# data[].attributes.headline
Type 1: Student Internships / Job Shadowing 

# data[].attributes.subject
Type 1: Student Internships / Job Shadowing 

# data[].attributes.body
Tube 1: 50 ml mineral water+5 g yeast+none sugar
Tube 2:50 ml mineral water+ 5 g yeast+10 g sugar
Tube 3: 50 ml mineral water+ 5 g yeast+20 g sugar
tube 4:50 ml mineral water+ 5 g yeast+30 g sugar
I experimented only increasing sugar concentrations to prove the hypothesis.A lot of sugar inhibits fermentation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species.

Some yeast species have the ability to develop multicellular characteristics by forming strings of connected budding cells known as pseudohyphae or false hyphae, or quickly evolve into a multicellular cluster with specialised cell organelles function. Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3-4 µm in diameter, although some yeasts can grow to 40 µm in size. Most yeasts reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as budding. With their single-celled growth habit, yeasts can be contrasted with molds, which grow hyphae. Fungal species that can take both forms (depending on temperature or other conditions) are called dimorphic fungi.

The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae converts carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and alcohols through the process of fermentation. The products of this reaction have been used in baking and the production of alcoholic beverages for thousands of years. S. cerevisiae is also an important model organism in modern cell biology research, and is one of the most thoroughly studied eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have cultured it in order to understand the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology in great detail. Other species of yeasts, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogens and can cause infections in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells and to produce ethanol for the biofuel industry.

Yeasts do not form a single taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. The term "yeast" is often taken as a synonym for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in two separate phyla: the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota. The budding yeasts or "true yeasts" are classified in the order Saccharomycetales, within the phylum Ascomycota.

The word "yeast" comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning "boil", "foam", or "bubble". Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries. Vessels studied from several archaeological sites in Israel (dating to around 5,000, 3,000 and 2,500 years ago), which were believed to have contained alcoholic beverages ( beer and mead), were found to contain yeast colonies that had survived over the millennia, providing the first direct biological evidence of yeast use in early cultures. In 1680, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms, but rather globular structures as researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were algae or fungi. Theodor Schwann recognized them as fungi in 1837.

In 1857, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth could be increased, but fermentation was inhibited - an observation later called the " Pasteur effect". In the paper " Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique," Pasteur proved that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst.

By the late 18th century two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (top-fermenting yeast) and S. pastorianus (bottom-fermenting yeast). S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780; while, around 1800, the Germans started producing S. cerevisiae in the form of cream. In 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the filter press in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a manufacturing process to create granulated yeast, a technique that was used until the first World War. In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively until commercial yeast was marketed at the Centennial Exposition in 1876 in Philadelphia, where Charles L. Fleischmann exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread.

The mechanical refrigerator (first patented in the 1850s in Europe) liberated brewers and winemakers from seasonal constraints for the first time and allowed them to exit cellars and other earthen environments. For John Molson, who made his livelihood in Montreal prior to the development of the fridge, the brewing season lasted from September through to May. The same seasonal restrictions formerly governed the distiller's art.

Nutrition and growth

Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, and organic acids. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration ( obligate aerobes) or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production ( facultative anaerobes). Unlike bacteria, no known yeast species grow only anaerobically ( obligate anaerobes). Most yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment.

Yeasts vary in regard to the temperature range in which they grow best. For example, Leucosporidium frigidum grows at −2 to 20 °C (28 to 68 °F), Saccharomyces telluris at 5 to 35 °C (41 to 95 °F), and Candida slooffi at 28 to 45 °C (82 to 113 °F). The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time.

In general, yeasts are grown in the laboratory on solid growth media or in liquid broths. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include potato dextrose agar or potato dextrose broth, Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient agar, yeast peptone dextrose agar, and yeast mould agar or broth. Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried malt extract and agar as a solid growth medium. The fungicide cycloheximide is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process.

The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as kahm yeast, is often a byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables. It is usually the result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavor and must be removed regularly during fermentation.

Yeasts are very common in the environment, and are often isolated from sugar-rich materials. Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries (such as grapes, apples, or peaches), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. Yeasts from the soil and from the skins of fruits and berries have been shown to dominate fungal succession during fruit decay. The ecological function and biodiversity of yeasts are relatively unknown compared to those of other microorganisms. Yeasts, including Candida albicans, Rhodotorula rubra, Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum, have been found living in between people's toes as part of their skin flora. Yeasts are also present in the gut flora of mammals and some insects and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.

An Indian study of seven bee species and nine plant species found 45 species from 16 genera colonize the nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus ; the most common species in honey stomachs was Dekkera intermedia and in flower nectaries, Candida blankii. Yeast colonising nectaries of the stinking hellebore have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of volatile organic compounds. A black yeast has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between ants, their mutualistic fungus, a fungal parasite of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast has a negative effect on the bacteria that normally produce antibiotics to kill the parasite, so may affect the ants' health by allowing the parasite to spread.

Certain strains of some species of yeasts produce proteins called yeast killer toxins that allow them to eliminate competing strains. (See main article on killer yeast.) This can cause problems for winemaking but could potentially also be used to advantage by using killer toxin-producing strains to make the wine. Yeast killer toxins may also have medical applications in treating yeast infections (see "Pathogenic yeasts" section below).

Marine yeasts, defined as the yeasts that are isolated from marine environments, are able to grow better on a medium prepared using seawater rather than freshwater. The first marine yeasts were isolated by Bernhard Fischer in 1894 from the Atlantic Ocean, and those were identified as Torula sp. and Mycoderma sp. Following this discovery, various other marine yeasts have been isolated from around the world from different sources, including seawater, seaweeds, marine fish and mammals. Among these isolates, some marine yeasts originated from terrestrial habitats (grouped as facultative marine yeast), which were brought to and survived in marine environments. The other marine yeasts were grouped as obligate or indigenous marine yeasts, which are confined to marine habitats. However, no sufficient evidence has been found to explain the indispensability of seawater for obligate marine yeasts. It has been reported that marine yeasts are able to produce many bioactive substances, such as amino acids, glucans, glutathione, toxins, enzymes, phytase, and vitamins with potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and chemical industries as well as for marine culture and environmental protection. Marine yeast was successfully used to produce bioethanol using seawater-based media which will potentially reduce the water footprint of bioethanol.

Reproduction

The yeast cell's life cycle:

Yeasts, like all fungi, may have asexual and sexual reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding, where a small bud (also known as a bleb or daughter cell) is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud then continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. The daughter cell produced during the budding process is generally smaller than the mother cell. Some yeasts, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe, reproduce by fission instead of budding, and thereby creating two identically sized daughter cells.

In general, under high-stress conditions such as nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction ( meiosis) and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate), reforming the diploid.

The haploid fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a facultative sexual microorganism that can undergo mating when nutrients are limited. Exposure of S. pombe to hydrogen peroxide, an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage, strongly induces mating and the formation of meiotic spores. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant, but when starved, this yeast undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. Haploid cells may then reproduce asexually by mitosis. Katz Ezov et al. presented evidence that in natural S. cerevisiae populations clonal reproduction and selfing (in the form of intratetrad mating) predominate. In nature, the mating of haploid cells to form diploid cells is most often between members of the same clonal population and out-crossing is uncommon. Analysis of the ancestry of natural S. cerevisiae strains led to the conclusion that out-crossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. These observations suggest that the possible long-term benefits of outcrossing (e.g. generation of diversity) are likely to be insufficient for generally maintaining sex from one generation to the next.[citation needed ] Rather, a short-term benefit, such as recombinational repair during meiosis, may be the key to the maintenance of sex in S. cerevisiae.

Some pucciniomycete yeasts, in particular species of Sporidiobolus and Sporobolomyces, produce aerially dispersed, asexual ballistoconidia.

The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of biotechnology. Fermentation of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast in bread production, brewer's yeast in beer fermentation, and yeast in wine fermentation and for xylitol production. So-called red rice yeast is actually a mold, Monascus purpureus. Yeasts include some of the most widely used model organisms for genetics and cell biology.

Alcoholic beverages

Alcoholic beverages are defined as beverages that contain ethanol (C ₂H ₅OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by fermentation - the metabolism of carbohydrates by certain species of yeasts under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as mead, wine, beer, or distilled spirits all use yeast at some stage of their production. A distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by distillation. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, esters, and other alcohols, which (in addition to that provided by the oak in which it may be aged) account for the flavour of the beverage.

Yeast ring used by Swedish farmhouse brewers in the 19th century to preserve yeast between brewing sessions.

Bubbles of carbon dioxide forming during beer-brewing[9]

Brewing yeasts may be classed as "top-cropping" (or "top-fermenting") and "bottom-cropping" (or "bottom-fermenting"). Top-cropping yeasts are so called because they form a foam at the top of the wort during fermentation. An example of a top-cropping yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, sometimes called an "ale yeast". Bottom-cropping yeasts are typically used to produce lager-type beers, though they can also produce ale-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom-cropping yeast is Saccharomyces pastorianus, formerly known as S. carlsbergensis.

Decades ago,[vague ] taxonomists reclassified S. carlsbergensis (uvarum) as a member of S. cerevisiae, noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. [dubious ] Lager strains of S. cerevisiae secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing them to hydrolyse melibiose, a disaccharide, into more fermentable monosaccharides. Top- and bottom-cropping and cold- and warm-fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by laypersons to communicate to the general public.

The most common top-cropping brewer's yeast, S. cerevisiae, is the same species as the common baking yeast. Brewer's yeast is also very rich in essential minerals and the B vitamins (except B ₁₂), a feature exploited in food products made from leftover ( by-product) yeast from brewing. However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate dough in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act more slowly but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).

Dekkera/Brettanomyces is a genus of yeast known for its important role in the production of ' lambic' and specialty sour ales, along with the secondary conditioning of a particular Belgian Trappist beer. The taxonomy of the genus Brettanomyces has been debated since its early discovery and has seen many reclassifications over the years. Early classification was based on a few species that reproduced asexually (anamorph form) through multipolar budding. Shortly after, the formation of ascospores was observed and the genus Dekkera, which reproduces sexually (teleomorph form), was introduced as part of the taxonomy. The current taxonomy includes five species within the genera of Dekkera/Brettanomyces. Those are the anamorphs Brettanomyces bruxellensis, Brettanomyces anomalus, Brettanomyces custersianus, Brettanomyces naardenensis, and Brettanomyces nanus, with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, Dekkera bruxellensis and Dekkera anomala. The distinction between Dekkera and Brettanomyces is arguable, with Oelofse et al. (2008) citing Loureiro and Malfeito-Ferreira from 2006 when they affirmed that current molecular DNA detection techniques have uncovered no variance between the anamorph and teleomorph states. Over the past decade, Brettanomyces spp. have seen an increasing use in the craft-brewing sector of the industry, with a handful of breweries having produced beers that were primarily fermented with pure cultures of Brettanomyces spp. This has occurred out of experimentation, as very little information exists regarding pure culture fermentative capabilities and the aromatic compounds produced by various strains. Dekkera/ Brettanomyces spp. have been the subjects of numerous studies conducted over the past century, although a majority of the recent research has focused on enhancing the knowledge of the wine industry. Recent research on eight Brettanomyces strains available in the brewing industry focused on strain-specific fermentations and identified the major compounds produced during pure culture anaerobic fermentation in wort.

