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When the gifted identification process focuses on a student's IQ through individual examinations and/or cast studies, they are only being evaluated on their verbal and mathematical abilities. However, there are many potential ways a student should be able to be identified as gifted. These intelligence tests also limit the level of student creativity noticed by the evaluator. There is also an argument that these intelligence tests fail to adequately identify culturally disadvantaged students.

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This article  focuses on economically diverse students and ways to better assess them. The project in the article is known as the HOPE project. The purpose of it is to design a scale to more equitably identify K-5 students from low income families for gifted and talented services.

Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 54, 4: pp. 298-313. , First Published September 10, 2010.
Link:

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Students with exceptional academic potential who come from low-income families are frequently not identified for and consequently are underrepresented in gifted and talented programs. Because of this, new means of identifying such children must be developed. This article presents the findings of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses conducted on the HOPE Scale, a 13-item teacher-rating instrument designed to identify academic and social components of giftedness in elementary-aged students. Participants included 349 teachers who completed HOPE Scales on 5,995 ethnically and economically diverse students from three rural and two metropolitan school districts in the Midwest. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was also used to evaluate measurement invariance between income groups. Findings suggest a two-factor model represents good fit for the data while remaining loyal to the latent constructs of academic and social giftedness. Although showing some legitimate mean differences, invariance test results suggested equivalence of model form, factor loading, and factor variances across income groups.
Putting the Research to Use
This research has important implications for practice. Frequently, traditional measures of achievement or aptitude under-identify children from low-income families. Concerns exist about the usefulness of teacher-ratings forms or scales in gifted and talented student identification. However, when given specific items or descriptors, teachers can provide useful information concerning student performance. The HOPE Scale provides items that teachers can use to rate specific social and academic behaviors of their students. Findings from this study revealed that teaches can effectively nominate low-income students for gifted programs. Further, items on the HOPE Scale were not biased against low-income students as rated by their teachers, meaning that the social and academic scales provided similar information concerning students in either income group. However, mean scores for student from low-income families on both scales were lower than their non-low income peers, providing evidence that instruments need to be normed on the specific groups for which their use is intended. Practitioners, should not shy away from using teacher nomination instruments, but they should consider the psychometric information available concerning the use of these instruments or rating forms as used with students in demographic groups of intended use. The HOPE Scale, as developed with indicated revisions, will provide educators and researchers with a simple, psychometrically sound instrument to help with identification of underrepresented student for gifted education services.

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Multigroup Construct Validity Evidence of the HOPE Scale: Instrumentation to Identify Low-Income Elementary Students for Gifted Programs - Scott J. Peters, Marcia Gentry, 2010

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Students with exceptional academic potential who come from low-income families are frequently not identified for and consequently are underrepresented in gifted and talented programs. Because of this, new means of identifying such children must be developed.

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The article that I read discussed the topic of twice-exceptional students who have some type of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).  It shares some of the difficulties in identifying ASD students for gifted.  Students with ASD sometimes have trouble with verbalizing.  The article shared different strategies/tests that are used to help with the identification process.

Assouline, S., Nicpon, M., Dockery, L., (2011). Predicting the academic achievement of gifted students with autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.kennesaw.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=0382f99c-e301-4c9a-8b9e-f9d1df50c162%40sdc-v-sessmgr01

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Citation: Desireé Vega, & James L. Moore III. (2018). Access to gifted education among African-American and Latino males. Journal for Multicultural Education, 12(3), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-01-2017-0006

Link: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JME-01-2017-0006/full/html

This article is about the limited access of African-American and Latino males in gifted education. It discusses various theories behind why these students are underrepresented. It goes on to describe how the few Latino or African-American males who have been identified feel isolated and lonely due to the under representation of these students. It also provides recommendation to school personnel in how to increase the identification and placement of African-American and Latino males in the gifted program.

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Copyright

Across the nation, African-American and Latino males have experienced limited access to placement in gifted education programs ( Ford, 2011; Moore and Flowers, 2012; US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2014). Their reduced access often stems from narrow definitions of giftedness, teacher bias in the nomination process and the misuse and misrepresentation of intelligence measures ( Ford, 2010; Ford and Moore, 2013; Ford and Whiting, 2010; Harradine et al., 2013; McBee, 2006). Positive racial socialization by parents and high teacher expectations contribute to positive academic outcomes and the development of a scholastic identity among male students of color ( Allen, 2015). Furthermore, participation in gifted and talented education increases the likelihood of attaining a bachelor's degree ( Rose, 2013).

