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Hugo Münsterberg: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency

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Hugo Münsterberg: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency

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-a book written by himself

1. A founding father of Industrial / Organizational (I/O) Psychology.
2. Published in 1913, the book  is considered to be the first textbook in I/O psychology.
3. The book has been divided into 4 main sections:

a.  Introduction

b.  The Best Possible Man

c.  The Best Possible Work

d. The Best Possible Effect

In Introduction - Hugo mentioned about Applied Psychology, The Demands of Practical Life & Menas and Ends

He further elabrates about Men in The Best Possible Man, referring to a human being which explore the various topics below:
a. Vocation and Fitness
b. Scientific Vocational Guidance
c. Scientific Management
d. The Methods of Experimental Psychology
e. Experiments in the Interest of Electrical Railway
f. Experiments in the Interest of Ship Service
g. Experiements in the Interest of Telephone Service
h. Contributions from Men of Affairs
i. Individuals and Groups

On the 3rd section, he focuses on work related topics as below:
a. Learning and Training
b. The adjustment of Technical to Psychical Conditions
c. The Economy of Movement
d. Experiements on the Problem of Monotony
e. Attention and Fatigue
f. Physical and Social Influences on the working power

In the last section, he touches on The Best Possible Effect which includes:
a. The Satisfaction of Economic Demands
b. Experiements on the Effects of Advertisements
c. The effect of Display
d. Experiements with referene to Illegal Imitation
e. Buying and Selling
f. The future development of economic psyhology

In summary:

to sketch the outlines of a new science which is to intermediate between the modern laboratory psychology and the problems of economics: the psychological experiment is systematically to be placed at the service of commerce and industry. So far we have only scattered beginnings of the new doctrine, only tentative efforts and disconnected attempts which have started, sometimes in economic, and sometimes in psychological, quarters.

In the act of industrial productivity, particularly where men are employed to produce at the bidding of another, there are three problems to which psychology may be applied:

1. Identifying the workers who are mentally suited to the task
2. Creating conditions under which they will be the most                    productive
3. The manner in which their effort can be employed

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Lillian Gilbreth contributed to scientific management (Taylorism) with Motion Study work, meant to analyze & increase efficiency in production.

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Who is she?

1. Lillian Evelyn Gilbreth was an American psychologist, consultant, industrial engineer & educator who was an early pioneer in applying psychology to time-and-motion studies.

2. She was described in the 1940s as "a genius in the art of living."

3. Her first book published title ‘The Psychology of Management (1914)’ which became one of the most influential textbooks on industrial relations.

4. Lilian Gilbreth died in 1972.

Time-Motion Study

1. Time-motion study is a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.

2. It is a major part of scientific management (Taylorism).

3. The two (2) techniques became integrated and refined into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work systems.

4. This integrated approach to work system improvement is known as methods engineering.

5. It is applied today to industrial as well as service organizations, including banks, schools and hospitals.

6. The Gilbreths took a rigorously scientific approach to understanding the way employees carried out work, sometimes measuring time and motion to 1/2000 of a second, using photography and  a ‘microchronometer’ that they devised. With flow charts and therbligs, they analysed to a fine degree. Their insight was unlike most other theorists, as they channeled physical science rather than psychology.

7. Proper implementation time-motion study allows you to improve processes and optimisation of performance. Better working methods boost efficiency and decrease fatigue in workers. Effectiveness is not just about how hard you work, but how smart. Time-motion theory enhances resource planning and allocation.

The Gilbreths vs Taylor

1. The Gilbreths made use of scientific insights to develop a study method based upon the analysis of "work motions".

2. This consisting in part of filming the details of a worker's activities and their body posture while recording the time.

3. This method allowed the Gilbreths to build on the best elements of these workflows and to create a standardized best practice.

Fun fact: “Cheaper by the Dozen,” written by Frank and his daughter Ernestine Gilbreth Carey, is based on Frank, Lillian and their 12 children.