Yeast in a bottle during sparkling wine production at Schramsberg Vineyards, Napa

Yeast is used in winemaking, where it converts the sugars present ( glucose and fructose) in grape juice ( must) into ethanol. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins. Fermentation can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast", but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation.

Most added wine yeasts are strains of S. cerevisiae, though not all strains of the species are suitable. Different S. cerevisiae yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine. Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.

The growth of some yeasts, such as Zygosaccharomyces and Brettanomyces, in wine can result in wine faults and subsequent spoilage. Brettanomyces produces an array of metabolites when growing in wine, some of which are volatile phenolic compounds. Together, these compounds are often referred to as " Brettanomyces character", and are often described as " antiseptic" or "barnyard" type aromas. Brettanomyces is a significant contributor to wine faults within the wine industry.

Researchers from the University of British Columbia, Canada, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced amines. The amines in red wine and Chardonnay produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30% of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as histamines.

Yeast, most commonly S. cerevisiae, is used in baking as a leavening agent, converting the fermentable sugars present in dough into carbon dioxide. This causes the dough to expand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potatoes, water from potato boiling, eggs, or sugar in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeast. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. In addition, Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor), a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. In breadmaking, the yeast initially respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted, fermentation begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking.

A block of compressed fresh yeast

It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records that show this use came from Ancient Egypt. Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake.

Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold

Today, there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of the earlier developments in North America is Fleischmann's Yeast, in 1868. During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast which did not require refrigeration, had a longer shelf life than fresh yeast, and rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, so must be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine whether yeast is expired. In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as proofing the yeast, as it "proves" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When a sourdough starter is used, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the sponge.[citation needed ]

When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again (this is called dough proofing) and then baked. A longer rising time gives a better flavor, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially.

Bioremediation

Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of bioremediation. One such yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica, is known to degrade palm oil mill effluent, TNT (an explosive material), and other hydrocarbons, such as alkanes, fatty acids, fats and oils. It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and heavy metals, and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal biosorbent. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has potential to bioremediate toxic pollutants like arsenic from industrial effluent. Bronze statues are known to be degraded by certain species of yeast. Different yeasts from Brazilian gold mines bioaccumulate free and complexed silver ions.

Industrial ethanol production

The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanol has been harnessed by the biotechnology industry to produce ethanol fuel. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as sugar cane, field corn, or other cereal grains, and then adding dilute sulfuric acid, or fungal alpha amylase enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in purity.

Saccharomyces yeasts have been genetically engineered to ferment xylose, one of the major fermentable sugars present in cellulosic biomasses, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making cellulosic ethanol fuel a more competitively priced alternative to gasoline fuels.

Nonalcoholic beverages

A number of sweet carbonated beverages can be produced by the same methods as beer, except the fermentation is stopped sooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol, leaving a significant amount of residual sugar in the drink.

, originally made by Native Americans, commercialized in the United States by Charles Elmer Hires and especially popular during Prohibition

, a fermented drink made from rye, popular in Eastern Europe. It has a recognizable, but low alcoholic content.

, a fermented sweetened tea. Yeast in symbiosis with acetic acid bacteria is used in its preparation. Species of yeasts found in the tea can vary, and may include: Brettanomyces bruxellensis, Candida stellata, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Torulaspora delbrueckii and Zygosaccharomyces bailii. Also popular in Eastern Europe and some former Soviet republics under the name chajnyj grib (Russian: Чайный гриб), which means "tea mushroom".

(Spanish: mabí), made by fermenting sugar with the wild yeasts naturally present on the bark of the Colubrina elliptica tree, popular in the Caribbean

Foods and nutritional supplements

Yeast is used as an ingredient in foods for its umami flavor, in much of the same way that monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used and, like MSG, often contain free glutamic acid. Examples include:

Yeast extract, made from the intracellular contents of yeast and used as food additives or flavours. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as Vegemite and Marmite on a commercial scale is heat autolysis, i.e. to add salt to a suspension of yeast, making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells' shrivelling up. This triggers autolysis, wherein the yeast's digestive enzymes break their own proteins down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls that would give poor texture) are removed. Yeast autolysates are used in Vegemite and Promite (Australia); Marmite (the United Kingdom); the unrelated Marmite (New Zealand); Vitam-R (Germany); and Cenovis (Switzerland).

Nutritional yeast flakes are yellow in colour

Nutritional yeast, which is whole dried, deactivated yeast cells, usually S. cerevisiae. Usually in the form of yellow flake or powder, its nutty and umami flavor makes it a vegan substitute for cheese powder.[90] Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in scrambled eggs. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as "savoury yeast flakes".[91]

Both types of yeast foods above are rich in B-complex vitamins (besides vitamin B ₁₂ unless fortified), making them an attractive nutritional supplement to vegans. The same vitamins are also found in some yeast-fermented products mentioned above, such as kvass. Nutritional yeast in particular is naturally low in fat and sodium and a source of protein and vitamins as well as other minerals and cofactors required for growth. Many brands of nutritional yeast and yeast extract spreads, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B₁₂, which is produced separately by bacteria.

In 1920, the Fleischmann Yeast Company began to promote yeast cakes in a "Yeast for Health" campaign. They initially emphasized yeast as a source of vitamins, good for skin and digestion. Their later advertising claimed a much broader range of health benefits, and was censured as misleading by the Federal Trade Commission. The fad for yeast cakes lasted until the late 1930s.

Probiotics

Some probiotic supplements use the yeast S. boulardii to maintain and restore the natural flora in the gastrointestinal tract. S. boulardii has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute diarrhea, reduce the chance of infection by Clostridium difficile (often identified simply as C. difficile or C. diff), reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant IBS patients, and reduce the incidence of antibiotic-, traveler's-, and HIV/AIDS-associated diarrheas.

Aquarium hobby

Yeast is often used by aquarium hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO ₂) to nourish plants in planted aquaria. CO ₂ levels from yeast are more difficult to regulate than those from pressurized CO ₂ systems. However, the low cost of yeast makes it a widely used alternative.

Scientific research

Diagram showing a yeast cell

Several yeasts, in particular S. cerevisiae and , have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are simple eukaryotic cells, serving as a model for all eukaryotes, including humans, for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the cell cycle, DNA replication, recombination, cell division, and metabolism. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as yeast two-hybrid, synthetic genetic array analysis, and tetrad analysis. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologues in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes.

On 24 April 1996, S. cerevisiae was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its genome, consisting of 12 million base pairs, fully sequenced as part of the Genome Project. At the time, it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced, and the work of seven years and the involvement of more than 100 laboratories to accomplish. The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which was completed in 2002. It was the sixth eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs. As of 2014, over 50 yeast species have had their genomes sequenced and published.

Genomic and functional gene annotation of the two major yeast models can be accessed via their respective model organism databases: SGD and PomBase.

Genetically engineered biofactories

Various yeast species have been genetically engineered to efficiently produce various drugs, a technique called metabolic engineering. S. cerevisiae is easy to genetically engineer; its physiology, metabolism and genetics are well known, and it is amenable for use in harsh industrial conditions. A wide variety of chemical in different classes can be produced by engineered yeast, including phenolics, isoprenoids, alkaloids, and polyketides. About 20% of biopharmaceuticals are produced in S. cerevisiae, including insulin, vaccines for hepatitis, and human serum albumin.

Pathogenic yeasts

Gram stain of Candida albicans from a vaginal swab. The small oval chlamydospores are 2-4 µm in diameter.

A photomicrograph of Candida albicans showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics

Some species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens that can cause infection in people with compromised immune systems. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are significant pathogens of immunocompromised people. They are the species primarily responsible for cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that occurs in about one million HIV/AIDS patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually. The cells of these yeast are surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.

Yeasts of the genus , another group of opportunistic pathogens, cause oral and vaginal infections in humans, known as candidiasis. Candida is commonly found as a commensal yeast in the mucous membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. The yeast cells sprout a hyphal outgrowth, which locally penetrates the mucosal membrane, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues. A book from the 1980s listed the pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of virulence for humans as: C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. stellatoidea, C. glabrata, , C. parapsilosis, C. guilliermondii, C. viswanathii, C. lusitaniae, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. Candida glabrata is the second most common Candida pathogen after C. albicans, causing infections of the urogenital tract, and of the bloodstream ( candidemia). has been more recently identified.

Food spoilage

Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organic acids, and other easily metabolized carbon sources. During their growth, yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensible properties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled. The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surfaces, as in cheeses or meats, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juices, and semiliquid products, such as syrups and jams. The yeast of the genus Zygosaccharomyces have had a long history as spoilage yeasts within the food industry. This is mainly because these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose, ethanol, acetic acid, sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and sulfur dioxide concentrations, representing some of the commonly used food preservation methods. Methylene blue is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells. In oenology, the major spoilage yeast is Brettanomyces bruxellensis.

Candida blankii has been detected in Iberian ham and meat.

An Indian study of seven bee species and nine plant species found 45 yeast species from 16 genera colonise the nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus ; the most common species in honey bee stomachs was Dekkera intermedia, while the most common species colonising flower nectaries was Candida blankii. Although the mechanism is not fully understood, it was found that A. indica flowers more if Candida blankii is present.

In another example, Spathaspora passalidarum, found in the digestive tract of bess beetles, aids the digestion of plant cells by fermenting xylose.

Many fruits produce different types of sugars that attract yeasts, which ferment the sugar and turns it into alcohol. Fruit eating mammals find the scent of alcohol attractive as it indicates a ripe, sugary fruit which provides more nutrition. In turn, the mammals helps disperse both the fruit's seeds and the yeast's spores.

References

1. ^ Piškur, Jure; Compagno, Concetta (2014). Molecular Mechanisms in Yeast Carbon Metabolism. Springer. p. 98. ISBN 978-3-642-55013-3. The second completely sequenced yeast genome came 6 years later from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which diverged from S. cerevisiae probably more than 300 million years ago.

2. ^ Kurtzman CP, Fell JW (2006). "Yeast Systematics and Phylogeny-Implications of Molecular Identification Methods for Studies in Ecology". Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts, The Yeast Handbook. Springer.

3. ^ Kurtzman CP, Piškur J (2006). "Taxonomy and phylogenetic diversity among the yeasts". In Sunnerhagen P, Piskur J (eds.). Comparative Genomics: Using Fungi as Models. Topics in Current Genetics. Vol. 15. Berlin: Springer. pp. 29-46. doi:10.1007/b106654. ISBN 978-3-540-31480-6.

4. ^ Yong E (16 January 2012). "Yeast suggests speedy start for multicellular life". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.9810. S2CID 84392827.

5. Legras JL, Merdinoglu D, Cornuet JM, Karst F (2007). "Bread, beer and wine: Saccharomyces cerevisiae diversity reflects human history". Molecular Ecology. 16 (10): 2091-2102. Bibcode:2007MolEc..16.2091L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x. PMID 17498234. S2CID 13157807.

6. ^ "Bioprocess automation". Helsinki University of Technology. 2007. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010.

7. ^ Kurtzman CP (1994). "Molecular taxonomy of the yeasts". Yeast. 10 (13): 1727-1740. doi:10.1002/yea.320101306. PMID 7747515. S2CID 44797575.

8. ^ "Appendix I". Indo-European Roots (4th ed.). American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 2000. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008.