Nonetheless, placement in gifted education may lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness due to scant representation of other African-American and Latino male students; therefore, considerations of their social-emotional needs are vital. School psychologists and school counselors can also play a major role in increasing access to gifted education by analyzing school-level data to determine racial/ethnic and gender representation in gifted programs, evaluating gifted identification criteria, and developing alternative criteria for gifted identification. They are also equipped to provide small group and/or individual counseling to help students develop appropriate coping skills, as well as critical support systems ( Henfield, 2013; Robinson, 2002).

This paper pinpoints and describes the factors that frequently influence access to gifted education programming among African-American and Latino males. It also describes the factors that often facilitate access to gifted placement. In addition, recommendations for school counselors and school psychologists are offered to increase the identification and placement of African-American and Latino males in gifted programming.

Review of literature

Defining and identifying giftedness

Various definitions of "gifted and talented" exist, and consequently, may create confusion about who is gifted and how to identify students as gifted. The federal definition, according to the No Child Left Behind Act (2002), stated:

The term "gifted and talented," when used with respect to students, children, or youth, means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in such areas as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.

The definition, according to the National Association of Gifted Children (NAGC) (2018), indicates:

Gifted individuals are those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or achievement in top 10 per cent or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports).

Although these definitions are similar, a federal mandate for gifted education does not exist. As a result, each state has developed its own definition of giftedness and established minimum standards for gifted education programming ( Ford, 1998). A lack of consensus in defining giftedness still exists among state policymakers and the majority of states use intelligence and achievement tests to identify students ( McClain and Pfeiffer, 2012). To this end, McClain and Pfeiffer (2012) found that approximately half of all states mandate gifted education policies for identifying students from underrepresented groups; however, the tests and procedures used were unclear.

When examining racial/ethnic and gender disparities in gifted education, it is imperative that educators take into account how states, districts and schools define giftedness. Identification criteria, such as the use of intellectual ability and achievement tests, may limit students from racially, culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds from being classified, due to inherent cultural loading and linguistic demand ( Ford, 1998; Ford and Whiting, 2007; Ortiz and Ochoa, 2005). Nonetheless, most school districts widely use standardized tests to consider students for gifted and talented programs ( Ford et al., 2009; Romanoff et al., 2009). Using intelligence tests as the criterion for giftedness ignores all other domains in the definitions of gifted and talented (e.g., creative, artistic and leadership ability), thereby restricting who can access gifted education. Teacher nomination is also a commonly used practice to identify gifted students ( Moore and Flowers, 2012; Moore et al., 2005); however, this method is subjective, and deficit views or implicit bias may prevent African-American and Latino boys from being referred for a gifted evaluation ( McBee, 2006; Speirs Neumeister et al., 2007). Speirs Neumeister et al. (2007) found that even after teachers received professional development training on identifying gifted students, their definitions of giftedness remained narrow.

Hargrove and Seay (2011) found that White teachers believed that the African-American community does not value intellectual giftedness. It is highly likely that this belief system is a barrier to participation in gifted education among African-American males. The authors also found that, compared to teachers of color, White teachers did not believe teachers' inability to recognize indicators of potential giftedness, acknowledge standardized test bias, recognize prejudicial teachers' attitudes, understand the negative impacts of narrow screening processes and recognize teachers' fears about "watering down" the gifted curriculum by including underrepresented children, served as barriers to participation in gifted programs among males of color. These findings demonstrate the lack of acknowledgment of the impact of teachers' bias and test unfairness, and deficit views often held by teachers. The absence of appropriate teacher training in cultural responsiveness and in identifying the characteristics of gifted students contributes to deficit thinking and the under-referral of African-American and Latino boys ( Ford and Moore, 2004; Ford and Whiting, 2007).

Opportunity gap among African-American and Latina/o students

African-American and Latina/o students face significant challenges throughout the US public education system. Recent data, from the US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (US DOE OCR) (2016), highlight the opportunity gaps between males of color and their White counterparts. School influences students' educational and career trajectories and inequitable opportunities track African-American and Latina/o students, particularly males, into stratified roles ( Allen, 2015). Through the use of suspensions beginning at the preschool level, African-American and Latino males encounter messages that reinforce the notion of school being an unwelcoming place, which may subsequently adversely affect their academic performance ( Allen, 2015). Although African-American boys represented 19 per cent of male preschool enrollment in the 2013-2014 school year, they still comprised 45 per cent of male preschool children receiving one or more out of school suspensions ( US DOE OCR, 2016). This discrepancy was also present at the K-12 level, as African-American boys comprised 18 per cent of one or more out of school suspensions, compared to 6 per cent of all K-12 students ( US DOE OCR, 2016).

