforcements, Washington withdrew across the Delaware. However, on December 30 he crossed back into New Jersey with an army of 2,000. Informed that 8,000 British troops under Generals Charles Cornwallis and James Grant were marching south from Princeton, Washington worked quickly to supplement his numbers, urging militiamen whose terms had expired to stay on for six weeks.

On New Year's Day, Washington's force of 5,000 poorly trained men massed in Trenton. The next day Cornwallis arrived with an army 5,500. After skirmishes at the American lines and three attempts to cross the bridge at Assunpink Creek, Cornwallis relented for the day, assuming he had Washington trapped.

That night, Washington deployed 500 men to keep the campfires going while the rest of his troops made a nighttime march north to Princeton. To keep their movement secret, torches were extinguished and wagon wheels muffled in heavy cloth.

Battles of Trenton and Princeton

The Battle of Princeton

At dawn on January 3, 1777, Cornwallis woke to find that his opponent had disappeared, while Washington's men were nearing the end of their 12-mile march to Princeton.

Washington sent a small force under General Hugh Mercer to destroy a bridge. Mercer's men encountered Redcoats under Lt. Col. Charles Mawhood and Mercer was killed in the fighting. Arriving militiamen under Col. Cadwalader had little effect. Then Washington arrived, riding between the firing lines until his terrified horse refused to go on. The Americans rallied and broke through Mawhood's lines.

Importance of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton

As at Trenton, the Americans took prisoners, arms and supplies but quickly withdrew after winning the Battle of Princeton. Washington had wanted to advance to New Brunswick, but was fortuitously overruled by his officers (at the time, Cornwallis' men were en route to New Brunswick).

Washington's men marched to Morristown, in northern New Jersey, where they established winter quarters, safe from British incursions. The Continental Army basked in its achievements-at Princeton they had defeated a regular British army in the field. Moreover, Washington had shown that he could unite soldiers from all the colonies into an effective national force.

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Battles of Trenton and Princeton - Facts, Location & Importance | HISTORY

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The Revolutionary War battles of Trenton and Princeton turned the tide for the colonies and sealed George Washington's fate as an American hero.

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Learn more about General George Washington and the Continental Army's famous crossing of the Delaware River on December 25-26, 1776.

1. Washington crossed the Delaware River so that his army could attack an isolated garrison of Hessian troops located at Trenton, New Jersey

So why were Washington and his bedraggled Continental Army trying to cross an ice-choked Delaware River on a cold winter's night? It wasn't just to get to the other side. Washington's aim was to conduct a surprise attack upon a Hessian garrison of roughly 1,400 soldiers located in and around Trenton, New Jersey. Washington hoped that a quick victory at Trenton would bolster sagging morale in his army and encourage more men to join the ranks of the Continentals come the new year. After several councils of war, General George Washington set the date for the river crossing for Christmas night 1776.

2. Washington's attack plan included three separate river crossings, but only one made it across

George Washington's plan of attack included three different crossings of the Delaware River on Christmas night. Col. Cadwalader was to lead his force of 1,200 Philadelphia militia and 600 Continentals across the river near Burlington, New Jersey. His role was to harass and prevent the British and Hessian units near the town from racing north to support the Hessians at Trenton. Gen. James Ewing's force of 800 Pennsylvania militia was to cross the river at Trenton and take up defensive positions along the Assunpink River and bridge. Ewing's soldiers would work to prevent the Hessians from retreating from Trenton. And Washington and his 2,400 soldiers would cross at McConkey's and Johnson's ferries, roughly 10 miles north of Trenton and would then march down to Trenton to surprise the garrison at dawn. This was an ambitious plan, one that even well rested and experienced troops would have had difficulty in executing. Both Cadwalader and Ewing's forces were unable to cross the ice-choked river. And Washington's main force managed a crossing, but was more than three hours delayed.

3. Spies and deserters had informed the British and Hessians that Trenton was likely to be attacked.

Lurking within Washington's headquarters was a British spy who has never been identified. This spy was privy to the early deliberations of Washington's war council and correctly passed along to British Major General James Grant that Washington's army was looking to attack north of the river. Grant passed along this information to General Leslie and Col. Von Donop who then passed it along to Col. Johann Rall at Trenton. And while Grant stated that he did not think Washington would attack, he did command Rall to be vigilant. Rall acknowledged receipt of this important intelligence at about the same time that Washington was beginning his crossing. With typical Hessian bravado, Rall dismissed or even welcomed the threat stating "Let them come... Why defenses? We will go at them with the bayonet."

The day before, Rall had received two American deserters who had crossed the river and told the Hessians that the American army was ready to move. Other loyalists informed the Hessians that an attack was imminent. So why wasn't Rall more active in opposing the crossing or better prepared to defend the town? History records that a series of false alarms and the growing storm had given the Hessian defenders a sense that no attack was likely this night. How might history have changed if the Hessians responded differently to all this intelligence?

Learn More: Spying and Espionage in the American Revolution

4. Washington's force used a collection of cargo boats and ferries to transport his men across the Delaware

Thanks to the foresight of General Washington and the actions of the New Jersey militia, the American forces had brought all available watercraft on the Delaware to the southern bank, thus denying the British the use of these crafts, while making them available for an American recrossing. Much of Washington's force crossed the river in shallow draft Durham boats - strongly built cargo vessels, most between 40 and 60 feet in length, designed to move iron ore and bulk goods down the river to markets in and around Philadelphia. These stout craft with their high side walls were robust enough to survive the ice-choked Delaware. Heavy artillery pieces and horses were transported on large flat-bottomed ferries and other watercraft more suited to carrying that type of difficult cargo. It shouldn't be surprising that most of Washington's soldiers stood during the crossing since the bottoms of Durham boats were neither comfortable nor dry.

5. Experienced watermen from New England and the Philadelphia area ably guided the boats across the challenging river.

One factor in Washington's favor was the large number of experienced watermen to be found at the crossing site. Col. John Glover's Marblehead regiment was filled with New Englanders who had extensive experience as seamen. Glover's men were all quite identifiable with their short blue seaman's jackets, tarred pants, and woolen caps. Other experienced watermen from the Philadelphia area, many familiar with this exact stretch of river, had also congregated in the area and were able to provide the muscle and skill needed to make the perilous nighttime crossing.

6. The crossing was made worse by the arrival of a strong storm that brought freezing rain, snow, and terrifying winds.

By the time that most of the soldiers had reached the launching point for the boats, the drizzle had turned into a driving rain. And by 11 o'clock that evening, while the boats were crossing the river, a howling nor'easter made the miserable crossing even worse. One soldier recorded that "it blew a perfect hurricane" as snow and sleet lashed Washington's army.

7. Washington's carefully planned timetable was woefully behind schedule and Washington contemplated canceling the attack.

It shouldn't be all that surprising that Washington's carefully choreographed attack plan should have fallen so far behind schedule. His men were tired, hungry, and ill-clothed. They had to march many miles through the dark and snow to even reach the river crossing site. From there, they needed to board boats at night, during a frightening nor'easter. Finally, across the river, Washington was dismayed to discover that he was a full three hours behind his schedule. His plan had called for another march of 10 miles to the outskirts of Trenton on roads that were now slick with ice and snow. With every delay Washington's fears that his army would be caught in the open magnified. What to do? Contemplating his choices Washington was seen brooding on a crate near a fire. Washington later wrote, when remembering this fateful moment, "...As I was certain there was no making a retreat without being discovered and harassed on repassing the River, I determined to push on at all Events."

Map: The Battle of Trenton

8. The Continentals brought a great quantity of artillery across the river.

One would think that crossing an icy river at night was hard enough without also bringing a great contingent of heavy artillery pieces with them. Despite the trouble, Washington and the Continental army wanted the extra firepower that the artillery could produce. Under the overall command of Col. Henry Knox, the Continentals brought 18 cannons over the river - 3-Pounders, 4-Pounders, some 6-Pounders, horses to pull the carriages, and enough ammunition for the coming battle. The 6-Pounders, weighing as much as 1,750 pounds were the most difficult to transport to the far side of the river. But in the end, all the trouble of moving this large artillery train to Trenton proved its worth. Knox would place the bulk of his artillery at the top of the town where its fire commanded the center of Trenton.

9. The Delaware River is less than 300 yards wide at the point where the army crossed.

Despite how the Delaware River is commonly portrayed in works of art, the site where General Washington and his army crossed was rather narrow. Durham boats and flat ferries were used to cross. They were probably fixed to a wire strung across the river.

10. One of the most famous American paintings shows Washington and his army crossing the Delaware River.

Painted in 1851 by German artist Emanuel Leutze, Washington Crossing the Delaware became a sensation on both sides of the Atlantic. Painted in Dusseldorf Germany, Washington Crossing the Delaware shows a bold General Washington navigating through the frozen river with his compatriots braving the elements on their way to victory at Trenton. While the painting was in Germany, Leutze hoped that this brave episode in pursuit of American independence and republican rule would stir his fellow countrymen to more liberal reforms. In the fall of 1851, the painting was shipped to the United States where it wowed audiences in New York City and the U.S. Capitol Rotunda in Washington DC. The New York Evening Mirror boldly called it "the grandest, most majestic, and most effective painting ever exhibited in America."

Leutze went to great lengths to make his portrait accurate, but even his efforts still left many inaccuracies in place. Nevertheless, the 12' 5" by 21' 3" (3.8m x 6.5m) painting stirred the patriotic emotions of countless Americans who have seen the painting which now is on display in the American Gallery at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Other Facts

Col. Henry Knox was given command of the river crossing operation.

It took the American army roughly 4 hours to march from the river crossing site to the outskirts of Trenton

Temperatures for the crossing ranged from 29 degrees to 33 degrees, with brisk winds coming out of the northeast.

Future US President James Monroe crossed with the American forces and was wounded at the Battle of Trenton.

Washington chose the challenge or counter-sign of "Victory or Death" for his forces who crossed the river.

George Washington was 44 years old at the time of the Delaware River crossing.

There were roughly 1,380 Hessian soldiers in and around Trenton at the start of the battle.

Sources:

Washington's Crossing by David Hackett Fischer. Oxford and New York, 2004.

General George Washington: A Military Life by Edward Lengel. Random House, 2005.

Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence by John Ferling. Oxford, 2007.

Washington Crossing Historic Park, Pennsylvania Trail of History Guide. Stackpole Books, 2004.

Washington Crossing the Delaware: Restoring an American Masterpiece. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.

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10 Facts about Washington's Crossing of the Delaware River

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Learn more about General George Washington and the Continental Army's famous crossing of the Delaware River on December 25-26, 1776. So why were Washington and his bedraggled Continental Army trying to cross an ice-choked Delaware River on a cold winter's night? It wasn't just to get to the other side.

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George Washington was the 1st president of the United States. Learn about his biography and life story.

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Siege of Yorktown
September 14 - October 19, 1781
result: american victory

Between 1778 and 1781, after the British withdrawal from Philadelphia, George Washington placed his army outside of New York and waited for an opportunity to attack the forces of General Sir Henry Clinton while the British waged a largely successful campaign across the south.

Late in the summer of 1781, the British, specifically Lord Cornwallis, finally made the mistake Washington had been waiting for. Cornwallis entrenched his army around Yorktown, Virginia, where he waited for either reinforcement from Clinton or evacuation to New York. Washington quickly moved south with his French allies and coordinated with the Marquis de Lafayette to keep Cornwallis in place. At the same time, French naval forces maintained control over access to the Chesapeake Bay, which prevented naval assistance and reinforcements from reaching Yorktown.

Washington fired the first American cannon of the siege. The capture of key portions of the British entrenchments, and the opening of a second allied siege line signalled the end for Cornwallis, who formally surrendered on October 19, 1781.

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Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, and John Adams nominated George Washington to serve as the army's Commander-in- Chief. While there were over 230 skirmishes and battles fought during the American Revolution, below are the battles General Washington was present for.

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General Washington in the Revolutionary War

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General Washington in the Revolutionary War

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Mount Vernon had the opportunity to speak with Michael Harris, author of the new book, Brandywine: A Military History of the Battle that Lost Philadelphia but Saved America, September 11, 1777. Michael shares his views about the Brandywine Campaign and its importance to the American Revolution.

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General Washington in the American Revolution

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George Washington was appointed commander of the Continental Army in 1775. Despite having little experience in commanding large, conventional military forces, his leadership presence and fortitude held the American military together long enough to secure victory at Yorktown and independence for his new nation in 1781.

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by Bob Blythe

George Washington was perhaps the one indispensable man among the founders. It is hard to imagine any of the others commanding the respect needed to lead the Continental Army to victory over Great Britain, preside over the Constitutional Convention, and serve the United States as its first president. Little in Washington's early life gave a hint of the great achievements to come. Born into the plantation elite of Virginia, he received a limited education. When he was eleven, Washington's father died, and his half-brother Lawrence took him under his wing.

While still in his teens, Washington became a land surveyor, which gave him a solid grounding in mathematics and the evaluation of topography. This would later serve him well as a military commander. As a lieutenant colonel of the Virginia militia, Washington led a force into the Ohio Valley to contest French domination of that region. He was in command of the British forces at the Battle of Fort Necessity (1754), helping to bring on the French and Indian War. Washington gained valuable military experience in that conflict.

Washington married a wealthy widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, in January 1759. The couple had no children of their own, but raised Martha's together. Inheriting Mt. Vernon, a family plantation on the Potomac River, in 1761, Washington spent the next 15 years as a planter, also serving in the House of Burgesses (the colonial legislature in Virginia). He took the patriot side in the disputes with Great Britain in the 1760s and 1770s, and was elected to the first Continental Congress in 1774. With the coming of open war with Britain in 1775, the congress decided to make Washington commander in chief of the new Continental Army. Washington had as much military experience as anyone in the colonies, and his selection helped gain the allegiance of Virginia, by far the most populous of the 13 colonies.

Experts hold widely differing views of Washington's abilities as a general. Most would agree, though, that he performed a vital service merely by keeping a fighting force in the field through the difficult early years of the war. His greatest strokes as a commander were the surprise attacks on the garrisons at Trenton (December 26, 1776) and Princeton (January 3, 1777). These victories restored patriot morale in one of the war's darkest periods.

After accepting the British surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, Washington retired to Mt. Vernon to revive his plantation and financial position. He was elected to the Constitutional Convention (1787) and reluctantly served as its presiding officer. Washington's support of the Constitution was critical in its acceptance by the states. He was a virtually unanimous choice for the nation's first president. Washington served two terms (1789-1797) and could easily have gained a third had he wished to. Instead, he established the precedent of a two-term maximum, which remained unchallenged until 1940. Washington died in 1799, as much from incompetent medical treatment as the underlying disease. A slaveholder throughout his life, Washington freed his bondspeople at his death.
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The American Revolution: George Washington

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by Bob Blythe George Washington was perhaps the one indispensable man among the founders. It is hard to imagine any of the others commanding the respect needed to lead the Continental Army to victory over Great Britain, preside over the Constitutional Convention, and serve the United States as its first president.

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Despite having little experience in commanding large, conventional military forces, Washington's strong leadership presence and fortitude held the American military together long enough to secure victory at Yorktown and independence for his new nation.

1. Washington was appointed commander of the Continental Army on June 14, 1775

On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress, responding to the growing crisis near Boston, directed that one of its own constituents - George Washington - take command of the newly designated Continental Army. Not only did Washington have the most military experience amongst the Congressional delegates, but as John Adams pointed out there were also great political advantages in having a someone outside of New England take command of a military force that was congregated around Boston and largely made up of New Englanders.

Arriving shortly after the conclusion of the Battle of Bunker Hill, Washington moved swiftly to assume command of the ragtag forces surrounding besieging the British garrison within the city of Boston. What Washington did not realize at the time was that it would be six long years of battle, marching, siege, crises, and winter encampments before Washington had an opportunity to return to his beloved Mount Vernon. In September 1781, as the combined American and French forces made their way down to Yorktown, Virginia, Washington was able to make a brief visit to his home along the Potomac River. During this visit, Washington and Rochambeau refined their plan for defeating Charles Cornwallis' forces trapped on the York Peninsula.

2. Prior to his appointment as head of the Continental Army, Washington had never commanded a large army in the field

George Washington was but one of only a handful of candidates considered by the Second Continental Congress who possessed any significant military experience. But by European standards Washington's experience in commanding large conventional armies was non-existent. Leading up to the French & Indian War, Washington had ably commanded the Virginia Regiment, but this provincial military unit never had more than 2,000 men in its ranks. In 1754 Washington commanded roughly 100 regulars and 300 militia at the ill-fated Battle of Fort Necessity.

Despite this seeming lack of experience in managing large army formations, Washington brought a number of strengths to his new position as commander of the Continental Army. Washington had learned many important command principles from the British regular officers that he marched with during the French & Indian War and British army manuals that he studied. He also witnessed, firsthand, how vulnerable British formations could be in the rough, timbered frontier land that predominated in North America. His verve, impressive physical presence, and command instincts helped to hold together an ill-equipped force that outlasted his more experienced opponents. And as Benjamin Franklin would famously state, "[a]n American planter, who had never seen Europe, was chosen by us to Command our Troops, and continued during the whole War. This man sent home to you, one after another, five of your best generals, baffled, their Heads bare of Laurels, disgraced even in the Opinion of their Employers."

So much for conventional experience.

3. Washington and the Continental army narrowly escaped total destruction in the New York campaign of 1776

Unlike the successful Siege of Boston, the efforts to defend the city of New York ended in near disaster for the Continental Army and the cause of independence. In what proved to be the largest battle of the Revolutionary War in terms of total combatants, Washington's forces on August 22, 1776, were flanked out of their positions atop the Gowanus Heights (part of today's modern Brooklyn) and soundly defeated by William Howe's roughly 20,000 man force on Long Island.

Confronted by a powerful British army to his front and the East River to his back, Washington rapidly formulated a risky plan to save his threatened army atop Brooklyn Heights. With the constant threat that the Royal Navy would enter the East River and block his avenue of retreat, Washington ordered that all available flatboats be brought down to his position so that the army could be moved to nearby Manhattan on the night of August 29-30, 1776. Aided by a providential fog that hid the evacuation, Washington was able to successfully move all 9,000 of his troops to Manhattan without losing a man - a remarkable military feat that astounded his British enemy.

As the New York campaign progressed, Washington's forces were subsequently defeated at the Battle of White Plains on October 28, 1776, and later at Fort Washington on November 16, 1776. The debacle at Fort Washington cost the Americans 59 killed and another 2,837 captured. Chased from New York, Washington's fractured and demoralized army retreated all the way across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.

It was during these dark days at the close of 1776 that Thomas Paine's words from the recently published American Crisis rang most true - "These are the times that try men's souls...the summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman."

4. Washington crossed the Delaware River twice in December 1776

Washington's great triumph against the Hessian forces at Trenton on December 26, 1776, is one of the best-known episodes of the Revolutionary War. ( Map: Battle of Trenton) Fearing a counterattack by British regulars, Washington hustled his tired warriors and frozen Hessian captives back to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware River.

Would this single victory over a Hessian garrison be enough to sustain the morale and inspiration of the beleaguered Patriot cause? Encouraged by reports of the enemies' general confusion in New Jersey and a successful campaign to extend the enlistments of many soldiers ready in his ranks, Washington decided to seize the initiative once more. Determined to expand upon his initial success Washington shuttled his army and artillery back across the frozen Delaware on December 30, 1776, and into a strong position along the Assunpink Creek outside of Trenton. It was here that Washington awaited the arrival of Gen. Charles Cornwallis' force of 8,000 Redcoats and Hessians.