9. ^

10. ^ Schwann T (1837). "Vorläufige Mittheilung, bettreffend Versuche über die Weingährung und Fäulniss". Annalen der Physik und Chemie (in German). 41 (5): 184-193. Bibcode:1837AnP...117..184S. doi:10.1002/andp.18371170517.

11. ^ Barnett JA (2003). "Beginnings of microbiology and biochemistry: the contribution of yeast research" (PDF). Microbiology. 149 (3): 557-567. doi:10.1099/mic.0.26089-0. PMID 12634325. S2CID 15986927. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2019.

12. ^ "Le Comité des Fabricants de levure". COFALEC. Archived from the original on 14 May 2010.

13. ^ Denison, Merrill (1955). The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Limited. p. 165.

14. ^ Barnett JA (1975). "The entry of D-ribose into some yeasts of the genus Pichia". Journal of General Microbiology. 90 (1): 1-12. doi:10.1099/00221287-90-1-1. PMID 1176959.

15. ^ Kutty SN, Philip R (2008). "Marine yeasts-a review" (PDF). Yeast. 25 (7): 465-483. doi:10.1002/yea.1599. PMID 18615863. S2CID 26625932.

16. ^ Barley S (10 February 2010). "Stinky flower is kept warm by yeast partner". New Scientist. (subscription required)

17. ^ Little AEF, Currie CR (2008). "Black yeast symbionts compromise the efficiency of antibiotic defenses in fungus-growing ants". Ecology. 89 (5): 1216-1222. Bibcode:2008Ecol...89.1216L. doi:10.1890/07-0815.1. PMID 18543616. S2CID 28969854.

18. ^ Magliani W, Conti S, Frazzi R, Ravanetti L, Maffei DL, Polonelli L (2006). "Protective antifungal yeast killer toxin-like antibodies". Current Molecular Medicine. 5 (4): 443-452. doi:10.2174/1566524054022558. PMID 15978000.

19. ^ This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution license.

20. ^ Zaky, Abdelrahman Saleh; Greetham, Darren; Louis, Edward J.; Tucker, Greg A.; Du, Chenyu (28 November 2016). "A New Isolation and Evaluation Method for Marine-Derived Yeast spp. with Potential Applications in Industrial Biotechnology". Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 26 (11): 1891-1907. doi:10.4014/jmb.1605.05074. PMID 27435537. S2CID 40476719.

21. ^ Zaky, Abdelrahman Saleh; Greetham, Darren; Tucker, Gregory A.; Du, Chenyu (14 August 2018). "The establishment of a marine focused biorefinery for bioethanol production using seawater and a novel marine yeast strain". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 12127. Bibcode:2018NatSR...812127Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30660-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6092365. PMID 30108287.

22. ^ Bai FY, Zhao JH, Takashima M, Jia JH, Boekhout T, Nakase T (2002). "Reclassification of the Sporobolomyces roseus and Sporidiobolus pararoseus complexes, with the description of Sporobolomyces phaffii sp. nov". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (6): 2309-2314. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02297-0. PMID 12508902.

23. For more on the taxonomical differences, see ^ Dowhanick TM (1999). "Yeast - Strains and Handling Techniques". In McCabe JT (ed.). The Practical Brewer. Master Brewers Association of the Americas.

24. "Brewer's yeast". University of Maryland Medical Center. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017.

25. ^ Custers MTJ (1940). Onderzoekingen over het gistgeslacht Brettanomyces (PhD thesis) (in Dutch). Delft, the Netherlands: Delft University.

26. ^ Van der Walt JP (1984). "The Yeasts: A Taxonomic Study" (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science: 146-150.

27. ^ Oelofse A, Pretorius IS, du Toit M (2008). "Significance of Brettanomyces and Dekkera during winemaking: a synoptic review" (PDF). South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 29 (2): 128-144.

28. ^ Yakobson CM (2010). Pure culture fermentation characteristics of Brettanomyces yeast species and their use in the brewing industry (MSc.). International Centre for Brewing and Distilling, Heriot-Watt University.

29. ^ "Research enables yeast supplier to expands options" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2006.

30. ^ McBryde C, Gardner JM, de Barros Lopes M, Jiranek V (2006). "Generation of novel wine yeast strains by adaptive evolution". American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 57 (4): 423-430. doi:10.5344/ajev.2006.57.4.423. S2CID 83723719.

31. ^ Lamar J. "Brettanomyces (Dekkera)". Vincyclopedia.

32. ^ Shore R (15 February 2011). "Eureka! Vancouver scientists take the headache out of red wine". The Vancouver Sun. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011.

33. ^

34. ^ Zinjarde S, Apte M, Mohite P, Kumar AR (2014). "Yarrowia lipolytica and pollutants: Interactions and applications". Biotechnology Advances. 32 (5): 920-933. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.04.008. PMID 24780156.

35. ^ Bankar AV, Kumar AR, Zinjarde SS (2009). "Removal of chromium (VI) ions from aqueous solution by adsorption onto two marine isolates of Yarrowia lipolytica". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 170 (1): 487-494. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.04.070. PMID 19467781.

36. ^ Soares EV, Soares HMVM (2012). "Bioremediation of industrial effluents containing heavy metals using brewing cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a green technology: A review" (PDF). Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 19 (4): 1066-1083. Bibcode:2012ESPR...19.1066S. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0671-5. hdl:10400.22/10260. PMID 22139299. S2CID 24030739.

37. ^ Teoh AL, Heard G, Cox J (2004). "Yeast ecology of Kombucha fermentation". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 95 (2): 119-126. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2003.12.020. PMID 15282124.

38. ^

39. ^ Līdums, Ivo; Kārkliņa, Daina; Ķirse, Asnate; Šabovics, Mārtiņš (April 2017). "Nutritional value, vitamins, sugars and aroma volatiles in naturally fermented and dry kvass" (PDF). Foodbalt. Faculty of Food Technology, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies: 61-65. doi:10.22616/foodbalt.2017.027. ISSN 2501-0190.

40. ^ Price C (Fall 2015). "The healing power of compressed yeast". Distillations Magazine. 1 (3): 17-23.

41. ^ Johnson S, Maziade PJ, McFarland LV, Trick W, Donskey C, Currie B, Low DE, Goldstein EJ (2012). "Is primary prevention of Clostridium difficile infection possible with specific probiotics?". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 16 (11): e786-92. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2012.06.005. PMID 22863358.

42. Pedersen O, Andersen T, Christensen C (2007). "CO₂ in planted aquaria" (PDF). The Aquatic Gardener. 20 (3): 24-33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2016.

43. ^ Tong AHY, Boone C (2006). "Synthetic genetic array analysis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae". In Xiao W. (ed.). Yeast Protocols. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 171-191. ISBN 978-1-59259-958-5.

44. ^

45. ^ Wood V, Gwilliam R, Rajandream MA, et al. (2002). "The genome sequence of Schizosaccharomyces pombe" (PDF). Nature. 415 (6874): 871-880. doi:10.1038/nature724. PMID 11859360. S2CID 4393190.

46. ^ Reinert B (1 March 2002). "Schizosaccharomyces pombe: Second yeast genome sequenced". Genome News Network. Archived from the original on 3 May 2008.

47. ^ "About SGD". Saccharomyces Genome Database.

48. ^ "PomBase".

49. ^ Milne, N.; Thomsen, P.; Mølgaard Knudsen, N.; Rubaszka, P.; Kristensen, M.; Borodina, L. (1 July 2020). "Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the de novo production of psilocybin and related tryptamine derivatives". Metabolic Engineering. 60: 25-36. doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2019.12.007. ISSN 1096-7176. PMC 7232020. PMID 32224264.

50. ^ Siddiqui MS, Thodey K, Trenchard I, Smolke CD (2012). "Advancing secondary metabolite biosynthesis in yeast with synthetic biology tools". FEMS Yeast Research. 12 (2): 144-170. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2011.00774.x. PMID 22136110.

51. ^ Hurley R, de Louvois J, Mulhall A (1987). "Yeast as human and animal pathogens". In Rose AH, Harrison JS (eds.). The Yeasts. Volume 1: Biology of Yeasts (2nd ed.). New York, New York: Academic Press. pp. 207-281.

52. Kurtzman CP (2006). "Detection, identification and enumeration methods for spoilage yeasts". In Blackburn CDW (ed.). Food spoilage microorganisms. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing. pp. 28-54. ISBN 978-1-85573-966-6.

53. ^ Nguyen, Nhu H.; Suh, Sung-Oui; Marshall, Christopher J.; Blackwell, Meredith (1 October 2006). "Morphological and ecological similarities: wood-boring beetles associated with novel xylose-fermenting yeasts, Spathaspora passalidarum gen. sp. nov. and Candida jeffriesii sp. nov". Mycological Research. 110 (10): 1232-1241. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2006.07.002. ISSN 0953-7562. PMID 17011177.

54. ^ Yirka, Bob (20 July 2023). "Wild fruits with higher alcohol content found to be more widely dispersed by mammals". Phys.org. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024.

55. ^ Sagar, Soumya (19 July 2023). "Alcoholic fruit may help plants recruit mammals to spread their seeds". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024.

Further reading

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Inquiry-Based Teaching in Life Sciences - Participant Map map

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This map shows the location of participants in the 'Inquiry-Based Teaching in Life Sciences' course on the European Schoolnet Academy. Please enter your location on this map and see if there are people close to your location who are also taking this course.

# data[].attributes.body
Question:What is the liquid will react with a coin the most
Hypothesis: I think thet vinegar will react with the coin the most
Material:Water, diet coke, coke, lemon juice, vinegar, five coins
five plastic cups
Protocol:
1.Five different liquids are placed in five plastic cups.
2.Coins are placed in cups
3 Ten days is expected and the changes are recorded in the chart.
4.Last , I took the coins out of the cups and observed them
5.I explained the reasons for confirming the hypothesis.

# data[].attributes.headline
Give more examples of how new discoveries in other fields can relate to and contribute to the advancement of life sciences. Can you think of ways in which this could be taught in an interdisciplinary way?

# data[].attributes.subject
Give more examples of how new discoveries in other fields can relate to and contribute to the advancement of life sciences. Can you think of ways in which this could be taught in an interdisciplinary way?

# data[].attributes.body
Today there is a generation born into technology. They should know that they do not need to know everything, they need to know where and how to find them.
We can link developments in the field of health to technological developments and genomic studies in laboratory studies.

# data[].attributes.body
Planning for P4C
Date:
Community Context:
Inquiry Title:
Curriculum Context
Stimulus Selected
Questions Created
Question Selected/Given
Concepts Covered
Philosophical Tools
Community Building Tools
Evaluation of Tools
Next Steps

# data[].attributes.body
Poem 1 - Student A 5th grade

We can prepare rubrik according to the following features.
1. content
2. Expression integrity
3. Conceptual accuracy
4. Originality
5. Proper use of language

# data[].attributes.body
I use it in activities such as writing a laboratory report, creating mind maps at the end of the unit. After that I plan to use poetry and letter writing activities.

# data[].attributes.headline
Example 3 a very nice application on density. I am thinking of using these events in my classroom.

# data[].attributes.subject
Example 3 a very nice application on density. I am thinking of using these events in my classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Hello, I am a science teacher in secondary school. I live in the west of Turkey. We will organize "Say Yes To STEM" event at my school.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Just what skills do students need today to succeed in the future? We asked 7 leaders in STEM education what they think classroom teachers should focus on to prepare kids for jobs we haven't even conceived of yet.