For Latina/o students at the preschool level, in the 2010-2011 school year, they comprised 29 per cent of school enrollment and 20 per cent of students suspended out of school more than once. When compared to White preschool enrollment of 43 per cent, only 26 per cent of students were suspended out of school more than once. Suspension as a disciplinary method is ineffective and particularly, at the preschool level, is problematic for all students, as it is associated with adverse developmental, health and educational outcomes ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2018). Latino males were also suspended at greater rates than White students were; 7 per cent versus 5 per cent ( US DOE OCR, 2016). Thus, this process of exclusion starts early in these students' academic career and is associated with negative outcomes, such as dropping out, retention, involvement in the juvenile justice system, underemployment and incarceration ( American Civil Liberties Union, 2008).

Moreover, in the area of college and career readiness, similar data indicated that African-American and Latina/o students received less access to high-level mathematics and science courses. For instance, 33 per cent of high schools with enrollment of over 75 per cent African-American and Latina/o students offer calculus classes compared to 56 per cent of high schools with enrollment of less than 25 per cent Black and Latino students ( US DOE OCR, 2016). Access to gifted and talented programs and Advanced Placement (AP) courses has also been shown to be limited. African-American and Latina/o students make up 42 per cent of student enrollment in schools that offered gifted programming, but only 28 per cent are enrolled. Similarly, representation of African-American and Latina/o students in schools that offer AP courses was 38 per cent per cent, yet 29 per cent of these students enrolled in at least one AP course ( US DOE OCR, 2016). Access and enrollment in programs, such as gifted and talented education and AP courses, show positive correlations with college readiness and success ( Rose, 2013). Mattern et al. (2009) found that higher AP performance was related to higher first-year college grade point average, higher retention rates in the second year of college, and attendance at highly selective institutions. More importantly, these findings echo the importance of providing equitable access to all students, so they have the opportunity to become college and career ready.

Furthermore, the quality of teachers varies significantly, as it relates to student demographics. The OCR data (2016) suggest that 11 per cent of Black students and 9 per cent of Latina/o students attended schools where more than 20 per cent of teachers were in their first year of teaching compared to 5 per cent of white students. Reduced access to a school counselor was also found; Latina/o and African-American students were, respectively, 1.4 times and 1.2 times as likely to attend a school with a school resource officer but not with a school counselor, compared to White students. These disparities create negative consequences for Latina/o and African-American students. Therefore, the role of teachers and school counselors cannot be underestimated in preparing African-American and Latina/o students for college.

Gifted African-American males

It is well documented that African-American males tend to encounter educational experiences that may lead to dismal outcomes. The national graduation rate for African-American males, in the 2012-2013 school year, is strikingly low at 59 per cent compared to 80 per cent of White males ( Schott Foundation for Public Education, 2015). These graduation trends provide evidence of the impact of the obstacles these students face. Giftedness is an area where African-American males have been historically underrepresented and the implications of being left out of gifted education and, in turn, missing out on opportunities to reach their full academic potential ( Ford and King, 2014). Nonetheless, many African-American gifted males experience success and demonstrate resilience in the face of hindrances.

Winsler et al. (2013) found that African-American boys who started kindergarten with greater cognitive, language, fine motor and behavioral readiness skills were more likely to be identified for gifted programming. Thus, attending public school prekindergarten programs increased the chances of being identified as gifted compared to attendance at community-based preschool programs. These findings have implications for preschool enrollment and the type and quality of preschool program in which African-American boys enroll. It is important that these students enroll in preschool; furthermore, a rigorous preschool curriculum should be used to provide African-American boys with essential school readiness skills. School context may also influence long-term outcomes, such as college enrollment and degree attainment. Attending an urban school decreases the likelihood of attaining a bachelor's degree, whereas attendance at a private school has the most influence on bachelor's degree attainment among gifted African-American males ( Rose, 2013). This educational outcome is not surprising, when considering the state of urban public schools. Such school systems tend to have less qualified teachers and low access to high-level math and science courses, gifted programs and AP courses ( Moore and Lewis, 2012, 2014; US DOE OCR, 2016).

Students who enter gifted programs early in their academic career may remain in these programs and reap increased benefits as they advance each grade. Grantham (2004) found that an African-American male who entered gifted classes in first grade benefited from positive relationships with his peers and teachers. The accelerated curriculum also exposed him to unique educational experiences that his non-gifted peers did not have, including field trips to learn more about certain subjects and taking advanced courses, such as completing eighth-grade mathematics as a seventh grader.