Disdaining any complicated maneuvers, a confident Cornwallis ordered three successive frontal assaults on January 2, 1777, by his Hessian grenadiers and British Regulars. Each attack across the narrow Assunpink bridges and fords was driven back with heavy loss of life. The casualties were so heavy that one soldier remarked that the bridge to his front "looked red as blood, with their killed and wounded and their red coats." ( Map: Battle of Second Trenton)

With the rapid onset of an early winter's eve, Cornwallis ordered a cessation of offensive actions. Certain of a victory the following day, the British general boasted that "we've got the old fox safe now. We'll go over and bag him in the morning." Unfortunately for Cornwallis, the morning sun that illuminated the empty American camps proved that the "old fox" was gone. Washington during the night had stolen a march and had marched his army north to Princeton where the Americans proved victorious once more on January 3, 1777 ( Map: Battle of Princeton).

The victories at Trenton and Princeton, not only helped to bolster the morale of the American army and encourage recruitment, but these bold actions also greatly impressed the French who were actively weighing their involvement in the war.

Learn More: 10 Facts About Washington's Crossing of the Delaware

5. Washington's smallpox inoculation program was one of his best decisions of the war

Up until modern times, disease, not bullets, bayonets, or cannon fire, had been the great killer of soldiers in all armies. In 1775, smallpox had so devastated the American army in Canada that John Adams bemoaned that "...smallpox is ten times more terrible than the British, Canadians and Indians together."

Having survived his own bout with smallpox in 1751, Washington was altogether familiar with how disease could rob the cause of a viable army. Not only would smallpox kill off soldiers in the ranks, but the threat of infection also scared away many of the recruits that Washington's army depended upon.

Starting during the winter of 1777 in Morristown, New Jersey, Washington took the bold and controversial move to have soldiers in his army inoculated against smallpox infection using a technique called variolation. Later during the winter encampment at Valley Forge, Washington went even further, demanding that his entire army be inoculated - an action that required great secrecy since inoculated soldiers were incapacitated for a period of time. By some reports, death by smallpox in the ranks dropped from 17% of all deaths to a low of 1% of all reported deaths - a tremendous reduction.

Historian Elizabeth Fenn, author of Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-1782, claims that "Washington's unheralded and little-recognized resolution to inoculate the Continental forces must surely rank with the most important decisions of the war..."

Learn More: George Washington and the Inoculation of the Continental Army

6. Supply issues became one of Washington's greatest challenges

One of the oldest of military adages is that amateurs study tactics while professional warriors study logistics. As with all military campaigns, providing for the vast material needs of an army in the field requires a focus on organization and effective supply management. Unfortunately for Washington and the Continental Army, a poor supply chain became a chronic issue that negatively impacted combat effectiveness. Biographer Ron Chernow states that "[s]eldom in history has a general been handicapped by such constantly crippling conditions...He repeatedly had to exhort Congress and the thirteen states to remedy desperate shortages of men, shoes, shirts, blankets, and gunpowder. This meant dealing with selfish, apathetic states and bureaucratic incompetence in Congress. He labored under a terrible strain that would have destroyed a lesser man."

Nowhere were supply troubles more evident and onerous than during the Valley Forge winter encampment of 1777-1778. Rather than snow and frigid temperatures, it was actually the rainy, temperate weather at Valley Forge that turned the surrounding roads to mud, further hindering an already tenuous supply network.

Local farmers were more likely to send their foodstuffs and supplies to the nearby British who had hard currency to offer in return. The Continental Army, by comparison, could only offer payment in greatly devalued paper currency or through IOUs. Washington became so concerned over the poor state of supply that he appointed Gen. Nathanael Greene as his new quartermaster. Greene, who was initially concerned about taking this thankless job, overhauled the inefficient supply system and greatly improved the state of the Continental Army through his efforts.

Video: Valley Forge in the American Revolution

7. Mount Vernon escaped destruction in 1781, but the method used to gain its security alarmed Washington

In April of 1781, the British sloop of war HMS Savage anchored menacingly in the Potomac River near George Washington's plantation home at Mount Vernon. The Savage, under the command of Captain Thomas Graves, had been raiding up and down the Potomac and now demanded that the General's estate provide the sloop with "a large supply of provisions." If the order to provide supplies was actively resisted, Mount Vernon was likely to have been put to the torch as other nearby plantation homes had been.

While the Savage was anchored close to shore, seventeen intrepid Mount Vernon slaves made their way down to the ship and gained their freedom as they arrived on the warship's deck. Lund Washington, George Washington's distant cousin and estate manager, first thought to resist this ultimatum per his master's instruction, but later agreed to provide sheep, hogs, and "an abundant supply of other articles" to the Savage, partially in an attempt to win back the escaped slaves. Captain Graves gladly accepted the supplies, spared the plantation, and refused to return the slaves.

Washington, once he learned of Lund's decision to provide supplies to the enemy, was incensed. From his headquarters in New Windsor, New York, he wrote Lund and dismissed any significant concern over the escaped slaves, but noted that "It would have been a less painful circumstance to me, to have heard, that in consequence of your non-compliance with [the HMS Savage's request], they had burnt my House, and laid the Plantation in ruins."

Learn More: The HMS Savage at Mount Vernon

8. Prior to its decisive victory at Yorktown, the American military teetered upon total collapse

Years of rampant military spending, economic mismanagement, and hyperinflation fueled by a successful British campaign to flood the colonies with counterfeit paper money had left the American financial coffers bare. Washington, in a letter to John Laurens in France, declared in January 1781 that he could not even pay the teamsters that were required to bring supplies to his troops. A gloomy and frustrated Washington admitted that "we are at the end of our tether, and that now or never our deliverance must come." French setbacks in Rhode Island, news of British successes in the Southern theater, and intelligence reports indicating a possible French exit in 1781 all added to the sense of impending defeat.

In late May 1781 Washington's situation and the fate of the American cause began to rapidly improve. Comte de Rochambeau, the commander of the French troops in America, informed Washington that France had made a 6,000,000 livre gift to the Continental Army. But it was the news that Rochambeau did not initially share with Washington that made an even bigger impact. The French fleet, now operating in strength in North American waters, had been secretly directed to the Chesapeake and a real opportunity to defeat Cornwallis' force now existed. Washington, who had been stubbornly fixated on attacking the British base at New York City, rallied to Rochambeau's plan and moved his army south to Virginia. On September 5, 1781, the French fleet under the command of Admiral de Grasse drove off the British fleet sent to relieve Cornwallis. The trap was now set. The siege of Yorktown began on September 28, 1781, and ended with a Franco-American victory on October 19, 1781 - the decisive battle of the Revolutionary War.

Learn More: The Yorktown Campaign | Watch "Now or Never: The Yorktown Campaign of 1781"

9. Washington deftly put down a growing military rebellion

Despite having achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Yorktown in October of 1781, threats to the Patriotic cause continued. In March of 1783, a growing number of American military officers, discouraged by lack of regular pay and ongoing financial support, began to openly discuss options that included a wanton disbandment of the army or possibly even a military show of force pointed directly at Congress.

Washington, who learned of the "Newburgh Conspiracy" through a printed camp circular, appeared at a March 15, 1783 meeting and challenged the gathered group of officers. "My God! What can this writer have in view, by recommending such measures! Can he be a friend to the army? Can he be a friend to this country? Rather is he not an insidious foe?" Towards the end of his address, Washington reached into his pocket to retrieve a pair of spectacles and in a theatrical gesture remarked that "...I have not only grown gray, but almost blind in service to my country." This display of self-sacrifice from their longstanding leader deeply affected many of the officers who in turn abandoned their treasonous thoughts and returned the obvious affection of their leader.

Videos: Washington and the Newburgh Conspiracy

10. Washington's greatest display of power was his surrender of power

On December 23, 1783, Washington strode into the statehouse at Annapolis, Maryland and surrendered his military commission to a grateful Congress. In front of the gathered congressmen, Washington declared, "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action-and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."

History is filled with example after example of military commanders seizing political power during times of revolution - Julius Caesar, Oliver Cromwell, Napoleon Bonaparte, Mao Zedong, and Muammar Gaddaffi are just some of the better-known examples. We take it for granted today that the United States Armed Forces are subordinated to civilian rule, but in the 18th century, it was far from certain that any general would simply surrender power to a civilian authority. But for George Washington, civilian control of the military was a core part of his beliefs. Washington's resignation signaled to the world and the American people that this new nation would be founded on different principles.

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Ten Facts About George Washington and the Revolutionary War

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Despite having little experience in commanding large, conventional military forces, Washington's strong leadership presence and fortitude held the American military together long enough to secure victory at Yorktown and independence for his new nation.

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George Washington's Early Years

George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at his family's plantation on Pope's Creek in Westmoreland County, in the British colony of Virginia, to Augustine Washington (1694-1743) and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington (1708-89). George, the eldest of Augustine and Mary Washington's six children, spent much of his childhood at Ferry Farm, a plantation near Fredericksburg, Virginia. After Washington's father died when he was 11, it's likely he helped his mother manage the plantation.

Did you know? At the time of his death in 1799, George Washington owned some 300 enslaved people. However, before his passing, he had become opposed to slavery, and in his will, he ordered that his enslaved workers be freed after his wife's death.

Few details about Washington's early education are known, although children of prosperous families like his typically were taught at home by private tutors or attended private schools. It's believed he finished his formal schooling at around age 15.

As a teenager, Washington, who had shown an aptitude for mathematics, became a successful surveyor. His surveying expeditions into the Virginia wilderness earned him enough money to begin acquiring land of his own.

In 1751, Washington made his only trip outside of America, when he traveled to Barbados with his older half-brother Lawrence Washington (1718-52), who was suffering from tuberculosis and hoped the warm climate would help him recuperate. Shortly after their arrival, George contracted smallpox. He survived, although the illness left him with permanent facial scars. In 1752, Lawrence, who had been educated in England and served as Washington's mentor, died. Washington eventually inherited Lawrence's estate, Mount Vernon, on the Potomac River near Alexandria, Virginia.

An Officer and Gentleman Farmer

In December 1752, Washington, who had no previous military experience, was made a commander of the Virginia militia. He saw action in the French and Indian War and was eventually put in charge of all of Virginia's militia forces. By 1759, Washington had resigned his commission, returned to Mount Vernon and was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, where he served until 1774. In January 1759, he married Martha Dandridge Custis (1731-1802), a wealthy widow with two children. Washington became a devoted stepfather to her children; he and Martha Washington never had any offspring of their own.

In the ensuing years, Washington expanded Mount Vernon from 2,000 acres into an 8,000-acre property with five farms. He grew a variety of crops, including wheat and corn, bred mules and maintained fruit orchards and a successful fishery. He was deeply interested in farming and continually experimented with new crops and methods of land conservation.

George Washington During the American Revolution

Washington proved to be a better general than military strategist. His strength lay not in his genius on the battlefield but in his ability to keep the struggling colonial army together. His troops were poorly trained and lacked food, ammunition and other supplies (soldiers sometimes even went without shoes in winter). However, Washington was able to give them direction and motivation. His leadership during the winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge was a testament to his power to inspire his men to keep going.

By the late 1760s, Washington had experienced firsthand the effects of rising taxes imposed on American colonists by the British and came to believe that it was in the best interests of the colonists to declare independence from England. Washington served as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774 in Philadelphia. By the time the Second Continental Congress convened a year later, the American Revolution had begun in earnest, and Washington was named commander in chief of the Continental Army.

Over the course of the grueling eight-year war, the colonial forces won few battles but consistently held their own against the British. In October 1781, with the aid of the French (who allied themselves with the colonists over their rivals the British), the Continental forces were able to capture British troops under General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) in the Battle of Yorktown. This action effectively ended the Revolutionary War and Washington was declared a national hero.

America's First President

In 1783, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between Great Britain and the U.S., Washington, believing he had done his duty, gave up his command of the army and returned to Mount Vernon, intent on resuming his life as a gentleman farmer and family man. However, in 1787, he was asked to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and head the committee to draft the new constitution. His impressive leadership there convinced the delegates that he was by far the most qualified man to become the nation's first president.

At first, Washington balked. He wanted to, at last, return to a quiet life at home and leave governing the new nation to others. But public opinion was so strong that eventually he gave in. The first presidential election was held on January 7, 1789, and Washington won handily. John Adams (1735-1826), who received the second-largest number of votes, became the nation's first vice president. The 57-year-old Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, in New York City. Because Washington, D.C., America's future capital city wasn't yet built, he lived in New York and Philadelphia. While in office, he signed a bill establishing a future, permanent U.S. capital along the Potomac River-the city later named Washington, D.C., in his honor.

George Washington's Accomplishments

The United States was a small nation when Washington took office, consisting of 11 states and approximately 4 million people, and there was no precedent for how the new president should conduct domestic or foreign business. Mindful that his actions would likely determine how future presidents were expected to govern, Washington worked hard to set an example of fairness, prudence and integrity. In foreign matters, he supported cordial relations with other countries but also favored a position of neutrality in foreign conflicts. Domestically, he nominated the first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, John Jay (1745-1829), signed a bill establishing the first national bank, the Bank of the United States, and set up his own presidential cabinet.

His two most prominent cabinet appointees were Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804), two men who disagreed strongly on the role of the federal government. Hamilton favored a strong central government and was part of the Federalist Party, while Jefferson favored stronger states' rights as part of the Democratic-Republican Party, the forerunner to the Democratic Party. Washington believed that divergent views were critical for the health of the new government, but he was distressed at what he saw as an emerging partisanship.

George Washington's presidency was marked by a series of firsts. He signed the first United States copyright law, protecting the copyrights of authors. He also signed the first Thanksgiving proclamation, making November 26 a national day of Thanksgiving for the end of the war for American independence and the successful ratification of the Constitution.

During Washington's presidency, Congress passed the first federal revenue law, a tax on distilled spirits. In July 1794, farmers in Western Pennsylvania rebelled over the so-called "whiskey tax." Washington called in over 12,000 militiamen to Pennsylvania to dissolve the Whiskey Rebellion in one of the first major tests of the authority of the national government.

Under Washington's leadership, the states ratified the Bill of Rights, and five new states entered the union: North Carolina (1789), Rhode Island (1790), Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796).

In his second term, Washington issued the proclamation of neutrality to avoid entering the 1793 war between Great Britain and France. But when French minister to the United States Edmond Charles Genet-known to history as "Citizen Genet"-toured the United States, he boldly flaunted the proclamation, attempting to set up American ports as French military bases and gain support for his cause in the Western United States. His meddling caused a stir between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, widening the rift between parties and making consensus-building more difficult.

In 1795, Washington signed the "Treaty of Amity Commerce and Navigation, between His Britannic Majesty; and The United States of America," or Jay's Treaty, so-named for John Jay, who had negotiated it with the government of King George III. It helped the U.S. avoid war with Great Britain, but also rankled certain members of Congress back home and was fiercely opposed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Internationally, it caused a stir among the French, who believed it violated previous treaties between the United States and France.

Washington's administration signed two other influential international treaties. Pinckney's Treaty of 1795, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, established friendly relations between the United States and Spain, firming up borders between the U.S. and Spanish territories in North America and opening up the Mississippi to American traders. The Treaty of Tripoli, signed the following year, gave American ships access to Mediterranean shipping lanes in exchange for a yearly tribute to the Pasha of Tripoli.

George Washington's Retirement to Mount Vernon and Death

In 1796, after two terms as president and declining to serve a third term, Washington finally retired. In Washington's farewell address, he urged the new nation to maintain the highest standards domestically and to keep involvement with foreign powers to a minimum. The address is still read each February in the U.S. Senate to commemorate Washington's birthday.

Washington returned to Mount Vernon and devoted his attentions to making the plantation as productive as it had been before he became president. More than four decades of public service had aged him, but he was still a commanding figure. In December 1799, he caught a cold after inspecting his properties in the rain. The cold developed into a throat infection and Washington died on the night of December 14, 1799, at the age of 67. He was entombed at Mount Vernon, which in 1960 was designated a national historic landmark.

Washington left one of the most enduring legacies of any American in history. Known as the "Father of His Country," his face appears on the U.S. dollar bill and quarter, and dozens of U.S. schools, towns and counties, as well as the state of Washington and the nation's capital city, are named for him.

George Washington: An Interactive Timeline of His Life

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George Washington: Facts, Revolution & Presidency

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George Washington (1732-99) was commander in chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War (1775-83) and served two terms as the first U.S. president, from 1789 to 1797.

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Loyalists were people in the Thirteen Colonies who opposed the American Revolutionary War. They were also called Tories. They fought with the British against the Continental Army and Continental Congress that they felt was oppressing them. In many areas, Loyalists were treated very roughly by revolutionaries (who often called themselves " Patriots"). Tory lands and other properties were taken away, and sometimes they were put into jail or even killed. Some formed militias, fighting along with the British Army against the rebels.

After the war, many Loyalists sought asylum in Canada to escape the new United States and to stay loyal to King George and the British Empire.

Loyalists came from all walks of life. The majority were small farmers, artisans and shopkeepers. Not surprisingly, most British officials remained loyal to the Crown. Wealthy merchants tended to remain loyal, as did Anglican ministers, especially in Puritan New England. Loyalists also included some blacks (to whom the British promised freedom), Indians, indentured servants and some German immigrants, who supported the Crown mainly because George III was of German origin.

The number of Loyalists in each colony varied. Recent estimates suggest that half the population of New York was Loyalist; it had an aristocratic culture and was occupied throughout the Revolution by the British. In the Carolinas, back-country farmers were Loyalist, whereas the Tidewater planters tended to support the Revolution.

During the Revolution, most Loyalists suffered little from their views. However, a minority, about 19,000 Loyalists, armed and supplied by the British, fought in the conflict.

The Paris Peace Treaty required Congress to restore property confiscated from Loyalists. The heirs of William Penn in Pennsylvania, for example, and those of George Calvert in Maryland received generous settlements. In the Carolinas, where enmity between rebels and Loyalists was especially strong, few of the latter regained their property. In New York and the Carolinas, the confiscations from Loyalists resulted in something of a social revolution as large estates were parceled out to yeoman farmers.

About 100,000 Loyalists left the country, including William Franklin, the son of Benjamin, and John Singleton Copley, the greatest American painter of the period. Most settled in Canada. Brantford, Ontario for example was started by Iroquois refugees. Some eventually returned, although several state governments excluded the Loyalists from holding public office. Most of the Black Loyalists left, as they faced re-enslavement if they remained in the USA. In the decades after the Revolution, Americans preferred to forget about the Loyalists. Apart from Copley, the Loyalists became nonpersons in American history.

Images for kids

Britannia offers solace and a promise of compensation for her exiled American-born Loyalists. (Reception of the American Loyalists by Great Britain in the Year 1783. Engraving by H. Moses after Benjamin West.)

Johnson Hall, seat of Sir John Johnson in the Mohawk Valley

Benjamin West's "John Eardley Wilmot"

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Loyalist (American Revolution) Facts for Kids

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Loyalists were people in the Thirteen Colonies who opposed the American Revolutionary War. They were also called Tories. They fought with the British against the Continental Army and Continental Congress that they felt was oppressing them. In many areas, Loyalists were treated very roughly by revolutionaries (who often called themselves " Patriots").