Prepared by Group 4:
Ameer, Najeeha, Zahaisha, Anis, Yana & Fahrullah

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Frederick Winslow Taylor (20 March 1895 - 21 March 1915) 

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Frederick Winslow Taylor (20 March 1895 - 21 March 1915). widely known as F. W. Taylor, was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency, He is regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is to improve economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes to management. Scientific management is sometimes known as Taylorism after its pioneer, Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor began the theory's development in the United States during the 1880s and 1890s within manufacturing industries, especially steel. Its peak of influence came in the 1910s, Taylor died in 1915 and by the 1920s, scientific management was still influential but had entered into competition and syncretism with opposing or complementary ideas. Although scientific management as a distinct theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrial engineering and management today. These include analysis, synthesis, logic, rationality, empiricism, work ethic, efficiency and elimination of waste, standardization of best practices, disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own sake or to protect the social status of particular workers with particular skill sets, the transformation of craft production into mass production, and knowledge transfer between workers and from workers into tools, processes, and documentation.

TAYLORISM

Taylorism is, System of scientific management advocated by Fred W. Taylor. In Taylor’s view, the task of factory management was to determine the best way for the worker to do the job, to provide the proper tools and training, and provide incentives for good performance. He broke each job down into its individual motions, analyzed these to determine which were essential, and timed the workers with a stopwatch. With unnecessary motion eliminated, the worker, following a machinelike routine, became far more productive. See also production management, and time-and-motion study.

4 Principles of Scientific Management: Propounded by Taylor

1. Science, Not Rule of Thumb:

In order to increase organizational efficiency, the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method should be substituted by the methods developed through scientific analysis of work.

2. Harmony, Not Discord:

Taylor emphasized that there should be complete harmony between the workers and the management since if there is any conflict between the two, it will not be beneficial either for the workers or the management.

3. Cooperation, Not Individualism:

This principle is an extension of the principle of ‘Harmony, not discord’ and lays stress on mutual cooperation between workers and the management.

4. Development of each and every person to his or her greatest efficiency and prosperity:

The efficiency of any organization also depends on the skills and capabilities of its employees to a great extent. Thus, providing training to the workers was considered essential in order to learn the best method developed through the use of a scientific approach.

Prepared by Group 2:
1. Ahmad Said
2. Mazlan
3. Cherelle
4. Azhar
5. Fida

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Walter Dill Scott (1 Mei 1869 Cooksville, Illinois, A.S.) 

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1.      Pengenalan

Walter Dill Scott adalah psikologi Amerika yang membuat banyak sumbangan untuk menerapkan psikologi, terutamanya di kawasan perindustrian. Seperti biografinya menunjukkan kepada kita, Dill Scott meletakkan banyak dasar psikologi pengiklanan dan prinsip semasa sumber manusia.

2.      Latarbelakang

Walter Dill Scott dilahirkan pada 1 Mei 1869 Cooksville, Illinois, A.S. Latihannya di Northwestern University adalah di bidang seni dan pendidikan. Dia kemudian pindah ke Jerman untuk belajar psikologi di bawah Wilhelm Wundt di University of Leipzig, di mana menerima gelaran doktor falsafah dalam bidang psikologi dan pendidikan pada tahun 1900. Beliau meninggal dunia pada 24 September 1955 ketika berumur 86 tahun.

3.      Pencapaian

a) Sebagai presiden Universiti Northwest, Beliau dinamakan presiden University of the Northwest pada tahun 1921 dan dalam tempoh beliau ini telah meningkatkan kewangannya dengan ketara. Di samping itu, Scott merasmikan sekolah-sekolah Kewartawanan dan Ucapan. Ia mengoptimumkan pentadbiran kampus, menukarnya alma mater di sekolah persendirian yang bersifat mandiri dan berprestij.

b) Penerbitan buku

i) 1903 - The Theory of Advertising Berkenaan dengan cara cadangan dan perbahasan untuk mempengaruhi pembeli

ii) 1908 - The Psychology of Advertising

Mengenai peniruan, saingan dan kesetiaan pada jenama.

4.      Dari psikologi hingga pengiklanan

Beliau perpandangan bahawa pengiklanan dapat menimbulkan perubahan dalam pikiran, yang dengannya, undang-undang yang mengatur akal harus diambil kira untuk menentukan sama ada iklan akan berkesan atau tidak. Dengan kata lain, dia menyarankan agar iklan mempunyai komponen psikologi yang dapat dimanfaatkan.