An earlier study by Graham and Anderson (2008) found that the gifted African-American males were high-achieving students that possessed the ability to do well in the future. Their parents emphasized the relevance of school as it related to racial identity development by discussing common barriers African-American males face in society and how education may provide increased opportunities for success. In addition, the African-American male participants' teachers believed in their capability and developed strong connections with them. Similarly, African-American males, in Allen's (2015) study, viewed school as a means for moving toward upward mobility and success. The parents of the participants engaged in racial socialization practices, which provided positive messages of racial pride and an understanding of potential barriers in society associated with race and racism. The parents frequently discussed how people look down on others because of the color of their skin and encouraged them to use such beliefs as a motivator to work harder. The Black male participants also appreciated teachers that held high expectations for them, provided rigorous academic instruction and felt it would prepare them for the demands of college.

The experience of gifted Black males is not always positive as McGee (2013) encountered in her study. The males reported being subjected to stereotypical views from their peers and teachers and responded by ignoring them and working to prove others wrong. However, these experiences came with psychological and emotional costs as the African-American males experienced self-doubt about their ability and anxiety from constantly working to prove stereotypes wrong. These same students also experienced limited access to advanced coursework because their school only offered one AP class. Despite these negative experiences, the students persevered in school and maintained academic success.

Gifted Latino males

The national graduation rate for Latino males, in the 2012-2013 school year, was 65 per cent compared to 80 per cent of White males ( Schott Foundation for Public Education, 2015). In the scientific literature, minimal research has examined the experiences of gifted Latino males; to date, two empirical studies have specifically explored this population ( Carrillo, 2013; Hébert, 1996). Thus, in this section, we focus on extant research on high-achieving Latino males in particular and Latino males in general. Similar to African-American males, Latino males are highly represented in urban public schools comprised with unqualified teachers and limited access to advanced academics ( Clark et al., 2013; US DOE OCR, 2016).

In Hébert's (1996) study of gifted Latino males, he identified numerous factors that contributed to the resilience of these young men. More specifically, the Latino males discussed the support they received from their family and how it motivated them to be successful. They also shared how they watched their parents struggle and make sacrifices so that they could have access to educational opportunities. School personnel, including athletic coaches and school counselors, were also seen as supportive and role models. The Latino males also aspired to graduate college and have a professional career, which motivated them to continue to work hard.

In a retrospective qualitative study by Carrillo (2013), the Latino males reflected on their educational experiences. One participant, David, indicated that he was an honors student but did not meet the requirements to get into a state university and ended up attending a community college. In addition, Carlos, another participant, was nurtured at a gifted elementary school but felt marginalized as he transitioned to secondary school because his intelligence was not recognized and affirmed. He recalled the implicit bias he experienced by his teachers, resulting in him spending endless hours in the library to develop his intelligence. Furthermore, these Latino males challenged how their schools celebrated giftedness, which conflicted with how others perceived them as inadequate. To this end, they demonstrated resilience in attaining academic success while staying true to their social and cultural identities as Latino males.

Generally speaking, high-achieving Latino males attribute their academic success to multiple factors, including involvement with church and other extracurricular activities, a strong ethnic identity and support from family ( Garrett et al., 2010). Garrett et al. (2010) found that church and extracurricular participation served as protective factors for these males as they gained social capital through the networks they built with others, and these activities occupied their time, preventing them from indulging in non-productive, problematic endeavors. In addition, the Latino males expressed pride and held a strong ethnic identity, which they used to dispel stereotypes about them and other people of color. Comparable to the experiences of African-American males discussed earlier, the Latino males witnessed the sacrifices and struggles of their families, which inspired them to work hard and achieve more. Unfortunately, they did not experience the level of support they desired from their teachers. They wanted caring and meaningful relationships from their teachers; however, they did not feel that their teachers demonstrated interest in being mentors or role models.

The role of school counselors and school psychologists

School psychologists and school counselors have the potential to play a significant role in students' academic journeys, including African-American and Latino males. Advocacy is needed to increase the representation of African-American and Latino males in gifted education. School counselors and school psychologists should work with their administrators to examine school policies for identifying giftedness and participation in advanced academics. The examination of existing data that indicate the number of gifted students being served by race/ethnicity and gender can help to identify disproportionate representation ( King et al., 2009). This process can serve as a starting point in understanding why certain groups are under- and over-represented in gifted programs and working toward closing such gaps. Both school professionals can work toward developing alternative criteria for gifted identification that is more inclusive of the skills and talents of diverse populations.

The use of multiple and alternative procedures is encouraged compared to the reliance on intelligence tests that have been deemed invalid for use with diverse populations ( McClain and Pfeiffer, 2012). The identification of gifted students is an area where school psychologists can take on a viable school leadership role ( Robertson et al., 2011). Due to their extensive training with intelligence and achievement assessments, they can determine which tests are most appropriate in identifying African-American and Latino males for gifted programs. Additional considerations are needed for Latino males who are also English Language Learners , as measures with high verbal demands and cultural loading may deflate the ability of these students ( Ortiz and Ochoa, 2005). Thus, factors such as language proficiency in native language and English and length of time in home country and the USA need to be examined when assessing students for gifted and talented programs ( Moore and Flowers, 2012; Vega and Moore, 2016).