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During the American Revolutionary War, the people living in the Thirteen American Colonies had to decide whether they wanted to break away from British rule and gain independence or remain British citizens. These two groups were the Patriots and the Loyalists.
See the fact file below for more information on the Patriots and the Loyalists or alternatively, you can download our 22-page Patriots and the Loyalists worksheet pack to utilise within the classroom or home environment.
Key Facts & Information

THE PATRIOTS

Patriots wanted the Thirteen colonies to gain independence from Britain. They wanted to create their own laws and to form the United States of America.

The Patriots wanted freedom from British rule because they didn't think they were treated well. The British kept introducing new taxes and laws, and the colonists had no representatives on the government - which lead to unrest and calls for "liberty". Patriots did not want to be ruled by the British any longer.

There were a number of famous Patriots. Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, and John Adams both eventually became presidents. George Washington was a patriot who led the Continental Army and after the American Revolution, he became the first President of the United States.

A number of patriots became known as the Founding Fathers of the United States. They include Samuel Adams, Paul Revere, Benjamin Franklin, Patrick Henry, and Ethan Allen.

THE LOYALISTS

Some people wanted to stay part of Britain and remain British citizens. A lot of the colonists had British relatives or ancestors, and some were very grateful for the opportunity to farm peacefully in the British-ruled land.

A significant amount of loyalists were African-American slaves. The British promised to free the slaves from their Patriot masters and around 50,000 slaves (roughly 10% of the total slave population in the 1770s) fled from their masters to side with the loyalists.

Other colonists had business interests in England. They knew that British trade was important to the economy and their livelihood, and thought that British rule would be better for them than the Patriots.

One of the most famous loyalists was Benedict Arnold. He was a general in the Continental Army and defected to fight for the British instead.

There weren't as many famous loyalists as there were patriots because they lost the war, but other famous loyalists included the governor of the Massachusetts colony, Thomas Hutchinson, Joseph Galloway, the Pennsylvania delegate to the Continental Congress who later worked for the British army, John Butler, the leader of the loyalists troops Butler's Rangers, and the mayor of New York City, David Mathews.

Loyalists During the War

Loyalists living in Patriot areas were under constant threat. They were in danger of attack from radical patriots and many loyalists lost their homes and businesses due to patriot attacks.

Some loyalists left the colonies and headed back to Britain. The more devoted loyalists either joined the British army or formed their own group of fights, including the Loyal Greens and the Royal American Regiment.

Loyalists After the War

The wealthiest loyalists moved to England after the war. Men like Thomas Hutchinson had the resources to travel to London.

The poorer loyalists lost their fortunes and their land. Some loyalists were paid by the British government for their loyalty, but it wasn't enough to compensate what they had lost.

The United States government wanted loyalists to stay in the country. The skills, education and knowledge of the loyalists were seen as important assets to the new country. Despite that, very few loyalists chose to remain in the United States.

The British evacuated 20,000 slaves. They resettled these formerly enslaved African Americans as free people.

Many ordinary Loyalists went to Canada. They would go on to play a large part in the development of the Canadian government and society. The American Revolution shaped the future of the United States and Canada as well.

Patriots and Loyalists Worksheets

This is a fantastic bundle which includes everything you need to know about Patriots and Loyalists across 22 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Patriots and Loyalists worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about the time during the American Revolutionary War when the people living in the Thirteen American Colonies had to decide whether they wanted to break away from the British rule and gain independence or remain British citizens. These two groups were the Patriots and the Loyalists.

Complete List Of Included Worksheets

Patriots and Loyalists Facts

Who's Who?

Compare and Contrast

Own Laws

Letter Unscramble

True or False

American Revolution Crossword

Arnold's Escape

Nicknames

Colonies in Map

Join or Die

Included Patriot & Loyalist worksheets:

After completing these worksheets students will be able to:

Have a clear understanding of the American Revolution.

Define and identify both Patriots and Loyalists.

Answer a series of challenging questions to hone their knowledge.

Have a grasp of key figures within society at the time of the revolution.

Link/cite this page

If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.

Link will appear as Patriots and Loyalists Facts: https://kidskonnect.com - KidsKonnect, June 25, 2021
Use With Any Curriculum
These worksheets have been specifically designed for use with any international curriculum. You can use these worksheets as-is, or edit them using Google Slides to make them more specific to your own student ability levels and curriculum standards.

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Patriots vs Loyalists Worksheets, Facts and Definition For Kids

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Not ready to purchase a subscription? Click to download the free sample version Download sample During the American Revolutionary War, the people living in the Thirteen American Colonies had to decide whether they wanted to break away from British rule and gain independence or remain British citizens.

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Learn about Patriots and Loyalists during the Revolutionary War. One side wanted independence while the other wanted to remain part of Britain.

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Born September 9, 1711, Thomas Hutchinson was a successful merchant, prominent politician and one of the most important loyalists in the Massachusetts Bay Colony before the American Revolution. He attended Harvard College and earned his degree at age 16. His political career began when he was elected as a selectman in 1737. He served in various posts in the Colonial government, including speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives nine years later. Hutchinson would play a major role in numerous events leading up to the American Revolution. The following are 10 additional facts related to the life of this influential figure.

Hutchinson Was Related to an Earlier Rabble Rouser

He was the great-great-grandson of Anne Hutchinson. Ms. Hutchinson espoused a religious belief that was at odds with the early Puritan hierarchy in Massachusetts. The theological schism she created became known as the Antinomian Controversy. Hutchinson was tried, convicted and banished from the colony. She would later be excommunicated from the Puritan church.

He had an Acute Legal Mind

Although he was not trained as a lawyer, Hutchison had an exceptional ability to evaluate competing legal arguments and get to the heart of an issue. He became a judge of the Suffolk County Probate Court. Hutchinson also had a seat on the Inferior Court of Common Pleas. In 1760, he received a royal appointment as the chief justice of the Superior Court of Judicature. This was the highest judicial position in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

He Was a Noted Colonial Historian

Over the course of several decades, Hutchinson compiled three volumes of research. Volumes one and two of books regarding the history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Province were published in 1764 and 1767 respectively. A third volume was published after his death, which included his tenure as governor and lieutenant governor. He also published a complete history of the Hutchinson family that included details of Colonial political affairs not documented by his contemporaries.

He Supported Colonial Union

Hutchinson played a major role during the Albany Congress in 1754. In addition to negotiating a treaty with local Native American tribes, the delegates debated ways in which the colonies could collaborate to solve common problems. Hutchinson was one of the most ardent supporters of Benjamin Franklin's plan for Colonial union. The conference provided the model that colonists would use when organizing future assemblies, such as the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 and the First Continental Congress nine years later.

He Became the Unwanted Center of Attention

His position as lieutenant governor made him a focal point of anger against the British monarchy in Boston. Although he opposed the Stamp Act, one of the worst mobs in the city's history while protesting the legislation broke in and ransacked his home in 1765. Many of the home's furnishings were stolen or destroyed. The damage is estimated to be nearly $400,000 in modern-day valuation.

He Calmed the City after the Boston Massacre

Hutchison was the acting governor when the protests regarding the Townshend Acts resulted in the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770. After promising that justice would be served, he had the soldiers involved arrested and tried. To quell ongoing unrest after the event, Hutchinson withdrew soldiers from Boston to Castle William located on an island in the harbor.

His Resignation and Appointment Crossed in the Mail

The events surrounding the Boston Massacre made Hutchinson doubt his ability to serve as governor. He wrote a letter of resignation. As this letter was traveling to England by sea, his royal appointment as governor of the colony was en route to Boston aboard another ship. They may have literally been ships passing in the night. When his resignation arrived in London, Colonial Secretary Lord Hillsborough rejected it.

His Mail Was Hacked

In 1773, Benjamin Franklin obtained a series of correspondence between Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver, his lieutenant governor. Written years earlier, the letters contained the men's ideas on possible ways to reorganize the Colonial government based on the rising tension. Franklin sent the letters to Samuel Adams who used them to wage a propaganda campaign against the governor. Franklin and Adams had become political opponents of Hutchinson. Many of the ideas contained within the letters were taken out of context. The event became known as the Hutchinson Letters Affair, and it destroyed the governor's political effectiveness. As a result, Hutchinson was unable to stop further unrest in Massachusetts.

Not Invited to the Tea Party

Colonists opposed the Tea Act of 1773, which benefited the East India Company at the expense of local merchants. It also raised the duty on the popular beverage. In protest, patriots in cities other than Boston had ships carrying tea return to England. As royal governor, Hutchinson ordered that the three ships in Boston Harbor be unloaded and the duty paid. Two of his sons were tea brokers. Approximately 7,000 people gathered in the Old South Meeting House on December 16, 1773 to protest his actions. When Hutchinson once again ruled that the cargo be unloaded and the tax paid, the crowd spilled out of the meeting and headed for the waterfront. Numerous patriots masquerading as Mohawk Indians boarded the ships and threw the tea into the Boston Harbor. While a conciliator after the Boston Massacre, Hutchinson's intransigence regarding the tea ships led to one of the defining acts that inspired the American Revolution.

Massachusetts' Last Civilian Royal Governor

After the Boston Tea Party, Hutchinson sailed to England in 1774 to help defuse the growing tension between the Colonies and the British government. General Thomas Gage, commander of the British forces in North America, replaced him as governor. The war broke out before he was able to return. Hutchinson went into exile in England where he advised the British government about American affairs until his sudden death from a stroke in 1780. Ironically, Oxford awarded him an honorary doctorate for his work as Colonial governor on July 4, 1776. His former home in Milton, Massachusetts, which is now a nature preserve, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

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Born September 9, 1711, Thomas Hutchinson was a successful merchant, prominent politician and one of the most important loyalists in the Massachusetts Bay Colony before the American Revolution. He attended Harvard College and earned his degree at age 16. His political career began when he was elected as a selectman in 1737.

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William Franklin ( c.1730 - November 1813) was an American soldier, attorney, and colonial administrator, the acknowledged illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin. He was the last colonial Governor of New Jersey (1763-1776). Franklin was a steadfast Loyalist throughout the American Revolutionary War.

William Franklin was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was the illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin, a leading figure in the city. His mother's identity is unknown. In 1750, Ben told his own mother that William was nineteen years old, but this may have been an attempt to make the youth appear legitimate.

William was raised by Benjamin Franklin and Deborah Read.

Marriage and family

As a young man, William became engaged to Elizabeth Graeme, daughter of prominent Philadelphia physician Dr. Thomas Graeme and granddaughter of Pennsylvania's 14th Governor, Sir William Keith.

While in London, Franklin sired an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, who was born 22 February 1762. His mother has never been identified, and he was placed in foster care.

Later that year, Franklin married Elizabeth Downes on September 4, 1762 at St George's, Hanover Square in London.

William Franklin completed his law education in England.

Governor of New Jersey

In 1763, William Franklin was appointed as the Royal Governor of New Jersey, due to his father's influence with the British Prime Minister. He replaced Josiah Hardy, a merchant and colonial administrator. As governor, Franklin signed the charter for Queen's College, which would develop as Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey.

Images for kids

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William Franklin ( c.1730 - November 1813) was an American soldier, attorney, and colonial administrator, the acknowledged illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin. He was the last colonial Governor of New Jersey (1763-1776). Franklin was a steadfast Loyalist throughout the American Revolutionary War. William Franklin was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

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Learn about spies during the American Revolution including secret messages, invisible ink, famous agents, the Culper Spy Ring, disguises, and interesting facts.

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Historical Facts About The Townshend Acts

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A complete guide to Townshend Acts and their impact, in Boston. Stamp Act of 1765. Boston Massacre. Includes a list of interesting facts you may not know.

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An enduring myth is that liberty-loving farmers, settlers, and shopkeepers banded together and defeated the British army through sheer determination during the Revolutionary War. Although citizen militias played an important role in the conflict, the fledgling nation fielded a formal military force known as the Continental Army, America's first army. Bearing much of the burden of fighting, the group fought the British from the Siege of Boston until Yorktown. Originally ill-trained and ill-equipped, the army had evolved by 1780 into a European-style military force capable of overcoming the best the British army could throw at it.

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Facts About the Continental Army during the American Revolution

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The Continental Army is described as the first formal military in our country's history. Formed during the American Revolution and led by George Washington.

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The Continental Army was a military force of American colonists established by a resolution made during the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. It was formed through the efforts of the original 13 colonies against British rule and was headed by George Washington as Commander-in-Chief.
See the fact file below for more information on the Continental Army or alternatively, you can download our 27 page Continental Army worksheet pack to utilise within the classroom or home environment.

Key Facts & Information

Historical Background

On April 19, 1775, the American Revolutionary War broke out during the British encounter at Lexington and Concord. Prior to the war, colonial revolutionaries from the original thirteen colonies relied upon the militia.

As disparity and conflict between British rule and American colonists intensified through the years, colonists began to propose ideas of creating a colonial army for potential encounters.

After the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, training of militiamen increased. Richard Henry Lee, a colonist, proposed the establishment of a national militia but the First Continental Congress rejected his idea.

The Establishment and Structure of the Continental Army

On June 14, 1775, in need of a unified militia, the Second Continental Congress officially created the Continental Army. It initially consisted of ten companies of riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia, all serving for a year's enlistment.

A day after, the Congress unanimously elected George Washington as the Continental Army's Commander-in-Chief.

They also adopted the existing forces in the colonies of New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massachusetts.

The troops were organized into 39 regiments of infantry wherein each regiment was composed of eight companies with 728 soldiers headed by a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, a major and a captain.

Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1775. He had a good military reputation from the French and Indian War. He accepted his appointment without any compensation or reimbursement of expenses.

Initially, Washington organized the New England Army into three divisions, six brigades and 38 regiments. In 1776, after a year of enlistment, the army was organized into 36 regiments with eight companies each, while the enlistment period was extended to three years.

By 1777, Congress allowed Washington to raise an additional 16 battalions wherein one-battalion regiments would come from each of the 13 colonies. Hence, the army was still supported by local militias under each states' authority.

State regiments were supplied with food, shelter, clothing, pay and equipment by their own state. Moreover, the number of soldiers required were in proportion to state's population.

Upon establishment, soldiers of the army had no uniforms. The Continental Congress immediately adopted brown as the official color of uniforms. It was replaced with blue or gray after a shortage of brown cloth. It was not until 1779 that Congress adopted an official uniform.

The absence of uniforms created problems because soldiers were unable to distinguish their commanders. As a remedy, the use of cockade was introduced. A cockade on the hat determines the commander's rank. Field officers wore pink or red, while captains wore buff or yellow and junior officers were pinned green.

Furthermore, black cockade were worn by commanders, which were then changed to black and white, known as the 'Union Cockade' after the French alliance.

Weapons during the Revolutionary War included rifles, muskets, bayonets, pistols, knives, tomahawks, sabers, axes, swords, cannons and polearms.

Commander George Washington relied on his generals to win the war, including Major Generals Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, Israel Putnam, Brigadier Generals John Thomas, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Sullivan and Nathanael Greene.

Battles of the Continental Army

The Continental Army had a great advantage in terms of having soldiers highly skilled in guerrilla warfare. They knew places, shortcuts and land terrain. Moreover, each soldier was fighting for their independence and freedom, which served as the grandest motivation.

Later in the war, countries like France, Spain and the Dutch Republic joined as allies of the Americans.

Despite several advantages, the Continental Army was short of money, supplies, weapons and medicine. Congress had no source of wealth compared to the crown-funded British Army. In addition, the British Army was equipped with some of the most trained leaders and skilled soldiers.

Aside from the Redcoats, the British were supported by German mercenaries known as Hessians.

On October 13, 1775, Congress established the Continental Navy followed by the Continental Marines in November.

All in all, there were 36 major Revolutionary battles and over 100 minor battles. Major battles included the Siege of Boston, Battles of Long Island, Harlem Heights, Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, Saratoga, Monmouth, Charleston, Camden, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse and Yorktown.

End of the War

In 1781, the surrender of the British Army at Yorktown marked the unofficial victory for the Continental Army. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the war and the British Government recognized American sovereignty over the thirteen colonies.

After the victory, Washington became the first President of the newly established republic.

Continental Army Worksheets

This is a fantastic bundle which includes everything you need to know about the Continental Army across 27 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Continental Army worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about the Continental Army which was a military force of American colonists established by a resolution made during the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. It was formed through the efforts of the original 13 colonies against British rule and was headed by George Washington as Commander-in-Chief.

Complete List Of Included Worksheets

Continental Army Facts

Major Battles

Army Generals

War of Independence

Thirteen Colonies

Commander-in-Chief

Continental Army Codes

To Independence

Army Artillery

Lettering Revolution

End of British Rule

Link/cite this page

If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.

Link will appear as Continental Army Facts & Worksheets: https://kidskonnect.com - KidsKonnect, April 25, 2018
Use With Any Curriculum
These worksheets have been specifically designed for use with any international curriculum. You can use these worksheets as-is, or edit them using Google Slides to make them more specific to your own student ability levels and curriculum standards.

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Continental Army Facts, Worksheets, Information & Famous Battles

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The Continental Army was a military force of American colonists established by a resolution made during the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. It was formed through the efforts of the original 13 colonies against British rule and was headed by George Washington as Commander-in-Chief.

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The Continental Army was the unified command structure of the thirteen colonies fighting Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. The Army was created by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded on November 3, 1783 after the Treaty of Paris. A small residual force remained at West Point and some frontier outposts, until Congress created the United States Army by their resolution of June 3, 1784.

Creation, organization and reorganization

On June 7 the Continental Congress decided to proceed with the establishment of a Continental Army for purposes of comon defense. Referring to themselves as "the twelve United Colonies", ( Georgia was not yet represented), the congress adopted forces already in place in Cambridge, Massachusetts as the first units of the Continental Army. They then elected, by unanimous vote, George Washington, on June 15, as commander-in-chief. Washington accepted the position without any compensation, except reimbursement of his expenses.

Four major-generals ( Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam) and eight brigadier-generals (Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene) were appointed in the course of a few days.

As the Continental Congress increasingly accepted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army was the subject of considerable debate. There was a general aversion to maintaining a standing army among the Americans; but, on the other hand, the requirements of the war against the British required the discipline and organization of a modern military. As a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units.

Broadly speaking, Continental forces consisted of several successive armies, or "establishments":

The Continental Army of 1775, comprising the initial New England army, organized by Washington into three divisions. Also Major General Philip Schuyler's ten regiments sent to invade Canada.

The Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Washington had submitted recommendations to the Continental Congress almost immediately after he had accepted the position of commander-in-chief, but these took time to consider and implement. Although attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and geographical focus.

The Continental Army of 1777 - 1780 was a result of several critical reforms and political decisions that came about when it was apparent that the British were sending massive forces to put an end to the American revolution. The Continental Congress passed the Eighty-eight battalion resolution, ordering each state to contribute forces in proportion to their population, and Washington was given authority to raise additional 15 battalions. Also, enlistment terms were extended to three years or "the length of the war" to avoid the year-end crises that depleted forces.

The Continental Army of 1781 - 1782 saw the greatest crisis on the American side in the war. Congress was for all intents and purposes bankrupt, making it very difficult to replenish the soldiers whose three-year terms had expired. Popular support for the war was at its all-time low, and Washington had to put down mutinies both in the Pennsylvania Line and New Jersey Line. Congress voted to cut funding for the army, but Washington managed nevertheless to secure important strategic victories.