Dill Scott mula mempertimbangkan kualiti yang diperlukan untuk jurujual yang berjaya. Oleh itu, dia dengan cepat menjadi pihak berkuasa nombor satu dalam bidang psikologi periklanan dan dalam pemilihan dan pengurusan sumber manusia.

Pada gilirannya, pengiklanan dan pengurusan personel diposisikan sebagai dua elemen penting untuk bidang perniagaan, sehingga membuka pintu yang sangat penting untuk psikologi terapan.

5.      Sumbangan:

o   Psikologi yang diterapkan dalam pengiklanan

Scott tidak seperti ahli akademik lain yang mempelajari komponen visual pengiklanan (warna, ikonografi, tipografi) dimana Scott pergi jauh dan mengambil kira aspek psikologi, seperti kepercayaan dan aspirasi orang awam yang dijangka mencapai.

o   Inovasi dalam bidang pemilihan kakitangan

Scott menerapkan pengetahuannya kepada pemilihan pegawai Amerika dalam Perang Dunia Pertama. Kejayaan itu sedemikian rupa sehingga kaedahnya dilaksanakan untuk pemilihan badan dan briged lengkap dengan tugas-tugas tertentu.

Beliau mengasaskan syarikatnya sendiri dengan pejabat di Chicago dan Philadelphia; pada tahun pertama ia menawarkan perkhidmatan kepada lebih daripada 40 industri dan perniagaan yang berbeza.

6.  3 teknik Walter Dill Scott dalam pengiklanan sehingga dia menghasilkan 2 buah buku dlm pengiklanan ( Influence Men In Business and Increasing Human Efficiency)

i)perhatian

ii)pemahaman

iii)pengertian

Disediakan oleh kumpulan 1:
1. Mas Sunarno
2. Farhanah
3. Nurul Faten Shahida
4. Siti Suzimah
5. Rina Adilah

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Fritz Jules Roethlisberger (1898 – 1974) was a social scientist, management theorist at the Harvard Business School.

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1. Who are Roethlisberger & Dickson?
- Fritz Jules Roethlisberger ; earned the BA in engineering from Columbia University in 1921, the BS in engineering administration from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1922, and the MA in philosophy from Harvard University in 1925.
- William John Dickson ; attending in 1983 the common schools of the State, and the high schools at Peacham and Newbury, and also teaching school during the Winter sessions. In September, 1853, he sailed via the Isthmus for California, and arrived in San Francisco about the 27th of that month. He went at once to Knight's Ferry and engaged in the employ of Locke & Dent, in the erection of the dam and the first mill that was built there.
- In 1937, Roethlisberger and William John Dickson published the first comprehensive findings of the Hawthorne experiments.

2.  What is Hawthorne studies?
- designed to find ways to increase worker productivity
- started in Western Electric Company's Hawthorne work in Cicero, Illinois
- the organization of teamwork is the sustained cooperation leads to success.

3.  The Hawthorne Studies findings
- The Hawthorne studies discovered that workers were highly responsive to additional attention from their managers and the feeling that their managers actually cared about, and were interested in, their work.
- The studies also found that although financial motives are important, social issues are equally important factors in worker productivity.
- The Hawthorne studies have had a dramatic effect on management in organizations and understanding the impact of different factors in the workplace.
- The research found out that informal work groups have positive influence on productivity of employees.

4. "The Hawthorne Effect"
- In 1966, Roethlisberger and William Dickson published Counseling in an Organization, which revisited lessons gained from the experiments “the Hawthorne effect” as the phenomenon in which subjects in behavioral studies change their performance in response to being observed.

-Roethlisberger also described “the Hawthorne effect” as the phenomenon in which subjects in part of a refocus on managerial strategy incorporating the socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations.

- The Hawthorne effect refers to a phenomenon which is thought to occur when people observed during a research study temporarily change their behavior or performance (this can also be referred to as demand characteristics). Others have broadened the definition to mean that people’s behavior and performance change following any new or increased attention.