To increase awareness of the limited access to gifted programs for African -American and Latino boys, both school counselors and school psychologists may consider providing professional development training to their school staff ( Henfield et al., 2014). These trainings may offer a space to understand the needs of these groups, explore inaccurate stereotypes and help teachers better identify, and work with gifted African-American and Latino males. For example, school psychologists can use their consultation knowledge to work with teachers to identify and accommodate gifted students ( Robertson et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, African-American and Latino males often go unnoticed and under-referred for gifted assessment ( Moore and Flowers, 2012); therefore, school psychologists can help teachers better understand the broad range of giftedness that exists ( Robertson et al., 2011; Robinson, 2002). School psychologists may also serve as liaisons between the gifted teacher and classroom teacher and assist them in addressing students' academic and/or social-emotional needs in the classroom ( Robinson, 2002).

Similar to teachers, mental health professionals should be culturally competent and be aware of the unique challenges these males encounter and understand how to connect and build relationships with them ( Henfield et al., 2014). School psychologists and school counselors are well equipped to address the social-emotional needs of African-American and Latino gifted males through the provision of small group and/or individual counseling to help these students develop effective coping skills, support systems and long-term educational goals ( Henfield, 2013; Robinson, 2002). The support of school psychologists and school counselors may be imperative, as African-American and Latino males in gifted programs may experience isolation, low expectations from their teachers and peers, anxiety and pressure to succeed, which can take a toll on their emotional well-being ( Belleza, 2012; Carrillo, 2013; Ford and Grantham, 2003; Ford and Moore, 2013; McGee, 2013). School counselors also play an important role in college and career readiness so they can identify supplemental out-of-school programs (e.g. summer college preparatory programs and bridge programs) to help gifted African-American and Latino males access supports that will expose them to advanced curricula ( Henfield et al., 2014).

The development of family-school partnerships is needed to educate parents about gifted programs and to enable them to advocate for their child's placement in these programs ( Brulles et al., 2010). School counselors and school psychologists can both engage in building and maintaining partnerships with families by serving as liaisons to support communication across the home-school environments ( Moore and Flowers, 2012; Moore et al., 2005).

Discussion and implications

Based on this review of the literature, it is evident that African-American and Latino male students encounter barriers unrelated to their ability or potential that prevent them from participating in gifted programming ( Allen, 2015; Moore and Flowers, 2012). Rather, other factors such as how giftedness is narrowly interpreted, teacher bias, and the procedures and instruments used for gifted identification contribute to under representation in gifted education ( Ford, 2010; Ford and Moore, 2013; Ford and Whiting, 2010; Harradine et al., 2013; McBee, 2006). Research also finds positive educational outcomes when African-American and Latina/o students are afforded the opportunity to participate in gifted education and advanced curricula ( Card and Giuliano, 2014; Mattern et al., 2009; Rose, 2013; Winsler et al., 2013). However, these students often have negative school experiences replete with disproportionate suspension rates beginning in preschool ( US DOE OCR, 2016). Exclusion from gifted education and education in general through disciplinary methods such as repeated suspension has consequences for the college and career readiness skills of African-American and Latino male students. Low graduation rates also underscore the detrimental consequence of exclusion from an equitable educational experience.

School personnel must examine their definitions of giftedness, perceptions of what giftedness "looks like" and the identification procedures used to assess for giftedness. Particularly, as it relates to interpretations of giftedness, schools must go beyond narrow conceptions that only include intellectual and academic giftedness. The definitions of giftedness provided by NCLB (2002) and NAGC (2018) are broader than these two areas (e.g., creativity, leadership and artistic skills), so schools must do the same. In addition, African-American and Latino boys do demonstrate intellectual and academic giftedness; however, teacher bias ( Hargrove and Seay, 2011) is pervasive and the instruments/tests used (e.g., IQ tests and state achievement tests) may not be most appropriate in demonstrating these characteristics. School administrators must make culturally responsive instruction a priority and hold their teachers and school staff accountable and to the highest standard in providing their students with equitable educational opportunities.

Furthermore, recurring professional development in identifying gifted African-American and Latino boys is critical to the development and advancement of the cultural competence and responsiveness of educators. Wright et al. (2017) recommended professional development cover topics such as deficit views, the role of culture in testing and teacher-student relationships, and included hands-on experiences (e.g., community event participation and visits with families) to fully grasp the exceptionality of students of color. Many schools have implemented universal screening methods to identify students with low academic performance. Therefore, a final recommendation is that these data be used to determine which students show above-average academic performance, thereby aimed at reducing teacher bias and under-referral for gifted placement ( Grissom and Redding, 2016). Research has found the use of universal screenings is associated with increases in gifted identification rates of non-White students ( Card and Giuliano, 2015).