The Continental Army of 1783 - 1784, which was succeeded by the United States Army, which persists to this day. As peace was closed with the British, most of the regiments were disbanded in an orderly fashion, though several had already been diminished.

In addition, a number of militia units, raised and funded by individual colonies/states, participated in battles.

The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up these obligations. There were constant funding issues on the one hand and morale problems on the other as the war continued.

The emergence of combat capabilities

Under the command of Artemas Ward, the army at Cambridge in June of 1775 numbered about sixteen thousand men from New England. In addition to Ward, John Thomas acted as executive officer, Richard Gridley commanded the artillery corps and was chief engineer.

The British force in Boston was increasing by fresh arrivals. It numbered then about ten thousand men. Maj. Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne had arrived late in May, and joined General Gage in forming and executing plans for dispersing the rebels. Feeling strong with these veteran officers and soldiers around him, and the presence of several ships-of-war under Admiral Graves, the governor issued a proclamation, declaring martial law, branding the entire Continental Army and supporters as "rebels" and "parricides of the Constitution." Amnesty was offered to those who gave up their allegiance to the Continental Army and Congress in favor of the British authorities, though Samuel Adams and John Hancock were still wanted for high treason. This proclamation only served to strengthen the resolve of the congress and army.

Throughout its existence, the army was troubled by poor logistics, spotty training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Two major mutinies diminished drastically two of the main units, and there were constant discipline problems.

The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at great human cost. General Washington, along with other distinguished officers, were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. Washington always viewed the army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain civilian control of the military.

Washington resigned his post when the Treaty of Paris was signed with the British in 1783, ending the war and confirming American independence. His willing yielding of power, at a time when many would have given him a crown, was crucial in averting a military dictatorship in the United States, and helped ensure that democracy would take root.

After the war, the officers of the Continental Line formed the Society of the Cincinnati in May of 1783. They elected General George Washington as President of the Society, and he served as President until his death in 1799. The Society has remained active since its formation in 1783, and is represented by the descendants of the officers of the respective State lines, as well as of France.

Major battles

Images for kids

1781 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign showing a black infantryman, on the far left, from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, one of the few regiments in the Continental Army having the largest majority of black patriot soldiers

Ribands as rank insignia: Aide-de-camp, commander-in-chief, brigadier-general

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The Continental Army was the unified command structure of the thirteen colonies fighting Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. The Army was created by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded on November 3, 1783 after the Treaty of Paris.

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Learn about the daily life of a Revolutionary War Soldier including the Continental army, the militia, how much they were paid, how old they were, and more.

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Learn about Valley Forge. The place where George Washington and the Continental Army spent the winter during the Revolutionary War.

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Learn about the Battle of Cowpens during the Revolutionary War including the commanders, where it was fought, before the battle, results, and interesting facts.

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Learn about African Americans during the Civil War including soldiers and regiments. Famous patriots such as Crispus Attucks, James Armistead, William Lee, and Peter Salem.

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United States Army

Founded

14 June 1775
(246 years, 2 months ago)

Country

United States

Type
Army

Role

Prompt and sustained land combat
Combined arms operations

Combined arms maneuver and wide area security

Armored and mechanized operations

Airborne and air assault operations

Special operations
Set and sustain the theater for the joint force
Integrate national, multinational, and joint power on land

Size

472,595 Regular Army personnel (31 December 2019)
331,881 Army National Guard personnel (31 December 2019)
191,007 Army Reserve personnel (31 December 2019)
995,483 total uniformed personnel (31 December 2019)
250,576 civilian personnel (31 December 2019)
1,246,059 total
4,406 manned aircraft

Part of

Department of the Army

Headquarters

The Pentagon
Arlington County, Virginia, U.S.

Motto(s)

"This We'll Defend"

Colors

Black, gold and white

March

"The Army Goes Rolling Along"

Mascot(s)

Army Mules

Anniversaries

Army Birthday: 14 June

Commanders

Commander-in-Chief

President Donald Trump

Secretary of Defense

Christopher C. Miller (acting)

Secretary of the Army

Ryan McCarthy

Chief of Staff

GEN James C. McConville

Vice Chief of Staff

GEN Joseph M. Martin

Sergeant Major of the Army

SMA Michael A. Grinston

Insignia

Flag

Logo

Field flag

The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services. The modern Army has its roots in the Continental Army which was formed on 14 June 1775, before the establishment of the United States, to meet the demands of the American Revolutionary War. The Congress of the Confederation officially created the United States Army on 3 June 1784 after the end of the revolutionary war to replace the disbanded Continental Army. The Army considers itself to be descended from the Continental Army and thus dates its inception from the origins of that force.

The primary mission of the Army is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities ... in support of the National Security and Defense Strategies." The Army is a military service within the Department of the Army, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Army is headed by the Secretary of the Army, and the highest ranking military officer in the department is the Chief of Staff of the Army.

It is the largest military branch, and in the fiscal year 2017, the projected end strength for the Regular Army (USA) was 476,000 soldiers; the Army National Guard (ARNG) had 343,000 soldiers and the U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) had 199,000 soldiers; the combined-component strength of the U.S. Army was 1,018,000 soldiers.

The United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U.S. military. The purpose of the Army as:

preserving the peace and security, and providing for the defense, of the United States, the Commonwealths and possessions, and any areas occupied by the United States

supporting the national policies

implementing the national objectives

overcoming any nations responsible for aggressive acts that imperil the peace and security of the United States

In the mid to late 1990s, the Army officially adopted what have come to be known as " The 7 Army Core Values." The Army began to teach these values as basic warrior traits. The seven Army Core Values are as follows:

1. Loyalty - Bear true faith and allegiance to the U.S. Constitution, the Army, your unit, and fellow Soldiers.

2. Duty - Fulfill your obligations.

3. Respect - Treat others as they should be treated.

4. Selfless Service - Put the welfare of the nation, the Army, and your subordinates before your own.

5. Honor - Live the Army Values.

6. Integrity - Do what's right, both legally and morally.

7. Personal Courage - Face fear, danger, or adversity, both physical and moral.

The values were arranged to form the acronym LDRSHIP (leadership).

The Infantryman's Creed

I am the Infantry.

I am my country's strength in war. Her deterrent in peace. I am the heart of the fight -- wherever, whenever. I carry America's faith and honor against her enemies. Never will I fail my country's trust. Always I fight on -- through the foe to the objective, to triumph over all. If necessary, I fight to my death. By my steadfast courage, I have won two hundred years of freedom. I yield not -- to weakness, to hunger, to cowardice, to fatigue, to superior odds, for I am mentally tough, physically strong, and morally straight. I forsake not -- my country, my mission, my comrades, my sacred duty. I am relentless. I am always there, now and forever. I AM THE INFANTRY!
FOLLOW ME!

The Continental Army was created on 14 June 1775 by the Continental Congress as a unified army for the states to fight Great Britain, with George Washington appointed as its commander. The Army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary war progressed, French aid, resources, and military thinking influenced the new army, while Prussian assistance and instructors, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, had a strong influence.

George Washington used the Fabian strategy and used hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the enemy was weakest, to wear down the British forces and their Hessian mercenary allies. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, and then turned south. With a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Spanish and the Dutch, the Continental Army prevailed against the British, and with the Treaty of Paris, the independence of the United States was acknowledged.

After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly disbanded as part of the American distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the new nation's sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The first of these, the Legion of the United States, was established in 1791 and disbanded in 1796.

19th century

The War of 1812, the second and last American war against Britain, was less successful than the Revolution had been. An invasion of Canada failed, and U.S. troops were unable to stop the British from burning the new capital of Washington, D.C.. However, the Regular Army, under Generals Winfield Scott and Jacob Brown, proved they were professional and capable of defeating a British army in the Niagara campaign of 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, though, Andrew Jackson defeated the British invasion of New Orleans. However this had little effect; as per the treaty both sides returned to the status quo.

Between 1815 and 1860, a spirit of Manifest Destiny was common in the U.S., and as settlers moved west the U.S. Army engaged in a long series of skirmishes and battles with Native Americans that the settlers uprooted. The U.S. Army also fought and won the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), which was a defining event for both countries. The U.S. victory resulted in acquisition of territory that eventually became all or parts of the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming and New Mexico.

The Civil War was the most costly war for the U.S. in terms of casualties. After most states in the South seceded to form the Confederate States of America, CSA troops opened fire on the Union-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, starting the war. For the first two years Confederate forces solidly defeated the U.S. Army, but after the decisive battles of Gettysburg in the east and Vicksburg in the west, combined with superior industrial might and numbers, Union troops fought a brutal campaign through Confederate territory and the war ended with a Confederate surrender at Appomatox Courthouse in April 1865. The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and 18% in the South.

Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army fought a long battle with Native Americans, who resisted U.S. expansion into the center of the continent. By the 1890s the U.S. saw itself as a potential international player. U.S. victories in the Spanish-American War and the controversial and less well known Philippine-American War, as well as U.S. intervention in Latin America and the Boxer Rebellion, gained America more land and power.

20th century

Starting in 1910, the Army began acquiring fixed-wing aircraft. In 1910, Mexico was having a civil war, peasant rebels fighting government soldiers. The Army was deployed to American towns near the border to ensure safety to lives and property. In 1916, Pancho Villa, a major rebel leader, attacked Columbus, New Mexico, prompting a U.S. intervention in Mexico until February 7, 1917. They fought the rebels and the Mexican federal troops until 1918. The United States joined World War I in 1917 on the side of Britain, France, Russia, and other allies. U.S. troops were sent to the front and were involved in the push that finally broke through the German lines. With the armistice in November 1918, the Army once again decreased its forces.

The U.S. joined World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. On the European front, U.S. Army troops formed a significant portion of the forces that captured North Africa and Sicily. On D-Day and in the subsequent liberation of Europe and defeat of Nazi Germany, millions of U.S. Army troops played a central role. In the Pacific, Army soldiers participated alongside U.S. Marines in capturing the Pacific Islands from Japanese control. Following the Axis surrenders in May (Germany) and August (Japan) of 1945, Army troops were deployed to Japan and Germany to occupy the two defeated nations. Two years after World War II, the Army Air Forces separated from the Army to become the United States Air Force in September 1947 after decades of attempting to separate. Also, in 1948 the Army was desegregated.

However, the end of World War II set the stage for the East-West confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation of a possible Soviet attack.

During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought Communist forces in Korea and Vietnam. The Korean War began in 1950, when the Soviets walked out of a U.N. Security meeting, removing their possible veto. Under a United Nations umbrella, hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops fought to prevent the takeover of South Korea by North Korea, and later, to invade the northern nation. After repeated advances and retreats by both sides, and the PRC People's Volunteer Army's entry into the war, the Korean Armistice Agreement returned the peninsula to the status quo in 1953.

The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point in the Army's record due to the use of drafted personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating restrictions placed on the Army by US political leaders. While American forces had been stationed in the Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence & advising/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American forces effectively established and maintained control of the "traditional" battlefield, however they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tactical level, American soldiers (and the US military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle.

The Total Force Policy was adopted by Chief of Staff of the Army General Creighton Abrams in the aftermath of the Vietnam War and involves treating the three components of the Army - the Regular Army, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve as a single force. Believing that no U.S. president should be able to take the United States (and more specifically the US Army) to war without the support of the American people, General Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the Army in such a way as to make extended operations impossible, without the involvement of both the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.

The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 created Unified Combatant Commands bringing the Army together with the other four military under unified, geographically organized command structures. The Army also played a role in the invasions of Grenada in 1983 ( Operation Urgent Fury) and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause).

By 1989 Germany was nearing reunification and the Cold War was coming to a close. The Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. By November 1989 Pentagon briefers were laying out plans to reduce Army endstrength by 23%, from 750,000 to 580,000. A number of incentives such as early retirement were used. In 1990 Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces, quickly deployed to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991 Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S.-led coalition which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces. The campaign ended in total victory for the Army, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet lines, in just one hundred hours.

After Desert Storm, the Army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s but did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities. In 1990 the Department of Defense issued guidance for "rebalancing" after a review of the Total Force Policy, but in 2004, Air War College scholars concluded the guidance would reverse the Total Force Policy which is an "essential ingredient to the successful application of military force."

21st century

After the September 11 attacks, and as part of the Global War on Terror, U.S. and NATO combined arms (i.e. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine, Special Operations) forces invaded Afghanistan in 2001, displacing the Taliban government.

The Army led the combined U.S. and allied Invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, and Iraq in 2003. In the following years the mission changed from conflict between regular militaries to counterinsurgency, with large numbers of suicide attacks resulting in the deaths of more than 4,000 U.S service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more. The lack of stability in the theater of operations has led to longer deployments for Regular Army as well as Reserve and Guard troops.

Until 2009, the army's chief modernization plan, its most ambitious since World War II, was the Future Combat Systems program. In 2009, many systems were canceled, and the remaining were swept into the BCT modernization program. By 2017, the Brigade Modernization project was completed and its headquarters, the Brigade Modernization Command, was renamed the Joint Modernization Command, or JMC. In response to Budget sequestration in 2013, Army plans were to shrink to 1940 levels, although actual Active-Army end-strengths were projected to fall to some 450,000 troops by the end of FY2017. From 2016 to 2017, the Army retired hundreds of OH-58 Kiowa Warrior observation helicopters, while retaining its Apache gunships. The 2015 expenditure for Army research, development and acquisition changed from $32 billion projected in 2012 for FY15 to $21 billion for FY15 expected in 2014.

The chief of staff of the Army has identified six modernization priorities, in order: artillery, ground vehicles, aircraft, network, air/missile defense, and soldier lethality.

Individual weapons

The army employs various individual weapons to provide light firepower at short ranges. The most common weapon type used by the army is the M4 carbine, a compact variant of the M16 rifle, along with the 7.62×51mm variant of the FN SCAR for Army Rangers. The primary sidearm in the U.S. Army is the 9 mm M9 pistol; the M11 pistol is also used. Both handguns are to be replaced by the M17 through the Modular Handgun System program. Soldiers are also equipped with various hand grenades, such as the M67 fragmentation grenade and M18 smoke grenade.

Many units are supplemented with a variety of specialized weapons, including the M249 SAW (Squad Automatic Weapon), to provide suppressive fire at the squad level. Indirect fire is provided by the M320 grenade launcher. The M1014 Joint Service Combat Shotgun or the Mossberg 590 Shotgun are used for door breaching and close-quarters combat. The M14EBR is used by designated marksmen. Snipers use the M107 Long Range Sniper Rifle, the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle and the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper Rifle.

Crew-served weapons

The army employs various crew-served weapons to provide heavy firepower at ranges exceeding that of individual weapons.

The M240 is the U.S. Army's standard Medium Machine Gun. The M2 heavy machine gun is generally used as a vehicle-mounted machine gun. In the same way, the 40 mm MK 19 grenade machine gun is mainly used by motorized units.

The U.S. Army uses three types of mortar for indirect fire support when heavier artillery may not be appropriate or available. The smallest of these is the 60 mm M224, normally assigned at the infantry company level. At the next higher echelon, infantry battalions are typically supported by a section of 81 mm M252 mortars. The largest mortar in the army's inventory is the 120 mm M120/M121, usually employed by mechanized units.

Fire support for light infantry units is provided by towed howitzers, including the 105 mm M119A1 and the 155 mm M777.

The U.S. Army utilizes a variety of direct-fire rockets and missiles to provide infantry with an Anti-Armor Capability. The AT4 is an unguided projectile that can destroy armor and bunkers at ranges up to 500 meters. The FIM-92 Stinger is a shoulder-launched, heat seeking anti-aircraft missile. The FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are anti-tank guided missiles.

U.S. Army doctrine puts a premium on mechanized warfare. It fields the highest vehicle-to-soldier ratio in the world as of 2009. The army's most common vehicle is the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), commonly called the Humvee, which is capable of serving as a cargo/troop carrier, weapons platform and ambulance, among many other roles. While they operate a wide variety of combat support vehicles, one of the most common types centers on the family of HEMTT vehicles. The M1A2 Abrams is the army's main battle tank, while the M2A3 Bradley is the standard infantry fighting vehicle. Other vehicles include the Stryker, the M113 armored personnel carrier and multiple types of Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.

The U.S. Army's principal artillery weapons are the M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer and the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS), both mounted on tracked platforms and assigned to heavy mechanized units.

While the United States Army Aviation Branch operates a few fixed-wing aircraft, it mainly operates several types of rotary-wing aircraft. These include the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter, the UH-60 Black Hawk utility tactical transport helicopter and the CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift transport helicopter. Restructuring plans call for reduction of 750 aircraft and from 7 to 4 types.

Under the Johnson-McConnell agreement of 1966, the Army agreed to limit its fixed-wing aviation role to administrative mission support (light unarmed aircraft which cannot operate from forward positions). For UAVs, the Army is deploying at least one company of drone MQ-1C Gray Eagles to each Active Army division.

The Army Combat Uniform (ACU) currently features a camouflage pattern known as Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP); OCP replaced a pixel-based pattern known as Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP) in 2019.

On 11 November 2018, the Army announced a new version of 'Army Greens' based on uniforms worn during World War II will become the standard garrison service uniform. The blue Army Service Uniform will remain as the dress uniform. The Army Greens are projected to be first fielded in summer of 2020.

The beret flash of enlisted personnel displays their distinctive unit insignia (shown above). The U.S. Army's black beret is no longer worn with the ACU for garrison duty, having been permanently replaced with the patrol cap. After years of complaints that it was not suited well for most work conditions, Army chief of staff General Martin Dempsey eliminated it for wear with the ACU in June 2011. Soldiers who are currently in a unit in jump status still wear berets, whether the wearer is parachute-qualified or not (maroon beret), while members of Security Force Assistance Brigades (SFABs) wear brown berets. Members of the 75th Ranger Regiment and the Airborne and Ranger Training Brigade (tan beret) and Special Forces (rifle green beret) may wear it with the Army Service Uniform for non-ceremonial functions. Unit commanders may still direct the wear of patrol caps in these units in training environments or motor pools.

The Army has relied heavily on tents to provide the various facilities needed while on deployment. The most common tent uses for the military are as temporary barracks (sleeping quarters), DFAC buildings (dining facilities), forward operating bases (FOBs), after action review (AAR), tactical operations center (TOC), morale, welfare and recreation (MWR) facilities, as well as security checkpoints. Furthermore, most of these tents are set up and operated through the support of Natick Soldier Systems Center. Each FPE contains billeting, latrines, showers, laundry and kitchen facilities for 50-150 Soldiers, and is stored in Army Prepositioned Stocks 1, 2, 4 and 5. This provisioning allows combatant commanders to position soldiers as required in their Area of Responsibility, within 24 to 48 hours.

The U.S. Army is beginning to use a more modern tent called the deployable rapid assembly shelter (DRASH). In 2008, DRASH became part of the Army's Standard Integrated Command Post System.

Related pages

Images for kids

U.S. Army soldiers prepare to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City during the United States invasion of Panama

Army Rangers take part in a raid during operation in Nahr-e Saraj, Afghanistan.

Rangers practice fast roping techniques from an MH-47 during an exercise at Fort Bragg

Lockheed Martin Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system used by the army for ballistic missile protection

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United States Army Founded 14 June 1775 (246 years, 2 months ago) Country United States Type Army Role Prompt and sustained land combat Combined arms operations Combined arms maneuver and wide area security Armored and mechanized operations Airborne and air assault operations Special operations Set and sustain the theater for

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Learn about the biography of Benedict Arnold, general who turned traitor during the Revolutionary War.