Many of our interviewees cited a diverse range of skills, but we challenged them to name at least one key ability they believe will be more critical than the rest in order to succeed in future STEM fields.

We were surprised by the equal mix of "soft" and more traditional academic skills mentioned, from creativity to statistics. Read on for more of what our experts had to say:

1. Statistics

"If I were to choose one specific discipline for students to study, it would be statistics, a course that can be applied across all STEM fields. You don't need higher levels of calculus or physics for all STEM careers, but you do need statistics. A deep understanding of statistics means understanding probability and error rates, concepts that cut across almost any type of problem you want to solve in STEM."

- Gregg Fleisher, president, National Math and Science Initiative, Dallas, Texas

2. Problem-Solving

"What binds together the STEM movement is the notion of modern skills. Employers talk about problem-solving. Society requires problem-solving. Doing your taxes requires problem-solving. Those are the types of skills that really matter. A practicing engineer will tell you, 'I didn't use the calculus I learned to solve problems on paper, but the way it taught me to solve problems and to think about problems was really important.'"
-James Brown, executive director of the STEM Education Coalition in Washington, D.C., and a nuclear engineer by training
3. Creativity

"Creativity can be simple and complex at the same time.We don't always teach to think outside of the box. You've got to look at a problem from a different perspective sometimes. Teachers can nurture this by asking open-ended questions. In math and science, you can show different models so students get varying ideas of how it might look to bring together one idea. Or don't show a model at all and leave it a little open-ended so they have to come up with a solution on their own. Ask: 'Why do you think this is?' Reflecting and explaining what they did to solve a problem can foster creativity and teach collaboration -another important skill."

- Jenny Nash, education sp ecialist with in Boston, former middle school teacher and teacher-preparation instructor

4. Argumentation
-Eric Brunsell, associate professor of science education and director of the teacher education program at University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh
"The act of arguing is using evidence to support a claim. In the STEM fields, this means using analytical and critical-thinking skills to look for patterns in data, trying to determine what those patterns mean, and then using that data to support a claim. This skill transfers across all disciplines. In an elementary school science class, for example, if you give students a lot of different experiences with noisemakers-everything from tuning forks to speakers to whoopee cushions-they have the experience of collecting data. And then they will be able to use that data to make the argument that sounds are caused by vibrations."

5. Intellectual Curiosity
-Ted Wells, vice president and chief strategy officer at STEMconnector®, in Washington, D.C.
"The days of coming into an organization and having the same role forever are over. Many people will have two-year stints and then are moved into a different role. That's the nature of modern career paths. Beyond mastering content, individuals need to be innovators, learn from failures and keep moving on. You need to cut across disciplines and be able to ask the questions that help build connections. People need to be lifelong learners and be driven by an intellectual curiosity to try to figure things out."

6. Data-Driven Decision-Making

"Students need to be able to make a decision not just based on what they think or feel, but on scientific data that supports the best solution. Everyone needs to know how to do this. It doesn't matter whether you go on to a career in STEM or not-you need to know how to use data to make informed decisions in your life."

- Stacy Klein-Gardner, director of Center for STEM Education for Girls at Harpeth Hall School in Nashville, Tennessee. She is a biomedical engineer and on faculty at Vanderbilt University.

7. Flexibility

"People are now required to adapt quickly to new demands and new situations. They need quantitative skills to manipulate data well. They need to be able to communicate clearly. There is a broad set of skills that, I would argue, everyone needs. Just look at the sheer number of people in manufacturing who were skilled at what they did but who now need a whole new set of skills, often late in their careers, to be viable in the job market. They need to know statistics, technology, quality control. They need to understand programming and systems to ensure the automated production technology is operating correctly. The trick for teachers is to give their students authentic problems to tackle in school, problems that require students to draw on different areas of knowledge and skill."
Teachers, what are your thoughts? Do you have any focus skills that you particularly try to instill in your students? Please share in the comments!
- Claus von Zastrow, chief operating officer and director of research for Change the Equation in Washington, D.C.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The 7 Most Important STEM Skills We Should Be Teaching Our Kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Just what skills do students need today to succeed in the future? We asked 7 leaders in STEM education what they think classroom teachers should focus on to prepare kids for jobs we haven't even conceived of yet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A conceptual framework for integrated STEM education - International Journal of STEM Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The global urgency to improve STEM education may be driven by environmental and social impacts of the twenty-first century which in turn jeopardizes global security and economic stability. The complexity of these global factors reach beyond just helping students achieve high scores in math and scien…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Building STEM Skills Through Unit Block Play  | Foundations Series

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
STEM and gender equality – Marina Jimenez, European Schoolnet (Rerun)

# data[].attributes.headline
Gender equality and the gender gap in STEMPlease discuss the gender gap in STEM in your country. Are your female students interested in STEM areas? Are there many women in research careers? Share your insight!

# data[].attributes.subject
Gender equality and the gender gap in STEMPlease discuss the gender gap in STEM in your country. Are your female students interested in STEM areas? Are there many women in research careers? Share your insight!

# data[].attributes.body
There are jobs foreseen for women in my country. The number of women out of them is very small. Science and engineering are seen as male professions. Women are far behind in the Stem professions. Stem education requires role models for female students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In April, National Geographic News published a story about the letter in which scientist Francis Crick described DNA to his 12-year-old son. In 1962, Crick was awarded a Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA, along with fellow scientists James Watson and Maurice Wilkins.
Several people posted comments about our story that noted one name was missing from the Nobel roster: Rosalind Franklin, a British biophysicist who also studied DNA. Her data were critical to Crick and Watson's work. But it turns out that Franklin would not have been eligible for the prize-she had passed away four years before Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received the prize, and the Nobel is never awarded posthumously.

But even if she had been alive, she may still have been overlooked. Like many women scientists, Franklin was robbed of recognition throughout her career (See her section below for details.)

She was not the first woman to have endured indignities in the male-dominated world of science, but Franklin's case is especially egregious, said Ruth Lewin Sime, a retired chemistry professor at Sacramento City College who has written on women in science.

Over the centuries, female researchers have had to work as "volunteer" faculty members, seen credit for significant discoveries they've made assigned to male colleagues, and been written out of textbooks.

They typically had paltry resources and fought uphill battles to achieve what they did, only "to have the credit attributed to their husbands or male colleagues," said Anne Lincoln, a sociologist at Southern Methodist University in Texas, who studies biases against women in the sciences.

Here are six female researchers who did groundbreaking work-and whose names are likely unfamiliar for one reason: because they are women.

Born in Northern Ireland in 1943, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered pulsars in 1967 while still a graduate student in radio astronomy at Cambridge University in England.

Pulsars are the remnants of massive stars that went supernova. Their very existence demonstrates that these giants didn't blow themselves into oblivion-instead, they left behind small, incredibly dense, rotating stars.

Bell Burnell discovered the recurring signals given off by their rotation while analyzing data printed out on three miles of paper from a radio telescope she helped assemble.

The snub generated a "wave of sympathy" for Bell Burnell. But in an interview with National Geographic News this month, the astronomer was fairly matter-of-fact.

"The picture people had at the time of the way that science was done was that there was a senior man-and it was always a man-who had under him a whole load of minions, junior staff, who weren't expected to think, who were only expected to do as he said," explained Bell Burnell, now a visiting astronomy professor at the University of Oxford.

But despite the sympathy, and her groundbreaking work, Bell Burnell said she was still subject to the prevailing attitudes toward women in academia.

"I didn't always have research jobs," she said. Many of the positions the astrophysicist was offered in her career were focused on teaching or administrative and management duties.

"[And] it was extremely hard combining family and career," Bell Burnell said, partly because the university where she worked while pregnant had no provisions for maternity leave.

She has since become quite "protective" of women in academia. Some individual schools may give them support, but Bell Burnell wants a systemic approach to boost the numbers of female researchers.

Born in 1922 in the Bronx, Esther Lederberg would grow up to lay the groundwork for future discoveries on genetic inheritance in bacteria, gene regulation, and genetic recombination.

Lederberg, along with her first husband Joshua Lederberg, also developed a way to easily transfer bacterial colonies from one petri dish to another, called replica plating, which enabled the study of antibiotic resistance. The Lederberg method is still in use today.

Joshua Lederberg's work on replica plating played a part in his 1958 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine, which he shared with George Beadle and Edward Tatum.

"She deserved credit for the discovery of lambda phage, her work on the F fertility factor, and, especially, replica plating," wrote Stanley Falkow, a retired microbiologist at Stanford University, in an email. But she didn't receive it.

Lederberg also wasn't treated fairly in terms of her academic standing at Stanford, added Falkow, a colleague of Lederberg's who spoke at her memorial service in 2006. "She had to fight just to be appointed as a research associate professor, whereas she surely should have been afforded full professorial rank. She was not alone. Women were treated badly in academia in those days."

Born in Liu Ho, China, in 1912, Chien-Shiung Wu overturned a law of physics and participated in the development of the atom bomb.

Wu was recruited to Columbia University in the 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project and conducted research on radiation detection and uranium enrichment. She stayed in the United States after the war and became known as one of the best experimental physicists of her time, said Nina Byers, a retired physics professor at the University of California, Los Angeles.

In the mid-1950s, two theoretical physicists, Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang, approached Wu to help disprove the law of parity. The law holds that in quantum mechanics, two physical systems-like atoms-that were mirror images would behave in identical ways.

This milestone in physics led to a 1957 Nobel Prize for Yang and Lee-but not for Wu, who was left out despite her critical role. "People found [the Nobel decision] outrageous," said Byers.

Pnina Abir-Am, a historian of science at Brandeis University, agreed, adding that ethnicity also played a role.

Wu died of a stroke in 1997 in New York.

Her story is a complicated tangle of sexism, politics, and ethnicity.

After finishing her doctoral degree in physics at the University of Vienna, Meitner moved to Berlin in 1907 and started collaborating with chemist Otto Hahn. They maintained their working relationship for more than 30 years.

After the Nazis annexed Austria in March 1938, Meitner, who was Jewish, made her way to Stockholm, Sweden. She continued to work with Hahn, corresponding and meeting secretly in Copenhagen in November of that year.

Although Hahn performed the experiments that produced the evidence supporting the idea of nuclear fission, he was unable to come up with an explanation. Meitner and her nephew, Otto Frisch, came up with the theory.

Hahn published their findings without including Meitner as a co-author, although several accounts say Meitner understood this omission, given the situation in Nazi Germany.

"That's the start of how Meitner got separated from the credit of discovering nuclear fission," said Lewin Sime, who wrote a biography of Meitner.

"Meitner's colleagues at the time, including physicist Niels Bohr, absolutely felt she was instrumental in the discovery of nuclear fission," Sime said. But since her name wasn't on that initial paper with Hahn-and she was left off the Nobel Prize recognizing the discovery-over the years, she has not been associated with the finding.

The nuclear physicist died in 1968 in Cambridge, England. ( Learn more about Meitner's career.)

Born in 1920 in London, Rosalind Franklin used x-rays to take a picture of DNA that would change biology.

Hers is perhaps one of the most well-known-and shameful-instances of a researcher being robbed of credit, said Lewin Sime.

Franklin graduated with a doctorate in physical chemistry from Cambridge University in 1945, then spent three years at an institute in Paris where she learned x-ray diffraction techniques, or the ability to determine the molecular structures of crystals. ( Learn more about her education and qualifications.)