Limitations and future research directions

There is an urgent need for research on gifted African-American and Latino males. Although they are underrepresented in gifted education and other advanced academic programs, the experiences of those students who are placed and succeed in gifted programming should be examined. This can contribute significantly to the literature and assist in increasing the identification of these students. Moreover, the definition of "gifted and talent" varies tremendously from the federal to state to local level; in addition, it is often unclear how it is identified in the extant scientific and theoretical literature. Consistency in defining giftedness in the literature is needed to gain a clear understanding of the needs and challenges faced by this population. There is especially a dearth of scientific literature concerning gifted Latino males. In addition to research examining this group in general, there is also a need to evaluate similarities and differences based on countries of origin (e.g., Mexico, Puerto Rico and Guatemala), due to the heterogeneity of this population.

Robertson et al. (2011) found that school psychologists lacked pre-service preparation in gifted assessment and identification, as well as in-service professional development training. Half of the school psychologists in their sample received training in testing gifted students, and 37 per cent had received no training in gifted assessment, characteristics, social-emotional needs, and/or theories. Moreover, 94 per cent reportedly received either little or no training in screening or identification of gifted students. In addition, over 66 per cent of the sample never or rarely conducted gifted assessments even though the most important factor in determining giftedness was intelligence test score according to over 80 per cent of the sample. It is evident that there is a significant need for graduate training programs to prepare school psychologists in this area, as they are often the experts in assessment as a result of their extensive graduate training. Their broad range of skills (e.g., consultation, counseling and advocacy) is also helpful in addressing the needs of gifted populations; therefore, school psychology training programs should emphasize working with these students. School counseling programs should also include more training in the curriculum for pre-service school counselors. School counselors have a unique responsibility to provide counseling services to all students, regardless of their academic ability. They also have specialized training in counseling, collaboration, coordination, and consultation that can help ensure that the African-American and Latino males are identified, placed, and supported in gifted education and other advanced academic programs.

Conclusion

The underrepresentation of African-American and Latino males in gifted programs should be as much of a concern as the overrepresentation of specific groups in special education. The development of the academic potential of these groups is crucial to their ability to be contributing members to the advancement of society. Therefore, as students of color become the majority population in schools, an investment in these students is necessary. African-American and Latino males encounter roadblocks in being identified for gifted placement and many also experience implicit biases and stereotypical beliefs about their ability. The need for culturally competent professionals is critical to meet the academic and social emotional needs of gifted African-American and Latino males.

References

(2015), "Can universal screening increase the representation of low income and minority students in gifted education?", , National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA,

No Child Left Behind Act (2002), "No child left behind (NCLB) act of 2001", .

Corresponding author

About the authors

Desireé Vega is an Assistant Professor in the School Psychology Program at the University of Arizona.

James L. Moore III is the Vice Provost for Diversity and Inclusion and Chief Diversity Officer and the Executive Director of the Todd Anthony Bell National Resource Center on the African American Male. In addition, he is an EHE Distinguished Professor of Urban Education.

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Access to gifted education among African-American and Latino males

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Across the nation, African-American and Latino males have experienced limited access to placement in gifted education programs. This paper aims to pinpoint and describe the factors that frequently influence access to gifted education programming among African-American and Latino males.,African-American and Latino males are persistently underrepresented in gifted education for reasons such as teachers' narrow conceptions of giftedness, teachers' bias in the nomination process and teachers' inappropriate usage and interpretation of intelligence measures.

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This article focuses on a plan of action to explain the task of identifying non-achieving gifted students. It also discusses identifying the students potential.
References

Bell, C. D., & Roach, P. B. (1986). A New Problem for Educators: Identification of the Non-Achieving Gifted Student. Education, 107(2), 178. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=slh&AN=4709378&site=eds-live&scope=site

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A NEW PROBLEM FOR EDUCATORS: IDENTIFICATION OF THE NON-ACHIEVING GIFTED STU...: KSU SuperSearch

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This article is about the underrepresentation in gifted and talented programs.  It describes how the underrepresentation has become a major educational concern.  Furthermore, the article shows data about the underrepresentation of Hispanic bilingual students in gifted and talented programs.  The article also lists what changes could be made to help with this underrepresentation.