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Learn about the Soldiers Uniforms and Gear during the Revolutionary War. The British wore red coats while many Americans wore their own clothes.

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Minutemen is a name given to members of the militia of the American Colonies, who would be ready for battle in a minute's notice.

The term minutemen has also been applied to various later United States' military units to recall the success and patriotism of the originals.

As early as 1645 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, some men were selected from the general ranks of town-based "training bands" to be ready for rapid deployment.

The militia in the Province of Massachusetts had a long history of extended conflict. ( See King Philip's War, and Battles of Lexington and Concord.) Every generation of New Englander had known fighting, every town had a militia, and every man between 16 and 60 years of age was asked to join. Most of these men were farmers. Many were descendants of the few original settlers of each town, and so it was very common to be fighting alongside cousins and in-laws.

Some towns in Massachusetts had a long history of designating a portion of their militia as Minutemen, but others prefered to keep their entire militia in a single unit. After The Powder Alarm in the fall of 1774, Patriot leaders in the newly formed Massachusetts Provincial Congress recommended that all militias contain minute companies -- special units within the militia system whose members underwent additional training and to hold themselves ready to turn out quickly ("at a minute's notice") for emergencies. Some towns followed this recommendation and altered their unit structures but some took no action.

The Minutemen were usually 25 years of age or younger, and they were chosen for their enthusiasm, reliability, and strength. They were the first armed militia to arrive or await a battle. Officers were elected by popular vote, and each unit drafted a formal written covenant to be signed upon enlistment. They typically assembled four times per year for training during peacetime. It was common, sometimes even in the middle of battle, for officers to make decisions through consultation with their men as opposed to giving orders to be followed without question.

Popular histories of the Battle of Lexington and Concord in 1775, the first battle of the American Revolutionary War, have often labelled all the irregulars on the American side as Minutemen, most notably Captain John Parker's Lexington Militia, but, at the time of the battle, all of Lexington's militiamen were organized into a single large unit and were still called by the archaic name of "town training band."

Other colonies, faced with similar problems, had organized similar minute companies. Over time, minutemen became a generic term for any American militia.

Motivation

The New England town meeting style of local decision-making in combination with the colonial legislature meant that, for nearly all functions of government, these men had already experienced generations of self-rule. Even though most of them could not express lofty sentiments about the rights of man and the purposes of government, they knew that the same British Army of professional soldiers who had once fought with them against a common enemy was now in their land to take something important away from them. One Massachusetts man used the phrase "An Englishman's home is his castle" when he explained to his friends why he had barricaded himself behind his front door to fight the British Army as it passed by during the final phase of the Battle of Lexington and Concord. The typical individual American Patriot in Massachusetts fought for a political idea even at this first stage of the war when independence from Fly High Enterprise was not yet a common sentiment.

Equipment, training, and tactics

Most Colonial militia units were provided neither arms nor uniforms, and so had to equip themselves. Many simply wore their own farmers' or workmans' clothes, while others had buckskin hunting outfits. Some added Indian-style touches to intimidate the enemy, even including war-paint. Most used hunting rifles, which did not have bayonets, but were accurate at long range.

The Continental Army regulars received European-style military training later in the American Revolutionary War, but the militias did not get much of this. Rather than fight formal battles in the traditional dense lines and columns, they were better when used as irregulars, primarily as skirmishers and sharpshooters.

Their experience suited irregular warfare. Most were familiar with frontier hunting. The Indian Wars, and especially the recent French and Indian War, had taught both the men and officers the value of irregular warfare, while many British troops fresh from Europe were less familiar with this. The wilderness terrain that lay just beyond many colonial towns, very familiar to the local minuteman, favored this style of combat.

The rifled-musket used by most minutemen was also well suited to this role. The "rifling" (grooves inside the barrel) that gave the rifle its name gave it a much greater range than the smoothbore musket, although it took much longer to load. Because of the lower rate of fire, rifles weren't used by regular infantry, but were preferred for hunting. When performing as skirmishers, the minutemen could fire and fall back behind cover or other troops before the British could get into range. The increased range and accuracy of the rifle, along with a lifetime of hunting to develop marksmanship, earned minutemen sharpshooters a deadly reputation.

Ammunition and supplies were not only in short demand, but were constantly being seized by British patrols. As a precaution, these items were often hidden or left behind by minutemen in fields or wooded areas. Other popular concealment methods were to hide items underneath floorboards in houses and barns.

In commemoration of the centenary of the first successful armed resistance to British forces, Daniel Chester French, in his first major commission, produced one of his most well known statues (along with the Lincoln Memorial), the Concord Minuteman. Inscribed on the pediment is the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson's 1837 Concord Hymn with the immortal words, "Shot heard 'round the world." Traditionally, the statue's likeness is said to be based on Isaac Davis, the Captain of the Acton Militia and first to be killed in Concord during the 1775 battle.

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Minutemen is a name given to members of the militia of the American Colonies, who would be ready for battle in a minute's notice. The term minutemen has also been applied to various later United States' military units to recall the success and patriotism of the originals.

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Outfitting An American Revolutionary Army

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Outfitting An American Revolutionary Army

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by J. Lloyd Durham
Reprinted with permission from the Tar Heel Junior Historian. Fall 1992.
Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History

When the Americans began to fight for independence, the British government was able to provide their soldiers and weapons to combat the rebels. But the American rebels had to try to put together an army without money and without a strong government to organize that effort. Each colony raised regiments of soldiers to send to the Continental Line, the main army. Each colony also had its own militia to protect its citizens and property, if the British army should come within its borders.

Supplying the Troops

Supplying the American troops was an extremely difficult task. There were very few factories in the colonies that could produce the weapons and the equipment needed by an army. The money necessary to pay for supplies was issued by the new state governments and the new central government. But this money did not have the trust of the business people and had very little value.

Another problem was getting the supplies to the soldiers. When the Continental army was able to get supplies, they had to be shipped great distances, usually by wagon across rugged trails and roads. The wagons were sometimes attacked and taken by enemy troops or by highwaymen-outlaws.

American soldiers also took supplies from the British army. After defeating the Loyalists at Moore's Creek Bridge in February 1776, North Carolina troops seized 1,500 firearms, 150 swords and dirks, ammunition, two valuable medicine chests, and thirteen wagons. This equipment was put to use against British troops.

Muskets

Weapons were the army's main concern. The most important weapon during the American Revolution was the musket-a long smoothbore gun (a gun without grooves inside its barrel) fired from the shoulder-with a bayonet attached at the end. These weapons led to a certain style of fighting in the 1700s. Muskets could be aimed and fired accurately only at a target that was within one hundred yards. So the armies fought in groups of men, organized as regiments, at close range. The enemy regiments would line up face-to-face and fire two or three volleys-a volley involved firing all the muskets at once-and then charge with bayonets. The losing regiment was either driven from the battlefield or forced to surrender.

The idea was that because the muskets could not be aimed very accurately at a distance, the regiments would fill the air with massive amounts of lead. This shower of lead would strike down many of the enemy, causing gaps in their line. The regiment could then charge through the gaps, creating disorder and panic and causing the enemy soldiers to retreat or surrender. Speed was an important factor. A trained soldier could fire a musket about four times a minute. The flintlock type of firearm fired when a piece of flint struck steel. This created a spark, which in turn set off black powder/gunpowder in the barrel of the gun. This type of gun did not work in wet weather because the loose gunpowder got damp and would not ignite. Consequently, both armies avoided battles when it was raining.

The British army used the "Brown Bess," a musket that fired one-ounce lead balls. These guns were used by American soldiers when they could be captured from the British soldiers.

When the war began, American soldiers used the weapons from their state's militia stores or from home. Recognizing a shortage, the Continental Congress and the individual colonies placed orders with American gunsmiths to make as many flintlocks as possible. Muskets were also bought from European manufacturers.

In 1778 France became an ally of the colonies in their fight against England. The French government sent large quantities of French muskets. These muskets were much lighter in weight than the British army's "Brown Bess" and fired a smaller lead ball. They were a favored weapon of the Continental soldier.

Muskets could be fitted with a bayonet that made them into a "spear that could shoot." The soldiers would use bayonets for hand-to-hand combat when they charged the enemy after firing their volleys. The bayonets had sharp points that were used to thrust and jab at the enemy.

Bayonets were brutally effective weapons, causing many of the wounds and deaths during battles.

Rifles

Another type of weapon was the American long rifle. Many legends surround the American long rifle in the Revolution.

The rifle was a long gun made with grooves inside its barrel which made it more accurate than a musket. It was very accurate up to 300 yards and thus was a powerful weapon in the hands of scouts and skirmishers. American riflemen were so feared that some British officers were advised to remove the gold trimmings from their coats. However, the rifle was a slow weapon to reload and did not have a bayonet. A rifleman could be overtaken quickly by dragoons-troops on horseback-or by men with bayonets. North Carolina riflemen participated in defeating the British at the Battle of Kings Mountain.

Small Arms

The armies also had small arms-weapons that could be carried in a soldier's hand. These included pistols, sabers, and other spear-like weapons called spontoons and halberds. Often these weapons were carried by officers and sergeants as a sign of rank. Officers, particularly, carried smallswords. Dragoons were equipped with pistols and sabers. For North Carolina mounted troops, sabers were often made from steel saws by local blacksmiths. Pistols were rare.

Artillery

Also very important to the armies was artillery-large guns mounted so they could be moved easily and fired by a crew of men. Artillery included field cannon used on the battlefield, cannon used in forts and on ships, and cannon called howitzers and mortars used to drop bombs into a fort or a confined area such as a ship. North Carolina had artillery companies at various places throughout the war. It also sent an independent artillery company to the North Carolina Brigade with General George Washington's army.

Equipment of the Continental Army Soldier

During the war, Continental soldiers were the core of the American Revolutionary war effort. These were the men that General Washington and Congress depended most upon. Congress raised the Continental army by calling on the individual states to organize regiments of soldiers. North Carolina was asked to raise two regiments of five hundred men each. Eventually it sent ten regiments of infantry to the Continental Line. These regiments were formed into a single brigade called the North Carolina Brigade. This brigade joined Washington's army in 1777.

The Continental infantryman had equipment that was like that of the British soldier. In addition to a musket, he carried on his right side a leather or tin cartridge box that held twenty to thirty rounds of ammunition, a musket tool, and a supply of flints. On his left side he carried his bayonet in a leather scabbard attached to a linen or leather shoulder strap. Each soldier had a haversack, usually made of linen, to carry his food rations and eating utensils. The utensils usually included a fork made of wrought iron, a pewter or horn spoon, a knife, a plate, and a cup. He also had a canteen of wood, tin, or glass to carry water. A knapsack held extra clothing and other personal items such as a razor for shaving, a tinderbox with flint and steel for starting a fire, candle holders, a comb, and a mirror. Soldiers also often carried a fishhook and some twine so that they could catch some fish when they were near a lake, creek, or river.

Equipment of a Militiaman

The Continental army often used the local militia to help out. The militia, made up of male citizens over sixteen years of age, was the defense force of each state. Regiments of militia were called up for service by the governor or the commanding general to serve for a campaign or for a period of time as needed. These soldiers were told what equipment they had to bring with them.

The militia soldier carried equipment that looked different from that of the Continental soldier but that usually performed the same or similar function. His knapsack was generally made from linen or canvas and sometimes painted. His haversack and canteen were usually similar to those used by the Continentals. He also had an ax and a blanket.

A militia rifleman carried his rifle, knife, tomahawk-a light ax, water bottle, a powderhorn for his black powder, and a hunting pouch that held other shooting supplies. Sometimes a patch knife, used to cut a patch of cloth, and a loading block, which held patched bullets enabling the rifleman to load quicker, were attached to the strap of the hunting pouch. In addition, a charger measured the amount of powder to put into the rifle when loading.

Uniforms

Uniforms were a vital consideration to the armies. During this period, battles fought with black-powder weapons would produce enough smoke to make it difficult to see more than a few yards. Clouds of thick smoke would form over the battlefield. It was important to distinguish between friend and foe. Because the smoke was white, bright colors were used for uniforms. The British wore, for the most part, red and scarlet uniforms; the French, uniforms of white and differing shades of blue; and the Americans, dark blues and browns.

Congress did not adopt a Continental uniform until 1779. However, soldiers attempted to have clothing similar to the others in the company or regiment. Many volunteer companies entered the war in uniforms purchased by themselves or their commanders.

The uniform of the American soldier was made up of:

a hat, usually turned up on one or three sides,

a shirt made of linen or cotton,

a black leather stock, worn around the neck,

a wool coat, usually with collar, cuffs, and lapels that were a different color

a waistcoat or vest, usually made of linen or wool,

a pair of wool, linen, or cotton trousers, either breeches that were gathered just below the knee, or overalls,

stockings, and

leather shoes.

Congress adopted brown as the official color for uniforms in 1775. But there was a shortage of brown cloth, so some regiments dressed in blue and gray. In September 1778 Congress received a large shipment of uniforms from France. The North Carolina Continental Line regiments received blue coats faced with red collars, cuffs, and lapels. In October 1779 Congress adopted regulations requiring North Carolina troops to wear a uniform made of a blue coat with blue facing and laced with white around the buttonholes.

North Carolina troops frequently were without proper uniforms, but the most difficult item to supply was shoes. In 1777 officers from one regiment appealed to Governor Richard Caswell for help, stating that the men were "without blankets or tents or shoes." The governor noted that many of the privates of the Independent Artillery Company were barefoot. The winter of 1777-1778 was a hard winter for the American soldiers. Driving rains turned to snow and sleet, causing great suffering to men without shoes. General Washington wrote: "You might have tracked the army . . . to Valley Forge by the blood of their feet." Eventually the government was able to supply the necessary shoes to the North Carolinians.

Hunting Shirts

Along with the American long rifle, the American hunting shirt became famous in the American Revolution. It was generally made of homespun linen and cut in a long overshirt or wraparound style. It had rows of fringe around the edges and fit loosely so the wearer could move easily. Favored by General Washington, it was frequently worn by both Continentals and the militia. In 1776 Washington described it: "No dress can be cheaper nor more convenient, as the wearer may be cool in warm weather and warm in cold weather by putting on [additional clothes]. . . . "

In 1775 when the North Carolina Congress raised a battalion of ten companies of minutemen, or militia, it called for these men to be uniformed in hunting shirts. General Washington stated that a man wearing a hunting shirt created "no small terror to the enemy who think every such person is a complete marksman." Aside from hunting shirts, the militia usually wore homespun wool coats in a variety of colors and patterns and waistcoats, breeches, and stockings.

Equipment for the Camp

Equipment for camp was vitally important to the soldier's comfort as well as his life. Probably the most important piece of camp equipment for the American soldier in the American Revolution was his blanket. It protected him against the cold, and, when he did not have a tent to sleep in, from the moisture in the air. It also served as an overcoat when a soldier did not have one. Blankets were usually made of wool, and Governor Caswell considered them a priority when he supplied the troops.

Tents provided protection from the cold and rain. They came in various sizes, generally depending on the occupant's rank. The officers' larger tents were called marquees. They were made of canvas or heavy cotton, usually about ten feet across by fourteen-feet deep by eight-feet high. By comparison, a private's tent was about six-and-one-half-feet square by five-feet high. It was expected to hold five men.

Food

Feeding the army was difficult, especially during the winter. When the army was marching or on a campaign, soldiers were given a type of biscuit or hard bread and ears of corn. Sometimes there was a packet of cornmeal and, when available, some dried beef. Baggage wagons carried the provisions and rations in front of the North Carolina soldiers as the men marched. This was done so that when the campsite was reached, the men could pick up the rations from the wagons as they passed by.

In camp, cooking utensils were necessary because food was issued in raw form. A set of cooking utensils was usually issued to every six or eight men. This included a kettle, cooking forks and spoons, and often a water bucket. Soldiers usually provided their own forks, spoons, and knives to eat with. They also needed a plate, usually made of wood or pewter, and a drinking cup. In the North Carolina Brigade, soldiers were not allowed to put any of their personal property in the baggage wagons when they were on the march. They had to carry their own blankets, kettles, and other personal items.

In 1777 it was ordered that each soldier would receive one pound of flour or bread, one and one-half pound of beef or pork, and one quart of beer per day. Each week he would receive five pints of peas, one pint of meal, and six ounces of butter. Vinegar was issued on occasion and rum was issued to those men working around the camp and on guard duty. It was recommended that the men should always boil or roast their provisions.

Supply Shortages

Often it was hard to get supplies, and the shortages hurt the war effort. The North Carolina troops planned an expedition to Georgia and Florida, but it failed for lack of supplies. One officer defended General Robert Howe of North Carolina, stating that the public was "throwing a thousand reflections on the General and the army for not marching to attack the enemy and storm lines, without provisions and without ammunition." The officer elaborated, "What can be more cruel than crowding eight, ten, and twelve men into one tent, and oblige those who cannot get in, to sleep in the heavy dews?" Ten to fifteen men were using one camp kettle and six to eight men were sharing one canteen. Sometimes when supplies were issued, there was confusion as to whether they were meant for the Continental Line troops or the state militia regiments.

With poor shelter and food, and lack of sanitary conditions, thousands of soldiers fell seriously ill and many died. Overcrowding in tents and hospitals caused the diseases to spread. Soldiers sent to hospitals with one disease often acquired a second one while they were there. In an effort to prevent sickness, the North Carolina Brigade was often ordered to clean their camp and warned not to throw bones and scraps of meat around their tents. The troops were ordered to keep themselves as clean as possible. Eight pounds of soap was distributed each week to every hundred men. A general order in 1777 called for the North Carolina Continental troops to shave their beards and to be properly dressed in regimental uniforms.

The Continentals and militiamen from North Carolina were never supplied as well as some of the soldiers from the wealthier or more industrial states. However, they seemed to make up for their lack of supplies and equipment with their willingness to endure hardship. At Valley Forge during the cruel winter of 1777-1778, the North Carolina Brigade had the lowest number of desertions of any state although it was the poorest in provisions and clothing. Perhaps by this time, the North Carolinians had grown accustomed to doing without.

After General Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington and then to Virginia in 1781, the North Carolina militia generally controlled the state and its resources. Food and equipment were supplied more regularly to its troops fighting in South Carolina and elsewhere. After Cornwallis surrendered to General Washington in October, the shortages the Carolina troops experienced were due more to a general feeling that the war was over and North Carolinians did not have to worry so much about supplying the army.

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Outfitting an American Revolutionary Soldier

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by J. Lloyd Durham Reprinted with permission from the Tar Heel Junior Historian. Fall 1992. Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History When the Americans began to fight for independence, the British government was able to provide their soldiers and weapons to combat the rebels.