5.  What does Hawthorne effect mean?

The Hawthorne effect describes the influence that participation in a study has on the research participant. Specifically, it looks at how the very process of being observed can change participants' behaviors.

The Hawthorne Effect, also called the Observer Effect, is where people in studies change their behavior because they are watched.

6. Is the Hawthorne effect a theory?

Yes, the Hawthorne effect is a theory of behavior that states that participants in a research experiment modify or change their behavior because of the observation of the researcher.

7. What is an example of the Hawthorne Effect?

An example of the Hawthorne effect was seen in the original Hawthorne illumination studies. No matter how the researchers changed the lighting conditions, either by increasing or decreasing the light, the productivity of the workers increased. This was attributed to the attention of those conducting the experiment.

8. What is the result of the Hawthorne Effect?

- The result of the Hawthorne effect is that an individual participating in an experiment may show a change in behavior due to the attention of the researcher, rather than the independent variable being studied. As such, it can create a bias in research results and the effect should be minimized as much as possible.

SUMMARY
The technique to motivate employees is offer monetary rewards (pay increases, bonuses, stock options and more) for work completion. Therefore, the Hawthorne suggest that motivation is more complicated than that. "Hawthorne Effect" state that motivation can be improved through improving working relationships and social interaction.

ENTRY BY GROUP 5
1. Faizul
2. Sufiazliana
3. Iqa Edleena
4. Kanahambihai
5. Sarveen
6. Atasha

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Army Alpha and Beta Test by Robert Yerkes

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Army Alpha and Beta Test by Robert Yerkes

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Merupakan ujian yang dibangunkan oleh Robert Yerkes bersama 6 ahli jawatankuasa lain untuk menilai rekrut tentera Amerika Syarikat semasa tercetusnya Perang Dunia I.

Diperkenalkan pada tahun 1917

Kerana permintaan bagi kaedah sistematik untuk menilai;-

Fungsi Intelektual tentera

Fungsi Emosi tentera

Indikasi ujian Alpha ini digunakan dalam mengukur kebolehan tentera dari sudut;-

Kebolehan Lisan

Kebolehan Berangka

Kebolehan Mengikut Arahan

Kebolehan Pengetahuan Maklumat

Struktur Ujian Alpha terbahagi kepada 7 iaitu:

1. Penerangan mengenai rekrut

2. Masalah aritmetik

3. Akal sehat

4. Perkataan mengikut urutan

5. Tentukan pola nombor

6. Analogi

7. Melengkapkan Ayat

Markah yang diambil telah dijadikan sebagai penentu keupayaan seorang tentera bagi klasifikasi pekerjaan dan jawatan kepimpinan.

Manakala askar yang buta huruf atau berbahasa asing akan diarahkan untuk mengambil ujian Beta (peperiksaan bukan Lisan) yang merupakan penyesuaian dengan Alpha kerana para penyelidik mendapati fakta tidak semua orang celik huruf, selain terdapat imigrasi ke Amerika Utara.

Pentingnya ujian tambahan ini untuk memberi peluang sebenar kepada mereka yang kurang upaya, masalah bahasa untuk menunjukkan kebolehan mereka dimana arahan untuk ujian disediakan lebih kepada menggunakan gambar dan simbol

Struktur Ujian Beta terbahagi kepada 7 iaitu:

1. Labirin

2. Kiub

3. X dan O

4. Nombor Kod

5. Nombor yang berbeza

6. Melengkapkan Lukisan

7. Membina angka geometri

Kesimpulannya, pakar psikologi bertujuan untuk membuat ujian yang setanding diantara Alpha dan Beta dalam proses merekrut askar:

Gred terendah dianggap tidak layak untuk diberi perkhidmatan.

Gred tengah-tengah sebagai askar tetap.

Gred lebih tinggi diberi tugas mudah dan dilatih sebagai pegawai

Namun, akhirnya kedua-dua ujian Alpha dan Beta telah digantikan semasa meletusnya Perang Dunia II oleh Ujian Klasifikasi Am Tentera (AGCT)

Ahli kumpulan 3
i) Juni Haiqal
ii) Syafiqah
iii) Nur Adibah
iv) Hamizah
v) Siti Durrah