References:
Esquierdo, J. J., & Arreguin-Anderson, M. (2012). The “invisible” gifted and talented bilingual students: A current report on enrollment in GT programs. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35(1), 35–47. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eric&AN=EJ956542&site=eds-live&scope=site

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The “Invisible” Gifted and Talented Bilingual Students

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This article discusses the issue of minority and culturally diverse students within the gifted programs. Gifted programs reasonable ask if increasing the prominence of creativity in gifted identification may help increase balance and equity. This article addresses this as it mentions both layperson and
psychometric conceptions of bias and suggest that adding creativity measures to the identification process alleviates
both perceptions and the presence of bias.  Overall, eligibility for gifted and talented
programs should be identified as a function of culture, ethnicity, linguistic diversity, and similar factors and, therefore, conceptions of giftedness in the
United States clearly require expansion.

Reference:
Luria, S. R., O’Brien, R. L., & Kaufman, J. C. (2016). Creativity in gifted identification: increasing accuracy and diversity. Annals Of The New York Academy Of Sciences, 1377(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13136

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Creativity in gifted identification- increasing accuracy and diversity

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This article discusses the issue of mainly using the data from standardized intellectual aptitude testing to identify gifted students. They feel there is much of an emphasis on this type of testing and not multiple criteria to identify gifted students. Across the nation, the standards for identification of gifted students is not consistent, which makes it very difficult to ensure all students receive the education they deserve. That can affect the amount of money the program receives, the teachers that are qualified to teach them, and the types of opportunities provided by the program.  They suggest using CBM to follow the rate of growth of all students, not just the students in the RTI process due to low-performance.

Reference:
McGowan, M. R., Runge, T. J., & Pederson, J. A. (n.d.). Using Curriculum-Based Measures for Identifying Gifted Learners. Roeper Review, 38(2), 93–106. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=1e0640cb-6f02-4e12-b732-287de5f14857@sessionmgr101&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPWlwLHNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=114435200&db=aqh

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Invisible gifted students tend to be from a disadvantaged background and lack self-efficacy (Merrotsy, 2013, p. 40). Gifted students who show high achievement are easily identified on assessments. Underachievers are not. It is important to identify giftedness by both achievement and potential. To measure potential, students can be given a dynamic assessment that consist of a pretest, intervention, post-test, and sometimes a further post test. These tests can be time consuming, but dynamic testing may be the only way to identify invisible gifted students.

References

Merrotsy, P. (2013). Invisible gifted students. Talent Development & Excellence, 5(2), 31-42.

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The article "The Incidence of Potentially Gifted Students Within a Special Education Population" discusses the issues with students with disabilities who can be an underidentified population of gifted students. The article conducts a research study to ensure the validity of the large population of unidentified gifted students who are in the special education population, and the results proved true. The authors discuss solutions to this issue such as training teachers to be aware of stereotypical beliefs of these students and helping gifted programs have a positive view of twice-expceptional gifted students insted of a deficit view.

Barnard-Brak, L., Johnsen, S. K., Pond Hannig, A., & Wei, T. (2015). The Incidence of Potentially Gifted Students Within a Special Education Population. Roeper Review, 37(2), 74–83. Retrieved from https://doi-org.proxy.kennesaw.edu/10.1080/02783193.2015.1008661

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This article focuses on how educators can have a preset belief about identifying gifted students. One factor brought up is that few educators bring up social and other factors aside from intelligence when referring students to the gifted program. A lot of times, teachers and professors, based on the text, support the IQ portion of the identification process, but their beliefs tend to dwindle off for other portions.

CARIDAD GARCÍA-CEPERO, M., & MCCOACH, D. B. (2009). Educators’ Implicit Theories of Intelligence and Beliefs about the Identification of Gifted Students. Universitas Psychologica, 8(2), 295–310. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=fua&AN=47791556&site=eds-live&scope=site

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Citation: Barbara Jackson Gilman, Deirdre V. Lovecky, Kathi Kearney, Daniel B. Peters, John D. Wasserman, Linda Kreger Silverman, … Sylvia B. Rimm. (2013). Critical Issues in the Identification of Gifted Students With Co-Existing Disabilities. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013505855

Summary: This article brings a focus to the issue of students with disabilities not being identified as gifted learners, which would make them considered as Twice-Exceptional. Many students that are twice-exceptional need more time to process everyday activities in the classroom. Students that are twice-exceptional can have failures if the classroom and academic environment if the foundational content to that grade got overlooked. Unfortunately, twice-exceptional learners are often times overlooked and in need of more supports to help them emotionally, mentally, strategies to use in different settings, and so many more areas.