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By Kevin Stanley Many soldiers of the British regular army believed the colonial militia consisted of low-quality soldiers who came from the dregs of society. Most were sure the militia would make little difference in the outcome of the war. In reality, the soldiers of the colonial militia came from all walks of life, endured many hardships, and contributed greatly to the war effort. All of this was done according to strict terms set by the colonials. The ranks of the colonial militia were usually filled by average citizens. They came from all walks of life and different ethnic groups. Many of them were native-born colonists, British immigrants, as well as free blacks. However, a majority of the men were Scotch-Irish, as seen in the Pennsylvania regiments (Stephenson-205). The average soldier of the militia served alongside Rangers, Highlanders, Iroquois Indians, and British regulars (Dillard-50). Much of the British regular army was recruited from the lowest social classes. The enlisted were often petty criminals, beggars, common laborers or subsistence farmers (Anderson-499). Because the British officer's own troops often consisted of these types, they were more than willing to believe the same about the colonial soldier. British officers showed contempt for both the colonial enlisted soldiers and colonial officers alike (Anderson-501). While it was true that many of the militia came from the lower social classes, more than a few were from middle income families. A soldier's social status and civilian occupation depended greatly upon where he was recruited. Soldiers who came from Pennsylvania were usually laborers. The surviving muster rolls show that about sixty percent of the soldiers listed were laborers. The remaining forty percent were either artisans or skilled workers (Stephenson-206). The majority of the artisans from the Pennsylvania colony worked in the cloth, wood, or leather trades. Most of the artisans were cloth workers, while the remainder came from the cooper and carpentry trades. Evidence of this can be seen from the statistics for those soldiers recruited from the Philadelphia area (Stephenson-206). Those who were recruited from outside Philadelphia had a higher percentage of manual laborers in their ranks. Only about half the number of skilled trades seen in the city were present in the rural areas. About twice as many skilled artisans came from the cities of colonial America. (Stephenson-207). Those who enlisted from other parts of the colonies had almost the exact opposite percentage of laborers versus artisans. Only twenty six percent of those soldiers who came from the colony of Massachusetts were listed as laborers before entering the militia. About fifty two percent of the Massachusetts soldiers were skilled artisans before enlisting. Quite the opposite of those from Pennsylvania (Anderson-512). Many of the colonial soldiers came from landed families. These were not men who saw the army as a steady source of income. In fact, they certainly did not need a military income to survive.

Reasons for Enlistment

If this were true, then why were so many young men enlisting? The answer to this question may lie in the inheritance practices of colonial Massachusetts (Anderson-519). Many eastern towns had an average population density of sixty to one hundred people per square mile (Anderson-519). Since a workable farm could be no less than forty or fifty acres, many fathers resisted the urge to divide their farms into equal portions among their sons. The most reasonable thing to do was keep the land intact, and give it to one heir upon the father's death. The other sons received their inheritance in different ways which ranged from cash to securing an apprenticeship (Anderson-520). This practice kept the farm intact and ensured his sons an opportunity for a better life (Anderson-520). Because the acquisition of land was the primary way a young man became independent of his family, he needed a means to buy the land without having to wait for his inheritance. One way to do this was to enlist in the colonial army. While a young man would not get rich, he could save enough money to pay for a good piece of land. A colonial soldier usually served eight months in the military. He was not paid until his enlistment was completed (Anderson-523). In addition to receiving eight months pay in a lump sum, the colonial soldier usually received a bonus upon enlistment. The amount of this bonus varied from one to eight months pay. A private usually earned a total of fifteen pounds by enlisting. This sum could buy thirty acres in Andover, Massachusetts, or as much as one hundred fifty acres in less populated areas (Anderson-523). Although many of the colonial soldiers did come from the lowest ranks of society, they were by no means the only ones who enlisted. Many of the sons of middle class colonial families enlisted as well. In fact, many young men saw enlistment as an opportunity to gain early independence from their families. During the course of the war thirty percent of those who were born between 1725 and 1745 served in the military (Anderson-526). Between the years 1755 and 1762 Massachusetts alone supplied over 15,000 men for the colonial army (Morgan-512).

Terms and Conditions of Enlistment

Colonial soldiers served under different conditions than the men who served in the British regular army. A term of enlistment for colonial servicemen was usually measured in months, not years. Early in the war colonial often served terms of six months or less (Stephenson-201). The most common term of enlistment throughout the war for the colonial soldier was eight months (Anderson-406). Enlistment was viewed by the colonial soldier as a contract, or covenant, between himself and the officer he enlisted under (Anderson-400). The colonials had a deep devotion to covenants which could be seen in the marriage between a man and woman, church covenants between congregation members, and most importantly the salvation covenant between man and God (Anderson-401). The British officers did not understand this contract mentality, and found they could do nothing to discourage it (Anderson-414). The colonial soldier saw the contract of enlistment as a binding agreement between himself and the officer he served. This contract involved a specific term of service for which the soldier received specific compensation (Anderson-414). If either party made an attempt to alter the terms of the contract, then the agreement became void. If this occurred, the colonials saw themselves as no longer bound by their contract, and therefore free to leave (Anderson-414).

Hardships of the Soldier

Even though the provincial soldiers protested sharply when they believed they had not been treated fairly, they performed admirably in combat. Similar to the American colonists who served with the British, the French army was supplemented by Canadian irregulars. These irregulars aided the French in their efforts to defeat the British at strategic battles like the siege of Fort William Henry (Nicolai-58). The American colonial soldier endured many hardships during the siege of Fort William Henry. The French general, Montcalm, and his forces defeated the British and took the fort on August 9, 1757. Colonel Monro and his troops received generous surrender terms (Purvis-71). In return for their capitulation, the British were allowed to leave the fort with their arms and their personal equipment as long as they agreed not to bear arms against the French for eighteen months (Purvis-71). Many of the British troops were not as fortunate as their comrades. The Indian allies of the French - who felt cheated out of their plunder because of the surrender terms - began harassing Monro's men after they vacated the fort (Purvis-71). Some of the Indians' anger was vented by murdering the wounded soldiers and Indians who were left behind at the fort (Purvis-71). The black soldiers who fought for the British were not killed, but they fared no better in the end. They were captured by the Indians and sold as slaves in Louisiana for the high price they brought (Purvis-72). Because of the loss at Fort William Henry, several hundred British regulars and colonial militia were taken prisoner by the Indians (Purvis-71). The terms of imprisonment could vary greatly for the soldiers. Some were sold by the Indians to the French, and quickly exchanged to the British for French POWs. Others, like Sgt. William McCracken were not as lucky. He was bought by the French and then shipped to France where he served his sentence (Purvis-73). Although he was imprisoned for two years, Sgt. McCracken fared better than other POWs captured by the Indians at Fort William Henry. A French priest reported seeing the Ottawa kill and eat one of their prisoners (Purvis-70).

Military-Civilian Relations

While many of the American colonists readily joined the colonial militia, relations between the military and civilians were often strained at best. This occurred for a variety of reasons. First, the attempts to house British and provincial soldiers in private quarters. Second, the impressment of private wagons for military use. Third, the recruitment of indentured servants. Of the three reasons listed above, the billeting of soldiers in private quarters caused the most strain. Citizens of Lancaster Pennsylvania resisted attempts to billet the military in private quarters by refusing to house the soldiers. Outraged by this, British general Montgomery solved the problem by using force (Brodine-217). The townspeople protested this action to the new commander-in-chief General Jeffery Amherst. Amherst responded by stating that billeting soldiers in private quarters was unavoidable when adequate public housing was unavailable. In doing so, Amherst made it quite clear that citizens' rights were subordinate to wartime needs (Brodine-218).

Conclusion

The soldiers who fought during the French and Indian War came from many different walks of life and joined the military for different reasons. Some enlisted because they were living on the edge of society as unskilled laborers and saw the military as an opportunity to gain a steady income. Others were searching for a way to gain independence and make a life of their own without having to wait for their inheritance. No matter what their reasons for joining the military, these men fought bravely, endured many hardships and played a key role in the war between the French and the British on the American continent. They not only endured hardships, but faced the risk of imprisonment or death. The militia also encountered disdain from their fellow soldiers in the regular army as well as resentment from citizens whose personal property often had to be appropriated for the war effort. The soldiers of the colonial militia endured all these hardships while fighting bravely in a bitter war. Provided they could do it on their own terms.

Bibliography

1. Anderson, Fred. "A People's Army: Provincial Military Service in Massachusetts During the Seven Years' War." The William and Mary Quarterly 40.4 (1983): 499-527. 2. Anderson, Fred. "Why Did Colonial New Englanders Make Bad Soldiers? Contractual Principles and Military Conduct During the Seven Years' War." The William and Mary Quarterly 38.3 (1981): 395-417. 3. Brodine, Charles. "Civil-Military Relations in Pennsylvania, 1758-1760: An Examination of John Shy's Thesis." Pennsylvania History 62.2 (1995): 213-233. 4. Dillard, Annie. "The French and Indian War: A Memoir." American Heritage 38.5 (1987): 49-53. 5. Morgan, Kenneth. "The Impact of the Seven Years' War on Massachusetts Provincial Soldiers." Reviews in American History 13.4 (1984): 512-517. 6. Nicolai, Martin, L. "A Different Kind of Courage: The French Military and the Canadian Irregular Soldier During the Seven Years' War." Canadian Historical Review 70.1 (1989): 53-75. 7. Purvis, Thomas L. "The Aftermath of Fort William Henry's Fall: New Jersey Captives Among the French and Indians." New Jersey History 103.3-4 (1985): 69-79. 8. Stephenson, R.S. "Pennsylvania Provincial Soldiers in the Seven Years' War." Pennsylvania History 62.2 (1995): 196-212. 1. Anderson, Fred. "A People's Army: Provincial Military Service in Massachusetts During the Seven Years' War." The William and Mary Quarterly 40.4 (1983): 499-527. 2. Anderson, Fred. "Why Did Colonial New Englanders Make Bad Soldiers? Contractual Principles and Military Conduct During the Seven Years' War." The William and Mary Quarterly 38.3 (1981): 395-417. 3. Brodine, Charles. "Civil-Military Relations in Pennsylvania, 1758-1760: An Examination of John Shy's Thesis." Pennsylvania History 62.2 (1995): 213-233. 4. Dillard, Annie. "The French and Indian War: A Memoir." American Heritage 38.5 (1987): 49-53. 5. Morgan, Kenneth. "The Impact of the Seven Years' War on Massachusetts Provincial Soldiers." Reviews in American History 13.4 (1984): 512-517. 6. Nicolai, Martin, L. "A Different Kind of Courage: The French Military and the Canadian Irregular Soldier During the Seven Years' War." Canadian Historical Review 70.1 (1989): 53-75. 7. Purvis, Thomas L. "The Aftermath of Fort William Henry's Fall: New Jersey Captives Among the French and Indians." New Jersey History 103.3-4 (1985): 69-79. 8. Stephenson, R.S. "Pennsylvania Provincial Soldiers in the Seven Years' War." Pennsylvania History 62.2 (1995): 196-212.

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By Kevin Stanley Many soldiers of the British regular army believed the colonial militia consisted of low-quality soldiers who came from the dregs of society. Most were sure the militia would make little difference in the outcome of the war.

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The Involvement of "The Ladies" Economic Support of Women during the American Revolution

By Keith W. Parker

Introduction

During the American Revolution, several groups contributed to the needs of the Continental Army, whether it was militarily, politically, or economically. In the light of economics, one of the more influential groups that supported the army was colonial women who, in a time in which women had few rights, rose victoriously with their passion for giving. Throughout the various states, there were a number of women's organizations which stood for the gaining of independence from the British, and distributed significantly to the cause. The women who participated in these groups produced essential supplies, especially clothing, as well as monetary donations. Public fundraising was crucial for them to be successful in raising money. This economic realm of participation of women also created a sense of political involvement which in turn, created an idea of female patriotism to erupt. There are a few questions, however, that must be answered in order to get the full effect of how women acted in this economic realm. First, how did the women go about raising the money, and what rules applied? Secondly, how effective were the women at this fundraising? Finally, how did their actions link them to an informal life in politics? By answering these questions, the image of what some organizations will call "American Women," can be illustrated.

Views of Women from Pre-Revolution to War

It is important to get a glimpse of the roles of women during this period. These women typically had their decisions made for them by a male counterpart, whether it was their husbands or fathers. These women did the basics of maintaining the household, which consisted of cooking, cleaning, and taking care of the children. ¹ When the war came, however, this assumption of women having their decisions made for them was modified. The jobs that men normally did in their homes and other work places were then placed in the hands of women. This created a huge increase in females being involved in articulating judgments for themselves, which led to an increase in political participation. Since many males were out in the field of battle, it was necessary for women to support the troops on the home front, from their own communities. There were also women, who spent their time with the men out in the field. Some of these were the wives of officers and soldiers, and others served simply as prostitutes. Depending on who the commander of the unit was determined whether women would be near the battlefield at all, because there was a general notion that women and children were to be protected at all costs. ² With the new roles of women during the war, the ideas of them began to temporarily change to views of strong women who would be admired by both genders.

The Economics of War Support

To better understand the correlation between women and economic support, one might consider supply and demand. In general, demand is the buyer's wanting to buy a particular product, and supply is the willingness for the seller to sell the product. In terms of the women involved in the American Revolution, it can be seen that the demand was the Continental army's need for them to raise funds and the making of other furnishings for them, and the supply was the women's enthusiasm in doing this. In this process the army must first set forth that demand, which is very prominent in many of the generals' letters to the organizations. The next step is for the supplier to make efforts to provide for the demand. Once again, it is clear that the women were very active in providing for this role. Another approach is to see the demand as being American independence and the supply for that being money and provisions for the army. From this perspective, the women once again were essential because of their fundraising and logistical support. In essence, the women seem to service a strong tie to the gaining of independence in an economic sense, because in both studies the women have to be involved for achievement to take place. Therefore, the women of these contributing organizations can be connected with being a market, which in general refers to a setting where trading transactions exist. The type of trade the women were involved in was both visible, with physical items being transferred back and forth, and sentimental, with the acts of patriotism being extended to attain independence.

The Development of Women's Organizations

Before the start of the War of American Independence, there developed a growing need for women's involvement in the economic politics of the colonies. To be sufficient to the cause, women formed organizations, such as one in Edenton, North Carolina, that were prominent in the boycotting of British goods, a symbol of the colonies petite tolerance with the English. In a continuation of this matter, women during the American Revolution formed several groups in light of making the difference by presenting themselves as patriots. Starting in June of 1780, one month after the fall of Charleston, South Carolina to the British, which may have served as a symbol of the possible failure of the Americans due to a lack in supply for the soldiers, Esther Reed, the wife of the President of Pennsylvania, formed the Philadelphia Ladies Association. ³ The organization was promptly started after George Washington relayed information to Congress on the lack of rations and other supplies among the soldiers of the Continental army, which caused a stir in society because there was a great need to win this war. The purpose of the women's group in Philadelphia, as stated in their Sentiments of an American Woman, was "to contribute as much as could depend on them, to the deliverance of their country." ⁴ To do this, the group employed volunteer women to go out and display their commitment to the cause by collecting money from various donors and making other supplies. After the establishment of their group, other organizations similar to it began to spread across the states. In New Jersey, for instance, women there established an organization much like Philadelphia's. Like the Sentiments of an American Woman, the anonymously written Sentiments of a Lady in New Jersey, established a point that is almost identical to Esther Reed's. ⁵ The basis, for instance, is for a stance for liberty to emerge among those women there, so that they visibly support the army. To express their point, the author reflected upon several actions of British that endangered the Americans, such as the burning of Charlestown in New England. ⁶ This may be considered a propaganda tool used to get women involved, but at any rate, it does state the motives for that organization. Either way, the women of New Jersey were to do the fundraising and participate in other activities to support the American cause. Other organizations were also inspired by Philadelphia's. One prominent example was in Maryland. The Pennsylvania Gazette reported, "We hear from Maryland, that the most liberal contributions have been made by the women of that state, for the assistance of the army." ⁷ From Maryland, some citizens had donated up to 15 guineas, which equaled about two British pounds, a very large sum of money for the time. It is also reported that some of the communities, or counties, had collected up to sixty thousand dollars in Continental currency for the army to purchase supplies. These organizations became very important in the processes of supporting the Continental army. The Philadelphia Ladies Association was connected to these other smaller social groups. For instance, whenever they collected their money, they shipped it to Philadelphia. One instance is with a small sect of women that Sarah Bache was working with, located just across the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. Bache worked with a Mrs. Gray, who she begged to use the "Cause of Liberty" to influence the women in her social network to raise money. Bache wrote, "I now...beg you will make use of it to collect the donations of the good women on that side of the water or as many as you can conveniently call on." ⁸ In return for these good deeds, Bache promised her "many thousand of blessings." These organizations were forms of political activism amongst women, which in itself raised mixed emotions among both men and women. Their economic support caused this transition, because they began to have a voice in what was done with the money collected, as well as, having their own groups that functioned like governing bodies, in the sense of decision making. Plus, their involvement in military affairs, the war, was political in itself. Therefore, it can be stated that women were indeed involved in politics and did become political activists in their time.

The Process of Fundraising

The money that women collected to aid the Continental Army was often impressive. On one occasion, the women of the Philadelphia Ladies Association collected several thousands of dollars in Continental currency and nearly 181 British guineas. Inflation of the Continental currency in 1778 caused the value of the money to decline, making the usefulness of its worth debatable in terms of the women making profit for the army on it. The value of a one hundred dollar bill went down to around sixty-eight dollars. ⁹ At any rate, to be effective at raising the money, "the Ladies," as they were often called, had to break up into smaller subgroups and scatter about the entire city. This job was very organized, with certain groups covering certain areas. For instance Sarah Bache, Francis, Mitchel, Caldwell, and Mrs. Cleanaskan surveyed the area of Philadelphia from Market to Chestnut Streets, whereas Mrs. Meade and Mrs. Wilson traveled amongst Walnut and Spruce Streets in search of donors. This process would ensure that every street in the city was covered efficiently. Overall, in this report, there were eleven different small groups of women, and more money was added by women who simply gave out of their own pockets. One such example of this is Marchoness de La Fayette, who contributed 100 guineas. ¹⁰ A common element among the women who gave these large amounts is that most of them were wives of military generals. After the fundraising, the ladies compiled the money, then transferred it to the army, a largely informal process, but had a few rules attached to it. In order to get the money to the army, selected women from each association counted the donation and transported it to the wife of the governor or president of the state in which they lived. For the case of the Philadelphia's Ladies Association, Esther Reed acted as the unceremonious treasurer. From there, the money was moved from their hands to that of the wife of the commander of the Continental Army, who in turn gave them to her husband, who would use it as he saw fit. ¹¹ Later, Gen. Washington added a rule that all money from the states women's organizations should be sent to Philadelphia's, and that Reed would take care of the transfer of the money to his wife. In a letter to Mary Dagworthy, a member of the Trenton, New Jersey group, Washington first of all congratulated them on developing an organization that mirrored Philadelphia's association, and then asked for their cooperation in sending their funds by way of the Philadelphia Ladies Association. ¹² This decision by Washington seems to have put ladies' organizations under one umbrella, Philadelphia. This in turn would make the transfer process to the army easier, as it was not coming from several different locations.