She returned to England in 1951 as a research associate in John Randall's laboratory at King's College in London and soon encountered Maurice Wilkins, who was leading his own research group studying the structure of DNA.

Photo 51 enabled Watson, Crick, and Wilkins to deduce the correct structure for DNA, which they published in a series of articles in the journal Nature in April 1953. Franklin also published in the same issue, providing further details on DNA's structure.

Franklin died of ovarian cancer in 1958 in London, four years before Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received the Nobel. Since Nobel prizes aren't awarded posthumously, we'll never know whether Franklin would have received a share in the prize for her work. ( Learn more about Franklin and Photo 51.)

After receiving her doctorate from Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, Stevens continued at the college as a researcher studying sex determination.

Stevens fell victim to a phenomenon known as the Matilda Effect -the repression or denial of the contributions of female researchers to science.

Thomas Hunt Morgan, a prominent geneticist at the time, is often credited with discovering the genetic basis for sex determination, said Pomona College's Hoopes. He was the first to write a genetics textbook, she noted, and he wanted to magnify his contributions.

"Textbooks have this terrible tendency to choose the same evidence as other textbooks," she added. And so Stevens' name was not associated with the discovery of sex determination.

Hoopes has no doubt that Morgan was indebted to Stevens. "He corresponded with other scientists at the time about his theories," she said. "[But] his letters back and forth with Nettie Stevens were not like that. He was asking her for details of her experiments."

"When she died [of breast cancer in 1912], he wrote about her in, [and] he wrote that he thought she didn't have a broad view of science," said Hoopes. "But that's because he didn't ask her."

And now we'd like to ask: Who would you add to this list of female researchers who did not get the credit they deserved for their work?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
6 Women Scientists Who Were Snubbed Due to Sexism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In April, National Geographic News published a story about the letter in which scientist Francis Crick described DNA to his 12-year-old son. In 1962, Crick was awarded a Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA, along with fellow scientists James Watson and Maurice Wilkins.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Before Marie Curie, these women dedicated their lives to science and made significant advances

smithsonianmag.com

When it comes to the topic of women in science, Marie Curie usually dominates the conversation. After all, she discovered two elements, was the first women to win a Nobel Prize, in 1903, and was the first person to win a second Nobel, in 1911. But Curie was not the first female scientist. Many other brilliant, dedicated and determined women have pursued science over the years.

1 of 10

Emilie du Chatelet (1706 - 1749)

Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, the daughter of the French court's chief of protocol, married the marquis du Chatelet in 1725. She lived the life of a courtier and bore three children. But at age 27, she began studying mathematics seriously and then branched into physics. This interest intensified as she began an affair with the philosopher Voltaire, who also had a love of science. Their scientific collaborations-they outfitted a laboratory at du Chatelet's home, Chateau de Cirey, and, in a bit of a competition, each entered an essay into a contest on the nature of fire (neither won)-outlasted their romance. Du Chatelet's most lasting contribution to science was her French translation of Isaac Newton's Principia, which is still in use today. At age 43, she fell in love with a young military officer and became pregnant; she died following complications during the birth of their child.

1 of 10

Like this article?
SIGN UP for our newsletter

About Sarah Zielinski

Recommended Videos

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ten Historic Female Scientists You Should Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
smithsonianmag.com When it comes to the topic of women in science, Marie Curie usually dominates the conversation. After all, she discovered two elements, was the first women to win a Nobel Prize, in 1903, and was the first person to win a second Nobel, in 1911. But Curie was not the first female scientist.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Outside of Marie Curie, how many other famous female scientists can you name? What were their discoveries? For most, the answer is not very many. Women have been very underrepresented in the world of science and this is not to say that it's because they haven't made any discoveries, but more so the fact that their discoveries have remained all but forgotten due to their male counterparts.

While sexism in science isn't as large of an issue today, many female scientists in the past were not given the credit they deserved for their truly groundbreaking discoveries: making observations, proposing hypotheses, testing experiments, and putting in the hard work only to have their fame stripped away because of their sex.

Vera Rubin's scientific career has been filled with criticism and hostility by her male colleagues, though she remains focused on her work rather than the politics of it all. Her first taste of hostility came when she had informed her high school physics professor that she'd been accepted into Vassar. He not so encouragingly replied, "That's great. As long as you stay away from science, it should be okay."

This didn't discourage Rubin, however, and after being turned down from the astronomy program at Princeton because they didn't allow women, Rubin went on to eventually earn her PhD at Georgetown. Working with her partner, Kent Ford, Rubin was the first to make the observation that stars on the outlying parts of galaxies had an orbiting speed matching that of the stars in the center of the galaxy. This was a very odd observation at the time because it was thought that if the strongest gravitational forces existed where the most mass was (in the center), the force should decrease farther out, causing the orbits to slow.

Her observations had confirmed a hypothesis made earlier by a man named Fritz Zwicky that said some sort of invisible dark matter must be scattered throughout the universe keeping their orbitals up to speed. Rubin was able to prove that 10 times more dark matter existed in the universe than previously thought, with up to 90 percent of the universe being filled with it. For years, Rubin's observation failed to receive support, as many of her male colleagues discredited it. They felt her discoveries were impossible under Newtonian Laws and that she must have made a miscalculation. Both her doctoral and master's thesis were criticized and basically ignored, though the evidence was irrefutable. Fortunately, the scientific community has since recognized her work, but only because her male colleagues later validated it. Rubin has yet to receive a Nobel Prize for her work.

9 Cecilia Payne
1900-1979

Cecilia Payne is a female scientist who came from a background of hard work, only to have her amazing discoveries discredited by her male superiors at the time. She began her studies at Cambridge University in 1919 after being given a scholarship for botany, physics, and chemistry. Her courses were seemingly completed in vain since Cambridge didn't even offer degrees to women at the time. While at Cambridge, Payne did discover her love of astronomy. She transferred to Radcliffe and became the first woman to earn a PhD in astronomy there, while many began to take note of her astronomical brilliance.

After publishing six papers and earning her doctorate by 25, her biggest contribution to science was the discovery of what elements made up stars. Now I don't know about you, but I think the ingredients of the stars are a pretty big deal . . . her male colleagues apparently did not think so. A man named Henry Norris Russell, who was in charge of reviewing Payne's astonishing work, strongly persuaded her not to publish the article. His reasoning was that it was to contradictory to the standard knowledge of the time, and it wouldn't be accepted. Interestingly, he did seem to have a change of heart four years later when he miraculously concluded what particles the sun was made up of and had his own papers published. Though his methods weren't the same as Payne's, his conclusion was, and he was given full credit for the discovery of the sun's composition. From then on, Cecilia was basically stamped out of the history books. In another ironic twist, Payne had the "honor" of later being awarded with the Henry Norris Russell Prize for her contributions to astronomy.

8 Chien Shiung Wu
1912-1997

Chien Shiung Wu was a Chinese immigrant to America, where she began her work with the Manhattan Project and the development of the atomic bomb. Her biggest contribution to the world of science was a discovery that overturned a widely accepted law at the time. In science, "laws" are the most widely accepted and replicated observations in existence; so proving a scientific law wrong is a pretty big deal. The law was known as the Principle of Conservation of Parity, which is basically a very complicated way of proving the idea of symmetry, where particles that are mirror images of each other will act in identical ways.

Wu's colleagues, Chen Ning Yang and Tsung Dao Lee, proposed a theory that this law could be disproven and approached Wu to help them prove their theory. Wu accepted their offer and carried out several experiments using cobalt-60 that proved the law wrong. Her experiments were incredibly significant in that she was able to show that one particle was more likely to eject an electron than the other and they were therefore not symmetrical. Her observation had overturned a 30-year belief and shattered the conservation of parity law. Yang and Lee of course didn't record her observation and instead went on to win a Nobel Prize for their "discovery" that the conservation of parity was incorrect. Wu was given no mention, though it was her experiment that truly disproved the law.

7 Nettie Stevens
1862-1912

If you don't know a lot about chromosomes, you should at least know that our sex is determined by our 23rd pair of chromosomes, the X and Y. Who is credited for this huge biological discovery? Well, most textbooks would point you to a man named Thomas Morgan, though the discovery actually goes to a female scientist by the name of Nettie Stevens. She studied sex determination in mealworms and soon realized that it depended on the X and Y chromosomes. While she was recognized as working with a man named Thomas Morgan, nearly all of her observations were made independently.

Morgan was later credited with the Nobel Prize for Nettie's hard work. To add insult to injury, he later posted an article in the journal Science saying that Stevens acted as more of a technician than an actual scientist throughout the whole experiment, though this was found to be quite untrue.

Ida Tacke made huge advancements in the fields of both chemistry and atomic physics that were basically ignored until they were later "rediscovered" by her male colleagues. First, she managed to find two new elements, rhenium (75) and masurium (43), that Mendeleev predicted would be on the periodic table. While she is credited with the discovery of rhenium, you may notice that there is no such element known as masurium at atomic number 43 or anywhere else on the current periodic table. Well, this is because it's now known as technetium, the discovery of which is credited to Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segre.

During the time of the first observation, Tacke's male colleagues felt that the element was too rare and disappeared too quickly to be found naturally on Earth. Though Tacke's evidence was clear, it was basically ignored until Perrier and Segre artificially created the element in a lab and were then given all of the credit that Tacke rightfully deserved. In addition to this injustice, Tacke also published a paper that opened the door to the idea of nuclear fission that would later be taken on by Lise Meitner and Otto Stern. Her paper, five years ahead of its time, described the fundamental processes of fission, though the term hadn't been invented yet.

She worked from Enrico Fermi's theory that elements above uranium did exist and offered the explanation that the particles could be broken down when bombarded by neutrons to release a mass amount of energy. Yet again, her paper was basically ignored until 1940 during the Manhattan Project, though Fermi was awarded the Nobel Prize for his "discovery" that new radioactive elements were produced during neutron bombardment. Despite her monumental discoveries, Tacke was never recognized (though many blame this on her methods rather than her gender).

5 Esther Lederberg
1922-2006

Esther Lederberg's gender discrimination consisted more of being overshadowed by her husband, Joshua Lederberg, than being wronged by her male colleagues. Esther's discoveries were made alongside her husband Joshua. While they both played equally important roles, Esther's contributions went largely unrecognized as Joshua went on to win a Nobel Prize for their observations.

Esther was the first to solve the problem of reproducing bacterial colonies en masse with the same original geometry using a technique known as replica plating. Her method was incredibly simple in that it only required using a specific type of velvet. Despite a myriad of significant discoveries in biology and genetics, her scientific career was an uphill battle as she fought for recognition from her colleagues. Much of the credit for the discoveries went to her husband Joshua. Her tenure was even revoked by Stanford after being demoted to Adjunct Professor of Medical Microbiology. Joshua, on the other hand, was appointed to be the founder and chairman of the Department of Genetics. Esther was a pivotal partner to Joshua and, despite her diligent work, she remains unrecognized for many of her amazing discoveries.

4 Lise Meitner
1878-1968

The process of nuclear fission was a huge discovery for the scientific world, and few know that a woman by the name of Lise Meitner was the first to hypothesize it. Unfortunately, her work in radiology occurred in the midst of World War II, and she was forced to meet in secret with a chemist by the name of Otto Hahn.