Using the Funds

After receiving the donations, the army was, sequentially, grateful for what the women had provided. In a letter, General Marquis de La Fayette extended his thanks to the ladies association at Philadelphia for their contribution. He wrote, "In admiring the new resolution, in which the fair ones of Philadelphia have taken the lead, I am induced to feel for those American Ladies who being out of the continent cannot participate in this patriotic measure." ¹³ La Fayette suggests a few concepts about women during the American Revolution, despite the fact they are givers. One of the major notions is that the women were not able to "participate in this patriotic measure," meaning they could not participate in the military operations of the army's duties, even though general histories regarding women of the American Revolution indicate that there were a few that broke this rule and did participate militarily. There loomed the question, however, of what should the money be used for. Often times, the women of the associations helped determine what was to be financed by this money. Even after transfer, Reed was still very involved in asserting what the money should be used for, mainly shirts for the soldiers. In July of 1780, she wrote to General Washington in a very persuasive and assertive letter explaining her thoughts on the armies need for the shirts. ¹⁴ In response, Washington wrote, "It was not my intention to divert the benevolent donation of the Ladies from the channel they wish it to flow in," ¹⁵ meaning that he would favor their request to use the money for shirts. Washington soon after called upon the women to make over one thousand shirts, "eight hundred...for the [Pennsylvania] Line...two hundred to Colonel Sherive for the Jersey Line [and] the remainder to the deputy [clothing general] at Newburg." ¹⁶ This desperate need of shirts was also expressed by other military leaders. General Anthony Wayne, for example, wrote to Joseph Reed around mid-October of 1780 in a desperate letter asking for shirts for his soldiers so they would be more proficient in doing their job. ¹⁷ In some cases, the ladies themselves used the money to buy materials to make items needed by the army, which was more efficient and led to greater involvement. Sarah Bache wrote to her father Benjamin Franklin, explaining the actions and efforts put into the shirt production. "I am very busily [employed] in cutting out and making shirts, and giving them out to make to the good women of my acquaintance, for our Brave Soldiers." ¹⁸ The reason that Bache gives for the ladies making the shirts themselves is so they will not loose money in the long run by having someone else make them. Their idea was if they used the money to buy the material and then made the shirts themselves, then their expenses would decrease and the rest of it could go into some type of fund for the military. An alternative reason for this activity could very well be linked to the decline in the value of the money. If they were to raise one thousand dollars in the Continental currency to buy the material, the spending value for them would only be around six hundred and eighty. In theory, the women had to do this on their own, because they didn't have the appropriate funds to pay someone else.

The Prominence of Esther Reed

Esther DeBert Reed died in September of 1780 at the age of 33, only about four months after forming her organization. In that brief time, she displayed acts of prominent leadership in the ladies association. Reed was the sole author of the Sentiments of an American Woman, which she signed as "An American Woman." ¹⁹ Coincidentally, she had only been a so called American for ten years. Being a native of England, she came to North America after her marriage to Joseph Reed, who was studying law in London, even though some sources indicate that she was simply his fiancée when coming to America. Either way, they did settle in American when Joseph Reed became a lawyer in New Jersey. Her family's connection with the colonies, before actually moving to the area, was very strong, because of her father's mercantile trading. One might say that she too had close ties to the processes of economics, because of this, which would later make her a success in America. Her husband, after the start of the war, enlisted in Washington's army, and Esther had great hopes that he would soon be back home with her; but this idea was shattered when he was chosen to be Washington's secretary, a job that would keep him in the field much of the war. After his departure, she debated whether or not to go back to London, in correspondence with her brother. She made the decision, however, to stay in America and soon would form her organization. ²⁰ Reed was indefinitely prominent, because her husband was exceptionally influential in Philadelphia as its president, and thus she became, in effect, its first lady. She remains particularly interesting to both historians and feminists because of her commitment to gain American independence, even though she was a fairly recent immigrant herself. Some sources indicate that the only reason she had waited so long to form the ladies organization was pregnancy with her sixth child, whom she named George Washington. Most women would have simply stayed at ease adjusting to their newborn babies, but in an attempt to gain peace among the states with their English parent, she formed the ladies group, which consisted of several women of a prior informal social society. ²¹ It could be speculated, that the reason Ester Reed died at such an early age was complications from her quick stride from child birth to stressful political work, but there is not enough evidence to prove that this contributed to her death. It is only known from her obituary that she died from a few weeks of illness.

Women as Political Activists

Economic support of American troops ultimately led to political participation among American women. So, whether they wanted to admit it or not for social purposes, the women were tied to politics. Some modern women's historians imply "the notion that politics was somehow not part of the woman's domain persisted...even by women whose own lives were...directly dependent on political development." ²² This suggestion that some women didn't realize they were involved in politics was practiced by many women because they feared a loss of reputation or even retaliation by men who said politics was not the business of the women. Other women, however, also became involved politically in prominent ways, in which they directly knew what they wanted and how they were going to get it.

Abigail Adams, for instance, was very assertive with her husband John throughout their marriage when it came to the political rights of women. In her famous letter to John that coined the phrase "remember the ladies," she is very persistent when asking him to do so and to "be more generous and favorable [to the ladies] than your ancestors." She continues to point out that all of the power should not be put in the hands of the husbands. ²³ This example of Abigail Adams has more to do with the coming of a new nation after the Revolution, but it does serve as an illustration that women with this attitude were still involved in the achievement of American independence.
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Economic Support of Women during the American Revolution

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By Keith W. Parker During the American Revolution, several groups contributed to the needs of the Continental Army, whether it was militarily, politically, or economically. In the light of economics, one of the more influential groups that supported the army was colonial women who, in a time in which women had few rights, rose victoriously with their passion for giving.

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America...the land of the ...the of the ...these are phrases Americans sing frequently . The President of the United States is often referred to as the leader of the world. Americans often quote the Declaration of Independence when discussing their freedoms.

But the freedoms Americans were not . They came with the high of war. What started out as a small collection of British colonies did not become the United States of America until a band of revolutionaries fought for their independence.

In 1775, a between colonial militia members and British troops at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts signaled the start of the Revolutionary War. Also known as the American Revolution and the United States War of Independence, the conflict would quickly grow from a small civil war to a full-blown international conflict.

By the time the British surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, the Americans had basically won their independence. Fighting would finally come to a formal end in 1783.

American history courses teach us much about why the Americans wanted their independence from Great Britain, and we know the important dates and facts about their ultimate . But exactly how did they ever succeed in their mission with the stacked against them in every way?

The British military was the best in the world. It had conquered much of the world and prevailed in war after war over the past century. It was well-trained, fully-equipped, and 50,000 troops strong. If you add in the 30,000 Hessian (German) mercenaries hired to fight the colonists, the British forces outnumbered the colonial forces four to one, as George Washington never commanded a force of more than 20,000 troops at one time.

Moreover, the colonial troops were mostly inexperienced , unskilled, poor, unprepared, and undisciplined . They were also often divided by competing loyalties, as there remained a significant group of colonists, known as Loyalists, who were loyal to Great Britain.

Despite these disadvantages, the colonists prevailed due to a number of factors, great and small. For example, the sheer size of the colonies made them almost impossible to conquer. Although the British were able to maintain control of a few of the large cities for a while, they did not have the manpower to control the vast areas of countryside where the patriots were able to regroup and focus their efforts.

The British also failed to take advantage of the Loyalists throughout the colonies. They didn't fully trust them and preferred to rely instead on their own army. This allowed the patriots to diminish Loyalist efforts to help the British.

The colonists under George Washington also fought a different type of war that British forces were not used to. They avoided large-scale confrontations and instead struck quickly in -style attacks that they had learned and developed during recent wars with Native Americans.

None of these things would have likely brought , however. The key factor that turned the tide for the Americans was the intervention of other nations into the conflict. Without the help of Spain, the Netherlands, and especially France, it's unlikely the colonists would have prevailed.

Ultimately, the Americans prevailed due to their spirit and the fact that they were fighting for something they believed in. Popular support for the Revolutionary War was overwhelming. In the end, the British desire to maintain economic control over the colonies could not match the intense desire of the colonists to be independent and .

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How Did the Americans Win the Revolutionary War?

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America...the land of the ...the of the ...these are phrases Americans sing frequently . The President of the United States is often referred to as the leader of the world. Americans often quote the Declaration of Independence when discussing their freedoms. But the freedoms Americans were not .

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Social Backgrounds of Setting up a Stronger Central Government

By Li Qingyuan In the year of 1783, when the British and the Americans signed the Treaty of Paris, which indicated that the Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States, the American people won the victory of the Revolution in the long run. But to make a nation, the Americans had to do more than win their independence. Like many newborn countries, this country was in a chaotic state in the first few years. The period after the Revolutionary War was characterized by economic depression and political crisis for the reason that all of the thirteen states were loosely bound together only by the Articles of Confederation (written in 1777 by John Dickson and ratified in 1781). Each state remained sovereign and could do things in its own way. Meanwhile, The Articles of Confederation did not set up executive and judicial organizations to enforce laws. The only branch of the central government was a single-chamber Congress, where each state had one vote. The Congress had no power to tax or to regulate trade; its primary functions were foreign relations, Indian affair, and western lands. Unanimous consent was needed for amendment, which made reforms almost impossible. A news dispatch of August 29,1787 in Philadelphia showed the condition of that time: No state has ever built any roads or realigned any rivers, they are wanting to see if the Central Government will do such necessary work. The trade and manufacturing companies have stopped their business, they are waiting to see what kind of protection and rewards they can get from the national commercial regulations.... Bondholders have always been worrying that their bonds may become waste paper, but today they pin all their hopes on an open, stable new Government. Even the poor farmers and suppressed tenants hope that a new Government would liberate them, they are waiting to see if the government would protect them from the Indians when they are living on the frontiers. (Wilson 1986:257) Now that the central government had no power to control business activities or directly levy taxes, it could not gain any money to pay its debts and officials. As there were no limits or judicial controls on the state congress, the states were quarrelling over a lot of affairs. In addition to the domestic problems, the young nation also had to bear problems brought about by foreign countries. In this chaotic condition, most Americans expected to establish a new government so that their rights and interests could be protected.

Grim Economic Situation of the 1780s

After the foundation of the United States, the most urgent problems that American people wanted to solve were the economic problems. The American Revolution had been a drain on manpower and material resources, and the restoration and development of economy became the most urgent task of the American people. However, this task was hard to fulfill because the Articles of Confederation did not grant the central government enough powers. Worst of all, the central government had no powers of taxation and trade regulation, so the domestic economy deteriorated. The War of Independence saddled the young nation with an enormous debt. In 1784, the total federal debt was nearly $40 million. Of that sum, $8 million was owed to the French and Dutch governments. Of the domestic debt, government bonds, known as loan-office certificates, reached the amount of $11.5 million, certificates on interest indebtedness $3.1 million, and continental certificates $16.7 million. To pay the interest and principal of the debt, the Congress had twice proposed an amendment to the Articles granting them the power to lay a five percent duty on imports, but amendments required the consent of all thirteen states. The impost of 1781 failed due to Rhode Island's resistance and the impost of 1783 was rejected by New York. Without steady revenue, the Congress could not pay the debt, pay the military expenditures, pay pensions to the officers, and even could not pay the interest of the debt. Due to the delay and uncertainty of the payment, the value of the certificates depreciated significantly. The loan-office variety fell to as low as 20 cents on the dollar while the continental certificates fell to 10 cents. Most Americans who had received the certificates were farmers, storekeepers, small merchants, and veterans of modest wealth. They needed cash to run their business or farms, to feed a family, or just to survive. They often had to sell their certificates to speculators at a fraction of their face value. Suffering from such great losses led to an even harder living for these people. Without a powerful national government to regulate trade, trade between the states was hindered by a multiplicity of restrictive state tariffs and commercial regulations. The state congresses had the power to make their own laws and collect taxes. Localism made them set barriers to goods from other states, thus trade between states could not develop. For instance, in 1781, New York state decided to levy heavy taxes on agricultural products imported from New Jersey and Connecticut. New Jersey immediately took vindictive measures to impose a tax of $1800 per year on the beacons of New York ports located in its territory. Each state wanted to protect its own economic interests, thus very common were such conflicts between states. The futility of enacting mercantile legislation within a confederated polity was also demonstrated with regard to the navigation laws. For a long time, the Great Britain dumped its low-cost goods upon the American market and bought raw materials and farm products from the southern states of the United States with a very low price. In order to change the unfavorable trade balance, many states did their best to take some measures. In 1784, northern legislatures began penalizing British shipping by laying additional duties upon goods imported in British bottoms. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and New York doubled tariffs on goods arriving in British ships while Rhode Island tripled them. However, none of these laws proved effective. Apparently, British shippers could go to nearby states and use them as bases for distributing European goods and for obtaining American produce. Under the Confederation, navigation laws were fruitless. To make matters worse, the currency was in a confused condition at that time. "In 1784 the entire coin of the land, except coppers, was the product of foreign mints. English guineas, crowns, shillings and pence were still paid over the counters of shops and taverns, and with them were mingled many French and Spanish and some German coins.... The value of the gold pieces expressed in dollars was pretty much the same the country over. But the dollar and the silver pieces regarded as fractions of a dollar had no less than five different values"(McMaster, Vol.1,1891:190-191). Furthermore, the massively unfavorable trade balance with foreign countries was fast draining the hard money out of the United States. In an effort to relieve the situation but with the result of making it much worse, several of the states began to issue paper money; and this was in addition to the enormous quantities of paper which had been printed during the Revolution and which was now worth but a small fraction of its face value. The expanding currency and consequent depreciation in the value of money had immediately resulted in a corresponding rise of prices. With hard money in short supply, wages fell, and unemployment rose in the cities. Farmers frequently had problems in paying their property taxes, resulting in foreclosure sales and much human misery. In short, the economic situation of the 1780s was chaotic and terrible. Most Americans witnessed a Confederation government incapable of controlling the money supply, of paying debts, or of regulating and encouraging foreign and domestic commerce. Little wonder that these people recognized the grim necessity for setting up a stronger central government.

Political Crisis of the 1780s

Under the Articles of Confederation, on paper, the Congress had power to regulate foreign affairs, war, and to appoint military officers, control Indian affairs, borrow money, determine the value of coin, and issue bills of credit. In reality, however, the Articles gave the Congress no power to enforce its requests to the states for money or troops. The Congress could pass laws but could not force the states to comply with them. Each state kept its sovereign independence and controlled over all of its internal affairs, and seldom accepted any orders from the central government. Thus, the central government commanded little respect and was not able to accomplish much. As the central government was severely limited in its powers and could not control well the individual states, the domestic political situation was perilous.

1. Foreign Threats and Violations to the Confederation

The Confederation Congress commanded so little, and had so little power over the states and therefore over foreign policy, that other nations either ignored the young United States or ran roughshod over their interests with little fear of retaliation. The Great Britain was unwilling to secede from America and maintained a number of forts in the Northwest boundary of the United States. In order to suppress the newborn country politically and economically, it blockaded the coastlines of the United States with its strong fleet, and forbade American people to trade with the West Indies. Meanwhile, it supplied Indians and encouraged them to raid the frontier settlement. France did not establish truly equal and friendly relationship with the United States, either. After the American Revolution, it only opened several harbors in West Indies and allowed the U.S. ships with small cargo carrying capacity to pass. In the meantime, France blockaded some important river mouths so that it could monopolize the market. Spain also glared at the United States like a tiger eyeing its prey. It occupied the West of Mississippi as well as West and East Florida. Furthermore, it closed the Mississippi river at the mouth in 1784 to forbid the U.S. ships to pass through New Orleans. Like Britain, Spain supplied Indians in the Southwest and encouraged the states in the Southwest out of American land. Faced with foreign threats and violations, however, the Confederation Congress could not effectively mount defensive or offensive military operations under its own authority, the Congress could not levy troops, or impose and collect taxes to support such operations. Relevantly, the Confederation Congress did not have the military power to back up diplomatic demands. For instance, when Spain closed the port of New Orleans to American commerce in 1784, the Congress sent John Jay to Madrid to achieve terms to open Mississippi to Americans. Instead, Jay signed an agreement that ignored the problem of the Mississippi in exchange for commercial advantages benefiting the Northeast (the Jay-Gardoqui Treaty). The Congress rejected the treaty, and the issue smoldered for ten years. The Congress also claimed lands in the West still occupied by the British and Spanish but could not have challenged those nations for control of the land. High seas freedom was important to many of the states, both those with shipping interests such as Massachusetts and those with agricultural, and hence export, interests such as Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, but the Confederation could not threaten the British over their high-handed unilateralism regarding the high seas.

2. Domestic Dissatisfaction and Rebellions

The greatest weakness of the federal government under the Articles of Confederation was its inability to regulate trade and levy taxes. Sometimes the states refused to give the government the money it needed, and they engaged in tariff wars with one another, almost paralyzing interstate commerce. The government could not pay off the debts it had incurred during the Revolution, including paying soldiers who had fought in the war and citizens who had provided supplies to the cause. As economy could not develop and the country could not be defended, the American people gradually lost confidence in their government. Most American people became more and more dissatisfied with the present system, and wanted eagerly to change the present situation. They clearly showed their common opinion: because of the lack of regulation and protection, the American industry and commerce were dying out. They were pitiful for the Congress's inability to have full powers to handle the domestic problems, and they hoped that the states would endow the Congress such powers. For example, as centers of industry, commerce and shipping, cities like Baltimore, New York, Philadelphia and Boston were very earnest in the construction of a new government. They all handed in their petitions to the Congress. The petition of Baltimore described the decline of the domestic industry and commerce when each state did things in its own way. It said, "We hope that our country could get rid of the commercial shackles that have fettered it for so many years, so that it could find and get true profits, and gain actual economic independence"(Sources and Documents of the United States Constitution, Second Series, 1492-1810: 175). The petition of New York stated how they had hoped to see the prosperity of their country, but foreign discrimination and restrictive state tariffs had smashed their dreams. They struggled in vain, and had always been expecting a new government, which would have enough power to stop this increasing misery and protect the domestic industry and commerce. Petitioners from Philadelphia and Boston asked the government to protect their shipbuilding industry. They complained that the shipbuilding industry here had declined severely, and called on the government to notice that after the Revolution, England had made laws to forbid American shipbuilders to build ships for English customers. To rejuvenate the shipbuilding industry, protection from the federal government was essential. In the army, the dissatisfied feeling was spreading. Because the economic situation quickly deteriorated after the American Revolution, the soldiers' salaries were in arrears. Most of their families were bogged down in debts, so their indignant feeling ran high. They wanted eagerly to change the present situation and demanded the democratization in the political life. However, the central government had no power to solve the problems. In March 1783, when Washington's troops were stationed in Newburgh by the Hudson River, the discontented soldiers drafted Newburgh Address to express their desire for good living condition and democracy, and considered military action against the Confederation Congress. Soon Newburgh Address spread all over the troops and stimulated soldiers' rebellious mood. The government was scared, and began to dismiss troops a month later. On a hot June day, more than 8000 former Revolutionary War soldiers stationed in Pennsylvania revolted. Carrying muskets, they marched into the Philadelphia statehouse where the Congress was meeting. They threatened to hold the members hostage until they were paid back wages. When the Congress asked Pennsylvania to send a detachment of militia to protect them, the state refused, and the humiliated Congress temporarily relocated. In the end, General Washington had to take advantage of his high prestige among the army to disintegrate the rebellion. In 1786, nearly 2000 debtor farmers in western Massachusetts were threatened with foreclosure of their mortgaged property. The state legislature had voted to pay off the state's Revolutionary War debt in three years; between 1783 and 1786, taxes on land rose more than 60 percent. Desperate farmers demanded a cut in property taxes and adoption of state laws to postpone farm foreclosures. The lower house of the state legislature passed relief measures in 1786, but creditors persuaded the upper house to reject the package. When lower courts started to seize the property of farmers and throw some debtors into prison, an uprising broke out. Led by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran, western Massachusetts farmers marched first for Worcester where they closed the courthouse and destroyed the tax documents, then turned west to Springfield where they broke into the jail to free imprisoned debtors. They required the government to abolish all unreasonable policies. Scared by this violent revolt, James Baldwin, governor of Massachusetts, ordered the state army to put down the revolt. The rebellion was routed in January 1787. Shays escaped to Vermont and was later pardoned. Others were not so fortunate; 150 were captured and several were sentenced to death. Shays' Rebellion pushed the sense of crisis to the climax. It impelled the government and politicians to pay more attention to the economic depression and political crisis. Many national leaders believed that the new republic's survival was at risk. The only solution, many prominent figures were convinced, was to create an effective central government led by a strong chief executive.

Efforts to Bring about Constitutional Reform

Even before Shays' Rebellion, prominent Americans were thinking of means to strengthen the Articles of Confederation. One group among them that wanted a powerful Confederation was composed of nationalists. These men-military officers, diplomats, delegates to Congress, and federal financiers and bureaucrats-had served the Confederation during the war and had acquired a national perspective and outlook. In their thinking, there was a self-evident need for central control over the disposition of western lands, tariff and commercial policies, and dealings with foreign states. These prominent Americans made many speeches or wrote articles to call for reform. They warned that if the political mechanism of this country remained unchanged, the Union would break up. A very famous nationalist and known as "Father of the Constitution", James Madison advocated a strong central government and called for reform of the Articles on more than one occasion. He wrote in a newspaper: It is true that our present mechanism has no supporters, and it isn't worth supporting. If it can't get strong support, it will collapse.... Now it seems that most people would rather choose to split the confederation and form three smaller but stronger governments. This idea has already been expressed in newspapers. (Smith 1986:233) Nationalists were not the only group seeking the creation of a stronger central government. They had many allies who had a similar goal of reforming the present system. For example, in most states there were creditors-men who had lent money to governments or private individuals. They wanted high taxes so that they could redeem their loans quickly and at face value. In order to do this, they wanted to diminish the power of state legislatures, which were often influenced by hard-pressed farmers. Shays' Rebellion strengthened the determination of nationalists and their allies to create a stronger central government. They wanted a government that could raise a powerful army both to put down domestic insurrections and to confront foreign threats. By means of the efforts of the prominent Americans and their allies, a meeting convened at Annapolis, Maryland in 1786 to discuss possible steps to strengthen the national government and to alter the Articles of Confederation. When only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention, the nationalists planned a new and broader meeting. They asked the Congress and the states to approve a convention at Philadelphia in 1787. Its task would be to devise a stronger national government. Hence, the U.S. Constitutional Legislation began. The Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia on May 14,1787 turned a new leaf in American history. This convention hammered out a document defining distinct powers for the central government capable of forcing the individual states to take unified steps and really controlling the fate of the United States.

Conclusion

In general, it was the grim economic situations and political crises in the 1780s that compelled the American people to make a right choice to set up a stronger central government. Although the United States won a great victory in the Revolution, its debts could not be paid, economy could not develop, the people's living standard could not be improved, and the country could not be defended. The chaotic domestic situation and foreign threats impelled this newborn country to take measures. "Wise measures" as Washington suggested included reform in: government structure, allocation of powers and rights, legal system, etc.. These measures later saved the new regime.

References

1. Boller, P.F. & Ronald Story. A More Perfect Union: Documents in U.S. History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992. 2. Bo, Wang. A Guide to American Historical Documents: From Colonial Times to the 19th Century. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2002. 3. McMaster, John Bach. A history of the People of the United States. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1891. 4. Smith, James Morton. Jefferson and Madison. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 1986. 5. Wilson, Samuel Eliot. The Oxford History of the American People. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1986.

Author's information

Li Qingyuan, (1971-), male, a college teacher in Sichuan Agricultural University, China, Master of Arts. Mailing address: English Department of Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan, China. 625014. E-mail: uanq1234@yahoo.com.cn

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By Li Qingyuan In the year of 1783, when the British and the Americans signed the Treaty of Paris, which indicated that the Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States, the American people won the victory of the Revolution in the long run.

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PREMIERE ASSEMBLÉE DU CONGRÈS, Francois Godefroy, 1782

In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose alliance of the states. While the Articles were drafted quickly, ratification of them was delayed until 1781. The primary sticking point concerned disagreements about how to deal with the western lands claimed by several states. The states without such claims argued that the western lands should be owned by the national government. The states with land claims were reluctant to give up their claims. When Virginia finally gave up most of its claims to western lands, the Articles of Confederation were adopted.

The Articles of Confederation created a union of sovereign states. An assembly of delegates acted on behalf of the states they represented. Because the smaller states feared the domination of the larger ones, each state had one vote in the Confederation Congress, regardless of its size or population. Any act of Congress required the votes of nine of the thirteen states to pass.

Congress claimed the following powers: to make war and peace; conduct foreign affairs; request men and money from the states; coin and borrow money; regulate Indian affairs; and settle disputes among the states. Enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and levying taxes were powers reserved to the states. Representatives were forbidden to serve in Congress more than three years to avoid formation of a political elite. Even with these limits on its powers, the Confederation Congress achieved some remarkable successes during its short life. Some of these successes can be seen in the documents linked on the right.

For additional documents related to these topics, search LOC.gov using such key words as confederation, Confederation Congress, Articles of Confederation, Land Ordinance of 1785, Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Treaty of Paris (1783), and the terms found in the documents.

Documents

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Policies and Problems of the Confederation Government | The New Nation, 1783 - 1815 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to create a plan for a central government. The committee quickly wrote the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose alliance of the states.

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Independence Hall, Philadelphia, PA.
Built in America, 1933-Present

In May 1787, 55 men from twelve states met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. At the outset, however, Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph presented a plan prepared by James Madison for the design of an entirely new national government. The proposed plan would lead to a four-month process of argument, debate, compromise, and the development of the Constitution of the United States.

On September 17, 1787, the final draft of the new Constitution was read to the 42 delegates still at the convention. Of the 42 men present, 39 affixed their signatures to the document and notified the Confederation Congress that their work was finished. The Congress, in turn, submitted the document to the states for ratification, where more argument, debate, and compromise would take place. The state of Delaware was the first to ratify the Constitution. On June 21, 1788, just nine months after the state ratification process had begun, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, and the Constitution went into effect.

In the two centuries since its ratification, many changes have been made to the Constitution. However, the basic premises on which the Constitution was framed--the protection of individual rights and liberties, limited government with separation of powers and checks and balances, the federal system, and judicial review--remain at the heart of the "living" document.

To find additional sources in Loc.gov relating to this general topic, search with such key words as Articles of Confederation, Confederation Congress, Constitution, constitutional convention, federalists, anti-federalists, and ratification.

Documents

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The United States Constitution | The New Nation, 1783 - 1815 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In May 1787, 55 men from twelve states met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation.

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Government Policy toward Native Americans

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Government Policy toward Native Americans

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A map of the United States of America, 1783
The American Revolution and Its Era, 1750-1789

In 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee to develop a plan for a central government. Shortly thereafter, the Articles of Confederation were written and a union of states, called the United States of America, came into being.

Under the Articles of Confederation, the newly developed central government was required to share power with the states. Among the powers given over to the central government were making war and peace, conducting diplomatic relations, requisitioning men and money from the states, coining and borrowing money, and regulating Indian affairs. The states were responsible for enforcing laws, regulating commerce, administering justice, and levying taxes.

During the mid 1780s, the Confederation Congress was particularly attentive to problems in the Northwest Territory, an area of land located between the thirteen states and the Mississippi River. Thousands of settlers had moved into the area by 1780. However, they were not the first settlers. Living on the land were numerous nations of Native Americans. The Congress spent a good deal of time and effort developing policies to keep peace between the white settlers and the Native Americans. Treaties, the appointment of government agents and superintendents to serve as intermediaries between Native Americans and the government, and raising and arming troops to put down insurrections, are examples of strategies the Confederation Congress used to maintain peace, meet the needs of the Native Americans, and open the area for further settlement.

To find additional documents relating to these topics in Loc.gov, use such key words as Indians of North America, Indian Treaties, Laws--United States, and the names of specific Indian tribes (e.g., Cherokee, Creek, or Choctaw).

Documents

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Government Policy Toward Native Americans | The New Nation, 1783 - 1815 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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Under the Articles of Confederation, the newly developed central government was required to share power with the states. Among the powers given over to the central government were making war and peace, conducting diplomatic relations, requisitioning men and money from the states, coining and borrowing money, and regulating Indian affairs.

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American Revolution: The Continental Congress

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Kids learn about The Continental Congress meetings; major events in the American Revolutionary War.

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Two Worlds: Prehistory, Contact, and the Lost Colony (to 1600)

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Lydia Darragh | Facts, Biography, Spying & Final Years

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Lydia Darragh, despite being a Quaker and pacifist like Betsy Ross, seized an opportunity to create a mighty victory for the Americans. Click for more.

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Learn about the women from the American Revolution including roles such as spies, nurses, camp followers, and soldiers. Also, famous women who played an important part in the war.

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Learn about spies during the American Revolution including secret messages, invisible ink, famous agents, the Culper Spy Ring, disguises, and interesting facts.

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Revolutionary war women were able to play a significant role, specifically because men looked down upon them.

Betsy Ross sewing the first American flag
Because women were considered too simple to understand complex military strategy during the American Revolution, men spoke freely around them. Thus, they made great spies, providing food and peddling wares to enemy camps while listening for important information.

Ann Bates is one such person. A Philadelphia schoolteacher, loyal to the crown, she assumed a false name and pretended to peddle while counting Continental Army troops and supplies for the British.

Unfortunately, this means that the most significant women in the Revolutionary War may be completely unknown to us. Many were probably never caught spying, and their secret role may never have been documented.

" Miss Jenny," for example, is known only from a letter written from fooon Ottendorf to the British general, Sir Henry Clinton. We don't even know her real name!

How many others played similar roles in the American Revolution may never be known.

It was not only spies, however, that affected the Revolution. Some women, like Abigail Adams, wife of future president John Adams, supported the cause in other ways, nursing injured soldiers, providing supplies, and even creating much needed ammunition!

Hannah Blair was a Quaker who, although sworn against violence by her religion, wanted to support the Patriot cause. She protected soldiers passing through, gave medical help and food, carried secret messages, and mended uniforms. When the Loyalists found out, they burned her farm down. After the war, Congress granted her a small pension for her services. Very little else is known about Hannah Blair. Whether she was married, had children, had religious scruples in volunteering for a war-these are all mysteries that vanished with time.

Margaret Corbin was the first American woman to receive a pension as a soldier. Her story is told as part of the Molly Pitcher legend.

Lydia Darragh, a pacifist Quaker like Betsy Ross, made her mark in history by acting when opportunity arose.

Mary Draper, who provided food, clothing, hospitality, and ammunition to the Patriot troops.

Deborah Read Franklin was Benjamin Franklin's wife and companion for 44 years.

Dicey Langston's exploits earned her the nickname "Daring Dicey."

Sybil Ludington is known as the "female Paul Revere", for riding in the night to warn the Colonial troops of the approaching British.

Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley's story is told as part of the Molly Pitcher legend. She (wo)manned an artillery cannon in her husband's place when he was injured in battle.

Esther Reed was the wife of a Revolutionary War General, and a civic leader who formed the Ladies Philadelphia, provided relief for soldiers, and spoke politically to gain support for the war effort.

Deborah Samson actually fought for the colonial army.

Mercy Otis Warren advised presidents and generals while writing political plays, becoming perhaps the most influential woman in American history.

Martha Washington was the first first lady, and the support for commander-in-chief George Washington throughout the war.

And we must not forget to mention Betsy Ross, the most famous of Revolutionary War women, who inspired the cause by producing the first American flag in the summer of 1776. ( You might also want to read the story of the Star-Spangled Banner, though that famous flag was not sewn by Betsy Ross.)

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Revolutionary War Women | Facts, Information & History

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Revolutionary war women were able to play a significant role, specifically because men looked down upon them. Click for even more facts and information.

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Wars are not just fought by soldiers. To win a country must have the help and participation of all its members. Even in colonial times, women participated in many activities to help win our freedom. To name just a few of the many brave women whose actions helped in the successful outcome of the American Revolutionary War, here are their stories:

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The American Revolution for Kids and Teachers - Famous Women in the American Revolution - American Revolution for Kids

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Wars are not just fought by soldiers. To win a country must have the help and participation of all its members. Even in colonial times, women participated in many activities to help win our freedom.

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Learn about Daily Life During the Revolutionary War including houses, clothes, food, school, and other fun facts.

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The American revolution is an important subject or topic for students of history. It should be known and understood by all the students of America to stay close to the past struggles of their nation. Today, we will read about the American revolution, and some interesting facts related to it.

What is the American Revolution?

The American Revolution was the conflict that led to the 13 American colonies of Great Britain gaining their freedom. The United States was created from the original colonies. The revolution lasted from 1775 through 1783. The revolution was a result of the oppression faced by the American people at the hands of the British.

History of the American Revolution

Even though the British ruled the colonies before the 1760s, America enjoyed a great deal of freedom. The British government was more than 3,000 miles (5,000 kilometers) away, across the Atlantic Ocean. The colonies developed their systems of governance and problem-solving. Additionally, Britain did not pay particular attention to the colonies because it was frequently at war.

However, the British government attempted to exert more authority over the colonies in the 1760s. The French and Indian War was a critical factor in this transformation. In the war of 1763, Britain beat France. However, the conflict was costly. After that, Britain determined that the American colonies should contribute to repaying their debts.

This made the citizens and the leaders of America furious. The British passed the stamp act which led to the rise of colonial protests. After that, they passed the Townshend Acts in 1767. However, when the British sent its people to capture military supplies and were confronted by the Patriot militia, open warfare began, officially starting the American Revolution.

Interesting Facts About the American Revolution

American soldiers were called Minutemen.

As they were taught to be prepared to fight "at a minute's notice," American soldiers became known as the Minutemen. These men established militias that guarded their cities and were prepared to move in a British onslaught at a moment's notice. They were often younger and less trained than general army personnel. The Minutemen had their weapons and were self-taught, but they frequently lacked effective leadership.

Deborah Sampson joined the Revolutionary War under the appearance of a man.

Deborah Sampson, a fiery and devoted patriot, wanted to contribute differently to the battle than expected of women. She joined the Continental Army by disguising herself as Robert Shurtleff and had managed to avoid detection for two years despite her military prowess and a propensity for injuries. She maintained her disguise until she became critically ill in 1783 and awoke in the hospital. Unexpectedly, Sampson received an honorable discharge and an entire military pension and proceeded to give talks on her experiences as a secret female soldier throughout the war around the nation.

There was a covert plan to assassinate George Washington.

An assassination attempt on the future first president was discovered in 1776 by a covert committee just before the Declaration of Independence was written. After arriving in New York to prepare for a British attack, Washington established a committee. The most astonishing aspect of the plan was that Thomas Hickey, his personal security, was in charge. Involved were many other well-known figures, including the mayor and governor of the city of New York. Hickey was the only one put to death, as he was the closest to Washington and was thought to be the one who would have committed the murder. The committee saved Washington's life.

Some British soldiers worked as nighttime performers.

Acting in Broadway productions was how the soldiers passed the time while the British army dominated New York City. Shakespeare's plays were their most well-liked productions; they were chosen for both the intellectual content and the British heritage. The soldiers-turned-actors were renowned for inserting their pro-British prologues, although they never authored or performed any original plays. Some colonial armies attempted to stage their theatrical productions but were unsuccessful.

There were 200 original copies of the Declaration of Independence.

Only one fully signed and preserved copy of the Declaration of Independence is kept at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. John Dunlap, a printer, produced 200 copies of the Declaration when it was first written. All 56 members of the Second Continental Congress signed one copy, which is still on display at the National Archives. Just the names of John Hancock and Charles Thompson, the Secretary of the Congress, were on the remaining 199 broadsides. Only 26 such copies remain; the rest have been lost over time.

Top-secret messages were transmitted using invisible ink.

Using ferrous sulfate and water, Dr. James Jay developed an "invisible ink" that was used to scribble hidden messages and dried clear, making it impossible to read. One could hold the sheet over a heat source or saturate it with a showing substance to see the unseen messages. Writing between the lines in letters or on the inside back covers of books was common among George Washington and his men.

The disease claimed more soldiers' lives than conflict.

Constant contact among people from other countries and areas meant that soldiers frequently and unwittingly traded diseases. These illnesses proved lethal for many people who lacked immunity. Smallpox was the most prevalent illness; even George Washington contracted it just before the revolution. Although we don't have exact numbers, it is said that for every soldier who died on the battlefield, another two perished from sickness.

Paul Revere also practiced dentistry.

The well-known Paul Revere did further than ride across Boston to inform his neighbors of an impending British onslaught. Before the American Revolution, Revere was a skilled silversmith who also dabbled with dentistry, a very lucrative but untrained profession at the time. Revere was requested to identify the body of a soldier two months after his illustrious midnight ride. Revere examined the man's mouth to see if he had the identical ivory teeth that Revere had created and wired into his jaw. Unfortunately, the body itself was too deteriorated for him to recognize.

Many female revolutionaries worked as spies.

Many ladies didn't want to wait while their husbands were at war. Except for Deborah Sampson, they could not fight themselves, so they supported the Patriot cause by spying on British troops stationed in their cities. The Patriot forces were informed of any big British movement by market-sellers and maids who appeared friendly to the British but listened in on their talks.

One of these women, Lydia Darragh, was able to alert the American Revolutionary War forces about a British invasion of Washington in Pennsylvania. This forewarning was essential in averting a complete massacre at Whitemarsh.

Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson Forged Alliances That Aided in the War's Victory.

Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, and Benjamin Franklin, another well-known Founding Father, were the driving forces behind the agreements with major European powers that enabled the Colonists to win the war. They assisted in forging alliances with the Dutch Republic, which officially entered the war in 1780, Spain, which joined the war in 1779, and France, which had been indirectly involved in the conflict since 1776.

Only a small percentage of colonists were in support of the rebellion.

The Colonists were split into three distinct organizations throughout the Revolutionary War, even though their combined efforts and vision helped the colonists win the war and achieve independence from the British. About 40 to 45 percent backed the Patriots and the uprising, while 15 to 20 percent opposed it and remained devoted to the British Crown. The remaining people tried to stay out of the conflict and maintain their impartiality.

The Paris Treaty of 1783 formally put an end to the American Revolution.

Research about the Revolutionary War reveals that after the British House of Commons voted to end the conflict, peace talks officially began in April 1782. However, the Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, by representatives of the USA, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, as well as the then-reigning British monarch, King George III, marked the official conclusion of the Revolutionary War. The Treaty recognized the USA as an independent country and awarded it and its allies some territorial rights.

Conclusion

There are many different estimates of how many people died during this eight-year conflict, but it is evident that the men and women who died on both sides altered the course of history. After the conflict, the Colonies were recognized and admitted as a new country, forming the United States of America, as they played a significant part in reshaping the world in the centuries that followed.

In this article, we walked you through a list of facts about the American Revolution. It was a critical period of American history that has changed the way we think about this country today, and knowing more about it helps us understand where we came from.

For more such interesting and enchanting facts for children, visit our website- Cool Kids Facts!

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16 American Revolution Facts For Kids [year] [Must Read]

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The American revolution is an important subject or topic for students of history. It should be known and understood by all the students of America to stay close to the past struggles of their nation. Today, we will read about the American revolution, and some interesting facts related to it.