During the Anschluss, Meitner left Stockholm while Hahn and his partner Fritz Strassman continued to work on their experiments with Uranium. The male scientists were puzzled by how the uranium seemed to form atoms that they thought were radium when the uranium was bombarded with neutrons. Meitner wrote to the men posing a theory that the atom may have broken down after bombardment into what was later realized to be barium. This idea had huge implications for the world of chemistry and, working with the help of Otto Frisch, she was able to explain the theory of nuclear fission.

She had also made the observation that no element larger than uranium existed naturally and that nuclear fission had the potential of creating enormous amounts of energy. Meitner was unable to be mentioned in the article published by Strassman and Hahn, though her role in the discovery was severely downplayed by them. The men went on to win a Nobel Prize for their "discovery" in 1944 with no mention of Meitner, which was later claimed to be a "mistake" by the Prize committee. While she didn't receive the Nobel Prize or formal recognition for her discoveries, Meitner did have element number 119 named after her, which is a pretty good consolation prize.

3 Henrietta Leavitt
1868-1921

While you may have never heard of Henrietta Leavitt, her discoveries revolutionized the fields of both astrology and physics by fundamentally changing the way we see the universe. Without her discoveries, men like Edward Hubble and those that followed her would never have been able to study the universe at its current magnitude. Leavitt's discoveries have largely gone unmentioned and unrecognized by those who crucially needed them to prove their own theories.

Leavitt began her work by measuring and cataloging stars at the Harvard Observatory. At the time, measuring and cataloging stars under male scientists was one of the few jobs in science that was considered suitable for women. Leavitt was working as a "computer" by doing meticulous and repetitive tasks in order to collect data for her male superiors. She was paid only 30 cents per hour for this mentally grueling work. After cataloging for quite some time, Leavitt began noticing a pattern between the brightness of a star and its distance from the Earth. She later went on to develop an idea known as the period-luminosity relationship, which allowed scientists to figure out how far away a star was from Earth based on its brightness. The universe literally opened up as scientists realized that each star wasn't just a speck in our own massive galaxy, but a galaxy in and of itself.

Notable astronomers and physicists like Harlow Shapley and Edward Hubble then used her discovery for the basis of their work. Leavitt all but faded away as the Harvard director refused to grant her recognition or credit for her independent discovery. While Mittas Leffler finally noticed her in 1926 for a possible Nobel Prize, she had died before being able to receive the honor. Shapley was then given the prize, boasting that he rightfully deserved the credit for interpreting her findings.

2 Jocelyn Bell Burnell
b. 1943

After being inspired by her father's books, Burnell began her work with astronomy. She was able to graduate with a bachelor's degree in physics from the University of Glasgow and went on to Cambridge to earn her PhD. At the time of her discovery, Burnell was working under Antony Hewish studying quasars. While independently working with radio telescopes, Bell noticed specific and constant signals being given off by something in space.

The signals were unlike any known signals they had ever received. Though she didn't know the source of the signals at the time, the discovery was huge. These signals would later be known as pulsars, which are signals that are given off by neutron stars. These observations were quickly acknowledged and published with Hewish's name appearing before Burnell's. Though Burnell had made both the observation and discovery on her own, Hewish later went on to win the 1974 Nobel Prize for his discovery of pulsars. Despite being wronged by not receiving formal credit for her discovery, it's now universally accepted that she was the first person to make the observation.

1 Rosalind Franklin
1920-1958

Rosalind Franklin was a brilliant female scientist with probably the most famous case of having her discoveries stolen and being wronged by her male colleagues. If you know anything about science, you've probably heard of the names Watson and Crick, credited for the discovery of DNA's structure. What you may not know is the controversy surrounding their "discovery" and how it was really more of a discovery of the papers Rosalind Franklin had been working on.

At 33, she was hard at work on a yet-to-be-published discovery that would revolutionize biology. She had come to the conclusion that DNA consisted of two chains and a phosphate backbone. The shape was also confirmed by her X-ray experiments of the DNA structure itself as well as her unit cell measurements. Little did she know at the time of her work that her colleagues, Wilkins and Perutz had shown Watson and Crick (who were visiting King's College) not only her X-ray picture, but even a report with all of her recent findings. With the knowledge in hand, Watson and Crick were all but handed the discovery on a silver platter.

Not only were they given full credit for the observation, Watson then used their friendship to convince Rosalind that she should publish her findings after they published theirs. Unfortunately, this made her work seem more like a confirmation than a discovery. After Watson and Crick being recognized for their "discovery," they went on to become Nobel Prize-winning scientists with their faces plastered on every biology textbook in American. Rosalind Franklin was left with virtually no recognition.

Shelby is an undergraduate at Arizona State University studying psychology and medicinal biochemistry. She is constantly fascinated by the mysteries of the world around her. She hopes to go on to medical school once she graduates to be able to search for and solve these mysteries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Groundbreaking Women Scientists Written Off By History - Listverse

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Outside of Marie Curie, how many other famous female scientists can you name? What were their discoveries? For most, the answer is not very many. Women have been very underrepresented in the world of science and this is not to say that it's because they haven't made any discoveries, but more so the fact that their discoveries have remained all but forgotten due to their male counterparts.

# data[].attributes.body
http://www.expecteverything.eu/hypatia/toolkit/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Fourth Industrial Revolution  | Full Version (Subtitled)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
STEM education and the labour market (rerun)

# data[].attributes.headline
Awareness (students are aware and know the variety of STEM careers available)Relevance (they see the connection between the subject they are studying and day-to-day life)Engagement (students show direct interest and motivation to interact with the subject matter)Self-efficacy (students are comfortable with using tools of science)The report also goes on to outline four teaching strategies, which foster STEM careers awareness, derived from a series of interviews with science teachers: Incorporate both formal and informal approaches: Constantly bring career awareness in your activities and do not keep it as a separate unit.Help students see scientists as real people: Students may have difficulty imagining themselves as scientists because they cannot see that scientists have a normal life, just like them. They have hobbies, families and various interests. Connect the dots: It is not enough to just expose students to career information, the teacher also has to directly connect career information with whatever the student is learning at that moment. This can refer to making clear connections to the real-life use of subjects, to giving examples of how it connects to jobs of scientists. The student will not be always capable of making these connections themselves, and you will have to do that for him. Embed reflection: To make sure that information sticks with students, and to drive a deeper understanding. Otherwise, a lot of the information can be lost over time if reflection is not used to “glue” it.

# data[].attributes.subject
Awareness (students are aware and know the variety of STEM careers available)Relevance (they see the connection between the subject they are studying and day-to-day life)Engagement (students show direct interest and motivation to interact with the subject matter)Self-efficacy (students are comfortable with using tools of science)The report also goes on to outline four teaching strategies, which foster STEM careers awareness, derived from a series of interviews with science teachers: Incorporate both formal and informal approaches: Constantly bring career awareness in your activities and do not keep it as a separate unit.Help students see scientists as real people: Students may have difficulty imagining themselves as scientists because they cannot see that scientists have a normal life, just like them. They have hobbies, families and various interests. Connect the dots: It is not enough to just expose students to career information, the teacher also has to directly connect career information with whatever the student is learning at that moment. This can refer to making clear connections to the real-life use of subjects, to giving examples of how it connects to jobs of scientists. The student will not be always capable of making these connections themselves, and you will have to do that for him. Embed reflection: To make sure that information sticks with students, and to drive a deeper understanding. Otherwise, a lot of the information can be lost over time if reflection is not used to “glue” it.

# data[].attributes.headline
1. Tutorial roles  Career informant: In this role, teachers provide students with a model, an approach of thinking about a career, and help students shape their own way to view career choices by using their own experience as an example, but without offering it as the only way to do this. The report lists some tasks that a teacher in this role might perform: “talking about their decisions and how they made them, talking about their career-building (including discussing challenges and regrets”, and many more.Pastoral support: This refers to the teacher as a first contact point for students, who may approach him/her with conversations they need to have with a trusted adult. These can be related purely to career choices / guidance, and sometimes they may appear related to careers, but in reality the issue the students are having may be, for example, health-related. In this role, the teacher helps the students in line with his/her capabilities, but also directs the students to other professionals who can help. A task the teacher can perform in this role: “acting as facilitator and advocate for students to help them to have career conversations with other staff, parents and employers.” 2. Teaching roles  Within-subject: In this role, the teacher has two opportunities to provide CEL: within or beside the curriculum. For some subjects, it may be more straightforward to discuss careers (e.g., Economics or Politics versus Physiscs, where more direct connections have to be made), and teaching approaches can also vary. If career information has to be provided outside the curriculum (e.g. STEM subjects), then the report proposes a team-teaching approach, involving employers and other enrichment activities. Some tasks teachers can perform in this role: “explaining to pupils the progression routes open in continued learning in their subject area, using the curriculum to develop core employability skills”, “arranging visits to relevant workplaces”, “organising a programme of visiting speakers from business”.Delivering CEL: This role refers to the teacher being involved, where it is possible and where it exists (as it depends on the curriculum set-up), in CEL as a separate, standalone subject of the curriculum. A task teachers can perform in this role: “contributing particular CEL inputs related to subject expertise”.   3. Leadership roles  Leading CEL: A teacher leading CEL can have a teaching background or not, but s/he needs to be familiar with and be able to coordinate various stakeholders involved in providing CEL to the school. Therefore, a teacher in this role would be someone in a middle leader position, and a career co-ordinator / careers leader / head of careers. Senior leadership: This role is normally taken up by a member of the school’s senior leadership team. In this role, the person would “connect CEL to the school’s mission and ethos, identify resourcing for CEL programmes, appointing and managing the school career’s leader” and other tasks. 

# data[].attributes.subject
1. Tutorial roles  Career informant: In this role, teachers provide students with a model, an approach of thinking about a career, and help students shape their own way to view career choices by using their own experience as an example, but without offering it as the only way to do this. The report lists some tasks that a teacher in this role might perform: “talking about their decisions and how they made them, talking about their career-building (including discussing challenges and regrets”, and many more.Pastoral support: This refers to the teacher as a first contact point for students, who may approach him/her with conversations they need to have with a trusted adult. These can be related purely to career choices / guidance, and sometimes they may appear related to careers, but in reality the issue the students are having may be, for example, health-related. In this role, the teacher helps the students in line with his/her capabilities, but also directs the students to other professionals who can help. A task the teacher can perform in this role: “acting as facilitator and advocate for students to help them to have career conversations with other staff, parents and employers.” 2. Teaching roles  Within-subject: In this role, the teacher has two opportunities to provide CEL: within or beside the curriculum. For some subjects, it may be more straightforward to discuss careers (e.g., Economics or Politics versus Physiscs, where more direct connections have to be made), and teaching approaches can also vary. If career information has to be provided outside the curriculum (e.g. STEM subjects), then the report proposes a team-teaching approach, involving employers and other enrichment activities. Some tasks teachers can perform in this role: “explaining to pupils the progression routes open in continued learning in their subject area, using the curriculum to develop core employability skills”, “arranging visits to relevant workplaces”, “organising a programme of visiting speakers from business”.Delivering CEL: This role refers to the teacher being involved, where it is possible and where it exists (as it depends on the curriculum set-up), in CEL as a separate, standalone subject of the curriculum. A task teachers can perform in this role: “contributing particular CEL inputs related to subject expertise”.   3. Leadership roles  Leading CEL: A teacher leading CEL can have a teaching background or not, but s/he needs to be familiar with and be able to coordinate various stakeholders involved in providing CEL to the school. Therefore, a teacher in this role would be someone in a middle leader position, and a career co-ordinator / careers leader / head of careers. Senior leadership: This role is normally taken up by a member of the school’s senior leadership team. In this role, the person would “connect CEL to the school’s mission and ethos, identify resourcing for CEL programmes, appointing and managing the school career’s leader” and other tasks. 

# data[].attributes.headline
 Role of teachers in career counsellingRead pages 20-28 from the study presented above and reflect on the following: Which roles do you use actively, which do you use less and why? Are there any roles you are not doing but want to do? Name at least one you would like to exercise more.

# data[].attributes.subject
 Role of teachers in career counsellingRead pages 20-28 from the study presented above and reflect on the following: Which roles do you use actively, which do you use less and why? Are there any roles you are not doing but want to do? Name at least one you would like to exercise more.

# data[].attributes.body
Usually help with pastoral role. Our school counselor is doing more aprofessional work. Field trips, questionnaire studies, career days, meetings and presentations that former graduates role models for students

# data[].attributes.headline
STEM professionalsReflect on your upcoming lessons and plans for your students – which professional of your town/country could you bring in to supplement your teaching activity?

# data[].attributes.subject
STEM professionalsReflect on your upcoming lessons and plans for your students – which professional of your town/country could you bring in to supplement your teaching activity?

# data[].attributes.body
http://www.kodlamanisa.gov.tr/
11-13 May 2018  with the participation of schools in our city coding and editing of the capitals are organized. This is an organization that is repeated every year and has different events.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bringing parents into career counselling

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
If you're keen to get your kid interested in STEM, we've got 6 strategies to help you open their eyes to the wonders of science and technology! According to STEM education advocacy group Change the Equation, just 56 percent of high schools offer a computer science class of any sort. The situation with science isn't much better.

"On average, students in kindergarten through third grade spend 19 minutes a day on science and 89 minutes per day on language arts. This abbreviated exposure reduces time students spend solving open-ended problems and investigating, experimenting, and observing the world," reveals Vanessa Stratton, Vice President of Programs at Project Lead The Way. "Young people begin to see science, technology, engineering, and math [STEM] as a series of discrete facts that have no connection to their lives."

"Science class is not well connected to broader, relevant things in the workplace and to life after school," agrees Claus Von Zastrow, director of research at Change the Equation. No wonder by the time they get to high school, only 37 percent of students tell pollsters they like science class.

So what do you do if, as a parent, you're convinced this just isn't good enough? How can you nudge your own kids towards an interest in STEM?

The good news is you have a lot to work with. First, kids are naturally curious about the world. The same poll that found a minority of kids like studying science in school, also found that 81 percent liked science itself. Second, there are a ton of resources at parents' disposal to help you open your kids' eyes to the wonders of STEM.

1. Explore the world together.

In fact, the world itself can be seen as one huge laboratory for your kids to explore. Encourage them to ask questions and find their own answers. "Instead of answering questions such as, 'Why do leaves change color in the fall?; turn the question around and ask them what they think," Stratton advises parents.

Von Zastrow has an even more specific suggestion: Science Buddies, a website that offers thousands of ideas for at-home experiments. Or check out citizen science projects that allow young people to take part in actual, ongoing studies in which real-life researchers deputize the public to help sift through or provide data, from examining silt for micro-fossils to photographing lady bugs for entomologists. Scientific American has a list of ongoing projects. Online coding classes and programs are a good bet as well - you can check out this list of free websites that teach kids coding.

2. Introduce them to STEM professionals.

This tip may be easier for parents who work in a STEM field themselves, but introducing your children to real-life scientists and technologists can go a long way to proving STEM leads to viable and fascinating career options. If that's a stretch given your location or social circle, your local library may be your next best bet.

"Many books now exist for primary students including non-fiction offerings such as Ada Byron Lovelace and the Thinking Machine by Laurie Wallmark and The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind: Creating Currents of Electricity and Hope by William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer; and fictional offerings such as Rosie Revere, Engineer by Andrea Beaty," Stratton points out.

3. Provide the right kind of toys.

Children's books and web resources can help parents spark a love of science, but so can the right kind of toys. And today, thankfully, there are more great options than ever before. Focus on multi-functional toys that allow for open-ended play, suggests Stratton. "Some of my sons' favorite activities over the years have included Magna-Tiles, GoldieBlox building sets, and Minecraft," she says.

Or just stick with old standbys from a time when childhood was less structured and more imaginative. "I would also encourage parents to supply their children with basic supplies and unstructured time to allow them opportunities to explore the outdoors, observe insects and wildlife, and build structures with cardboard, sticks, and other recycled items," Stratton adds.

4. Explain that STEM is for everyone.

While there are excellent toys out there for budding scientists, there are also some offerings at your local toy store that send exactly the wrong message, especially for girls. Von Zastrow suggests that while books or toys that portray space exploration or dinosaurs as "for boys" and ironing and fashion as "for girls" are highly annoying (and still all too common), they also offer parents a perfect teaching moment.

"Intentionally talk to your kids about what they're seeing and explain why, if it's ridiculous, it's ridiculous," Von Stratton tells parents. "Kids soak it up," he says of this sort of stereotype-busting talk, "but it's going to be a constant fight."

For more resources to encourage your little girl to get excited about STEM, check out GoldieBlox, Black Girls Code, EngineerGirl, Girls Who Code, Yellow Scope, RoboGabby and A Mighty Girl for games, books, tutorials, events and more!

5. Find the science in your kid's hobby.

Another approach to encourage a love of science and tech is to enter through the back door. Rather than pushing STEM directly, figure out what your kids are already passionate about already and highlight how that connects to technology and science. There's a link for almost any interest you can imagine.

"Computer science is becoming infused into all areas of our lives. I would encourage parents of kids who might feel like science isn't for them to look closely at a hobby or interest of theirs and find the science, technology, engineering, and math involved," suggests Stratton. "Hobbies such as sports, fashion, art, and music involve STEM. In short, find the hobby and look for the science."

6. Be persistent.

Finally, just keep chipping away at it. "So many people led to my decision to become a NASA engineer," says real-life rocket scientist Jenny Moss. "It wasn't one particular moment that set me off in that direction. It was a progression of support that led to my career."

"I've learned it takes an army to keep people moving forward, especially women in engineering. They need encouragement and nudges in the right direction all along the way," agrees aerospace engineer Jamie Krakover.

"The most important thing a parent can do to encourage a love of science in their child is to provide support and encouragement," concludes Stratton, who points to research showing that encouragement from family and peers is the key to getting kids interested in STEM and keeping them hooked.

In other words, you really do have the power to shape your kids' feelings about science and technology. Now go exercise it wisely.

Hackbright Academy is the leading engineering school for women. Learn more about the programs we offer here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
6 Ways Parents Can Encourage a Love of Science and Tech in Their Kids | Hackbright Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
If you're keen to get your kid interested in STEM, we've got 6 strategies to help you open their eyes to the wonders of science and technology! According to STEM education advocacy group Change the Equation, just 56 percent of high schools offer a computer science class of any sort.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
I am often asked by parents, "What can we do to get our child interested in science?" My reply is always the same: "Your child is already interested in science!"

Children are explorers, observers and tinkerers. It's why they open up cabinets, roll balls down staircases, and proudly exhibit toads found in the backyard. It's why they love playing with flashlights, making paper airplanes, and mixing up "chemicals" needed to make chocolate brownies.

I have yet to meet a child that does not think like a scientist. Adam Savage of Discovery Channel's MythBusters often reports that a member of his crew had an epiphany: "The difference between play and the scientific method is writing stuff down." Another principle is that exploration should be encouraged.

The Science of Taking Stuff Apart

If you spend time with children, you know that they find as much joy deconstructing something as they do putting things together. This is because dismantling something into component parts helps kids understand how things work.

Owners of outdated personal computer towers might view their PCs as junk, but not an eight-year-old. She sees the opportunity for scientific exploration. Arm your little engineer with a few sizes of Phillips head screwdrivers, and then allow her to dissect memory cards, motherboards, hard drives, circuit boards and cooling fans. Take a nine-volt battery, connect it to the fan wires and watch it spring to life. Such an activity shows your child how everyday items are put together and engineered. It also increases comfort with tools and allows her to see the complexities of technology.

Safety Note: For the most part, dissecting a computer is safe. However, be sure to give your child goggles to wear, cut or remove the power cord, and remove the power supply inside the computer since it may contain capacitors that have stored energy.

Your House Has Guts

Science is everywhere. Just about every modern home or building is a scientific marvel, with most of the cool stuff hidden in the walls -- but not all of it is hidden. Give your child a tour of your home's utilities. Really, try it. Show them the system of pipes, valves, vents and ducts. Ask them what they think it all does.

Remove the tank lid on a toilet. As levers move, valves open and close, and water drains and then fills the tank. Put food coloring or even a little glitter in the tank and watch as it flows into the bowl during flushing. Adults don't view plumbing as science. But to children, especially young children, plumbing is a new hidden world to explore. They will enjoy a new children's book by David Macaulay and Sheila Keenan called Toilet: How it Works.

Welcome to My Laboratory

Sometimes, working like a scientist requires the right tools. Having a home "laboratory" can be a fun way to continuously feed curiosity. Whether you use a dedicated space in the house, a cabinet, or a box of goodies that gets stored away until needed, creating a home laboratory is easier than you think and can cost less that $30 to start.

Visit the pharmacy for vials, eyedroppers, suction bulbs, jumbo syringes, magnifiers and balloons. Pick up safety goggles, funnels, tubing, magnets, disposable gloves, mini flashlights, vinegar, baking soda, food coloring, dish soap, measuring spoons, and plastic mixing and storage containers. And don't forget a good waterproof tablecloth.

Then stand back and let the exploration happen. Will food coloring turn kids' hands green? Probably. Will it get messy? Yes, because science gets messy. But it's all worth it when children wonder, "What will happen if. . .?" -- a critical question that is part of hypothesis testing. Encourage observing, mixing and maybe even recording results, because this is what scientists do.

The 3-Day Zoo

The outdoors provides an ever-changing pallet of discoveries for young explorers. Next time that you walk with children through the woods, take your time and encourage them to turn over logs and rocks to explore what is underneath. When your kids are on critter watch, they'll find snails, beetles, lizards and frogs. Don't be surprised when they beg to keep them.

Fortunately, there is a way for you to board small critters at your house without acquiring a new pet. Three-day zoo materials include a large plastic tank or container (I like the type that bulk snack foods come in) to create a short-term space for small creatures. Poke a few holes in the lid and place some window screen inside the holes if you are worried about critters going AWOL. The three-day zoo allows children more time to observe an animal's habits and interactions while making sure the critter gets released back into the wild.

Science experiences at or near home needn't demand too much time or effort on the part of adults. A few tools and encouragment can set young ones up for many adventures. Do it for the love of your child, and for the love of science.

Share the scientific adventures that children enjoy at or near your home.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Encouraging Science at Home is Easier Than You Think

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
I am often asked by parents, "What can we do to get our child interested in science?" My reply is always the same: "Your child is already interested in science!" Children are explorers, observers and tinkerers. It's why they open up cabinets, roll balls down staircases, and proudly exhibit toads found in the backyard.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Tackle gender stereotypes with parents. Make sure they encourage girls and boys equally and, when possible, challenge any possible stereotypes they may be harbouring.

2. Help parents see their children’s experiments and curiosity as a natural scientific attitude. Encourage them to be tolerant and welcoming in that curiosity, and to let their children explore, regardless of the mess they may be making at home: noise, breaking, pulling apart things.

3. Facilitate the involvement of parents in their children's STEM activities. Inform them of activities they can do together with their children, events in which they can participate together and activities they can put in practice at home to foster their children’s interests in STEM.

4. Financial constraints in a household can be an impediment to parents' exposing their children to science opportunities – in a lot of cases, it will be up to you as a teacher to take extra steps to inform students and give them extra guidance for these opportunities.

5. Finally, remember to practice what you preach. If parents do not see you putting into practice what you tell them to do, they will not be convinced!

# data[].attributes.headline
Bringing parents into career counsellingThink about your discussions with the parents of your students: are they encouraging their children to enter STEM careers? What is their general attitude towards STEM careers? Reflect on this section and share your thoughts here. Additionally, share some ideas you will keep in mind from now on, in your work with parents.

# data[].attributes.subject
Bringing parents into career counsellingThink about your discussions with the parents of your students: are they encouraging their children to enter STEM careers? What is their general attitude towards STEM careers? Reflect on this section and share your thoughts here. Additionally, share some ideas you will keep in mind from now on, in your work with parents.

# data[].attributes.body
The region where I work is a place where workers are predominantly working families. They want their children to work in better conditions than themselves. They value support for their education and value the work at the school. Unfortunately, there are no conscious parents.

# data[].attributes.headline
Some disadvantages of virtual job fairs includ

# data[].attributes.subject
Some disadvantages of virtual job fairs includ

# data[].attributes.body
Technological glitches: While technology provides students with a variety of new ways of connecting, technical glitches constitute a disadvantage for networking and effective communication.

Digital divide: Not all students might have direct access to a digital device. Therefore, virtual job fairs might not ensure equal access to all pupils.

Visual elements: The interaction between students and professionals might appear to be limited or superficial, since there is no face-to-face contact.

Inertia about new technologies: Students and/or professionals may be apprehensive about learning to use a new digital tool.

# data[].attributes.body
This example stem progress is very successful

# data[].attributes.body
A postgraduate research program in science and biotechnology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Amgen Scholars Program provides hundreds of selected undergraduates with the opportunity to engage in a hands-on research experience at many of the world's leading institutions.

# data[].attributes.body
Good work against youth unemployment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Community Partners: Making Student Learning Relevant

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

# data[].attributes.headline
how do you reach these learning partners? The article suggests several ways: from googling the nearest expert, to collaborating with parents or connecting with teachers from other schools. More interesting approaches are (for the teacher) to:join local talks or workshops: networking and learning what others are doing and how you can tap into their expertise is a great strategy;contact local museums, government agencies, local expertise institutions (which usually have an Education Department). 

# data[].attributes.subject
how do you reach these learning partners? The article suggests several ways: from googling the nearest expert, to collaborating with parents or connecting with teachers from other schools. More interesting approaches are (for the teacher) to:join local talks or workshops: networking and learning what others are doing and how you can tap into their expertise is a great strategy;contact local museums, government agencies, local expertise institutions (which usually have an Education Department). 

# data[].attributes.body
Those countries with quicker and more successful school-to-work transitions are those where young people leave home earlier. In this regard, seven common patterns were identified among Member States. At one end of the spectrum, the ‘Nordic’ and ‘Apprenticeship’ (Austria and Germany) models are characterised by a more rapid transition to adulthood and a quicker transition from school to work. At the other end of the spectrum, in the ‘Eastern European’ and ‘Mediterranean’ models, difficult and problematic school-to-work transitions are associated with very slow and late transitions to independence and autonomy.”

# data[].attributes.headline
How can you search for these kinds of programmes? Some practical steps:

# data[].attributes.subject
How can you search for these kinds of programmes? Some practical steps:

# data[].attributes.body
1. Check out which are some of the big industry or corporate players in your town/city/country.

2. Usually, they should have a department/area of their organisation allocated towards Corporate Social Responsibility (for example, Amgen has the Amgen Foundation, which offers the Amgem Scholars programme) or a section on Careers, which almost always provides assistance to students/graduates who might be interested in a job with that company (like Microsoft for example). This information should normally be available on the company’s website.

3. See what types of activities they provide: these can be live ones, like trainings or workshops at their headquarters or live webinars. If they offer extracurricular study programmes (like an Academy) see what their aims, objectives, conditions and timeline are.

4. Facilitate the connection with your students, either in one-on-one discussions, in the classroom, or by directing your students to that website

# data[].attributes.headline
Students with excellent chances, specifically: 

# data[].attributes.subject
Students with excellent chances, specifically: 

# data[].attributes.body
to explore a career field by experiencing life at a real workplace;

to learn how to apply academic subject knowledge through discussions with a professional;

to assess one’s aptitude for a particular position/role/career;

to observe the day-to-day activities of a professional/researcher;

to discuss specific STEM-related research and career pathways;

to create career connections and establish valid networking opportunities.

# data[].attributes.headline
These initiatives can also entail a number of challenges

# data[].attributes.subject
These initiatives can also entail a number of challenges

# data[].attributes.body
Non-involvement: In some circumstances, job shadowing limits the involvement of the trainee/student to observation and does not allow the student to contribute to the work efforts. Moreover, job shadowing does not always provide students/trainees with an understanding of the responsibility or specific skills needed in the workplace.

Distortions: The success of job shadowing will depend on the professional selected “to be shadowed”. The time selected for shadowing can also create distortions, as it can provide inadequate understanding of the level of difficulty and/or of the necessary engagement.

Timing: Job shadowing will usually take place during a limited period. This brief exposure can cause the student shadowing to miss out key work challenges that may not occur during the time of the placement.

Supervision: To ensure an effective experience, students will need to be supervised and mentored, which can be very time consuming for the professionals.

Disruption: Job shadowing can disrupt the smooth functioning of working environments, in different ways. The professional, conscious of being observed, might behave differently than normal, which can affect the quality of output. Another related inherent risk, from an organisational point of view, is the student getting to know confidential information of a particular organization.

Other challenges might relate to the lack of space or of other infrastructure to accommodate interns or the work schedule incompatibilities that may not match students’ availabilities.

# data[].attributes.body
A convenient and unique opportunity to meet key professionals and employers from different STEM fields, all in one location;

A networking occasion for students to meet not only professionals and employers but also researchers and with more advanced students;

A chance to gain first-hand information about local (and potentially foreign) employers;

The prospect of collecting promotional information (brochures, business cards) related to different companies.

# data[].attributes.headline
There are always challenges related to STEM career fairs, some of them being

# data[].attributes.subject
There are always challenges related to STEM career fairs, some of them being

# data[].attributes.body
Mass appeal: Unless tailored to a specific field, career fairs might feature professionals from a wide range of businesses or fields, making it difficult for attendees to adapt the visit to their needs.

Limited quality time: A career fair is usually loud and crowded, leaving little quality time or space for effective interaction between students and professionals. This context can prove challenging for students to communicate, ask questions and network.

Organisational costs: STEM career fairs require a high budget, extensive time and a lot of personnel to organise.

# data[].attributes.headline
Type 4: Career Talks / Workshops / Seminars 

# data[].attributes.subject
Type 4: Career Talks / Workshops / Seminars 

# data[].attributes.headline
Some disadvantages of virtual job fairs include:

# data[].attributes.subject
Some disadvantages of virtual job fairs include:

# data[].attributes.body
Technological glitches: While technology provides students with a variety of new ways of connecting, technical glitches constitute a disadvantage for networking and effective communication.
Digital divide: Not all students might have direct access to a digital device. Therefore, virtual job fairs might not ensure equal access to all pupils.
Visual elements: The interaction between students and professionals might appear to be limited or superficial, since there is no face-to-face contact.
Inertia about new technologies: Students and/or professionals may be apprehensive about learning to use a new digital tool.

# data[].attributes.headline
The advantages of these options include:

# data[].attributes.subject
The advantages of these options include:

# data[].attributes.body
Students can discuss specific queries with professionals during or after the talk, workshop or seminar;

Direct face-to-face contact facilitates smoother and improved communication;

Parents or student guardians can join the discussion to support their children in their career choice.

# data[].attributes.headline
The setbacks related to these career-related options include:

# data[].attributes.subject
The setbacks related to these career-related options include:

# data[].attributes.body
Students might have difficulty attending career talks if these clash with their school/study scheduling.

Professionals might lack the skills to share their work in a specific field in an appealing, engaging manner. This can result in students becoming disinterested or detached.

It might be difficult to convince professionals from a wide range of fields to conduct STEM career talks. Therefore, students might only be exposed to a limited range of options.

# data[].attributes.headline
Professionals go back to school” initiative.

# data[].attributes.subject
Professionals go back to school” initiative.

# data[].attributes.headline
Career exhibitions provide static displays with information related to different STEM careers. While they are a nice option for showing specific evidence, they often lack the human factor, which can make them less engaging. Nonetheless, when set up in conjunction with other initiatives (such as career talks or event fairs) these exhibitions can be an interesting option to support STEM career engagement.

# data[].attributes.subject
Career exhibitions provide static displays with information related to different STEM careers. While they are a nice option for showing specific evidence, they often lack the human factor, which can make them less engaging. Nonetheless, when set up in conjunction with other initiatives (such as career talks or event fairs) these exhibitions can be an interesting option to support STEM career engagement.

# data[].attributes.headline
Useful tipThe STEM Alliance and the SYSTEMIC projects have developed a guide to engage company professionals (technicians, scientists, engineers, researchers or employment and recruiting managers) to visit schools and participate in collaborative activities with them. The aim is to close the gap between industry and education sectors, to raise pupils and teachers’ awareness on STEM careers and to promote STEM jobs.Check out these two booklets: one addressed to schools and one addressed to companies. These booklets are based on the framework of the “Professionals go back to school” initiative.

# data[].attributes.subject
Useful tipThe STEM Alliance and the SYSTEMIC projects have developed a guide to engage company professionals (technicians, scientists, engineers, researchers or employment and recruiting managers) to visit schools and participate in collaborative activities with them. The aim is to close the gap between industry and education sectors, to raise pupils and teachers’ awareness on STEM careers and to promote STEM jobs.Check out these two booklets: one addressed to schools and one addressed to companies. These booklets are based on the framework of the “Professionals go back to school” initiative.

# data[].attributes.headline
Useful tipCheck out the toolkit Organising a Girls-in-ICT-Day event, which provides ideas and tips for organising a successful Girls-in-ICT-Day event. While the toolkit has a specific target, it provides very useful information on different types of events activities, such as hands-on workshops and activities; open days at an ICT company or other institutions; competitions and prizes; ICT career fairs and meetings with female role models.

# data[].attributes.subject
Useful tipCheck out the toolkit Organising a Girls-in-ICT-Day event, which provides ideas and tips for organising a successful Girls-in-ICT-Day event. While the toolkit has a specific target, it provides very useful information on different types of events activities, such as hands-on workshops and activities; open days at an ICT company or other institutions; competitions and prizes; ICT career fairs and meetings with female role models.

# data[].attributes.body
Hi, I'm a science teacher. I follow new technologies and applications with interest. I want to improve myself on FCL and STEM. I like to follow distance education.