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Critical Issues in the Identification of Gifted Students With Co-Existing Disabilities: The Twice-Exceptional - Barbara Jackson Gilman, Deirdre V. Lovecky, Kathi Kearney, Daniel B. Peters, John D. Wasserman, Linda Kreger Silverman, Michael G. Postma, Nancy M. Robinson, Edward R. Amend, Michelle Ryder-Schoeck, Patricia Hedges Curry, Sally K. Lyon, Karen B. Rogers, Linda E. Collins, Gerry M. Charlebois, Colleen M. Harsin, Sylvia B. Rimm, 2013

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Federal law ensures all students with disabilities the right to a Free, Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). However, current policies governing a student's eli...

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A topic that interested me is the lack of students in the gifted program that are English Language Learners. I read the article Identifying Gifted and Talented English Language Learners: A Case Study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. In the article it mentions that students who do not speak English as their first language are looked at as a weakness not a strength. Our identification processes should be looking at culture aspects that are usually seen as a barrier.
Harris, B., Plucker, J. A., Rapp, K. E., & Martínez, R. S. (2009). Identifying Gifted and Talented English Language Learners: A Case Study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32(3), 368–393. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=eue&AN=508058118&site=eds-live&scope=site

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I read and article about the barriers of gifted identification. This article talked about what I thought was the most interesting finding the potential barriers between using different assessment models in stating a gifted students growth or identification. The pre and post assessment model that we use might not discover the gifted students full potential, the growth model requires time and high ceilings etc. The growth model is what my school has taught the most of or preached the most of in which I found that so intriguing.

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One article that really struck me was the lack of gifted identification in Hispanic and native populations. The article I read studied a program called the DISCOVER assessment, which was created specifically to identify gifted students within minority populations. The results were he most accurate within an elementary setting. This was the most exciting article for me because the school in which I teach has a 97% ESOL population and this test could be an effective identification tool.

Sarouphim, K. M. (2002). DISCOVER in High School: Identifying Gifted Hispanic and Native American Students. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.4219/jsge-2002-385

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Based on Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, the DISCOVER assessment was designed to identify gifted minority students for placement into programs for the gifted. In previous studies, the reliability and validity of the assessment in elementary grades were examined and yielded mostly positive results. In this study, similar analyses were carried out to investigate some validity aspects of DISCOVER with secondary students. The sample consisted of 303 predominantly Hispanic and Native American ninth graders. The results provided evidence for an alignment of the assessment with the theory of multiple intelligences. Also, no overall gender or ethnic differences were found in the numbers of students identified. In addition, the results suggested that the use of the DISCOVER assessment might help in reducing the problem of minority students' under-representation in programs for the gifted, as 29.3% of the high school students who participated in this study were identified as gifted.

References

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: BasicBooks.
Google Scholar

Griffiths, S. E. (1996). The inter-observer reliability of the DISCOVER problem-solving assessment. Unpublished manuscript, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Google Scholar

Worthen, B. R. (1993). Critical issues that will determine the future of alternative assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 74, 444-454.
Google Scholar

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DISCOVER in High School: Identifying Gifted Hispanic and Native American Students - Ketty M. Sarouphim, 2002

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Based on Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, the DISCOVER assessment was designed to identify gifted minority students for placement into programs for the gifted. In previous studies, the reliability and validity of the assessment in elementary grades were examined and yielded mostly positive results.

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I read an article about identifying gifted children of underrepresented populations ( Callahan 2005). According to the article one of the most common errors teachers make is thinking that they are incapable of reaching high developmental/gifted abilities due to their families history of being impoverished. Another issue with identifying underrepresented populations as gifted is the lack of opportunity these students are given to show their creative, analytical, critical, and high order thinking skills. This happens due to being placed in classes that use rote memorization, mundane, drill and kill lectures. Students also are limited to expressing themselves with paper-pencil assessments which, according to the article, causes a lack of motivation for the student.

Callahan, C. M. (2005). Identifying Gifted Students From Underrepresented Populations. Theory Into Practice, 44(2), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4402_4

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One thing that intrigued me in our past semesters was identifying creative gifted students. This article discusses the challenges of identifying not only gifted students, but creatively gifted students. The lines between giftedness and and creativeness are often blurred and not understood. This poses a challenge when identifying these particular students. This article shares the challenges and methods used to appropriately identify these students.

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Students in rural communities are often underrepresented and under served for gifted needs due to lack of funding and geographical limitations. Students’ circumstances must be considered (low-income, rural environment, etc.) when identifying and creating services for students who are gifted. Additional supports are necessary in order to help gifted students overcome deficits due to climate and achieve higher academic achievement. The article discusses the implementation of a grant called PLACE which was designed to create an alternative identification process and curriculum program for gifted students from low-income rural communities. Modifications for the identification process included comparing student performance to local norms (Title-I, rural) versus national norms on CoGAT assessments and teachers rating scales.

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Challenges for Identification in Rural Education

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I am always interested in the diversity aspect.  The article I chose focuses on lack of minority students being identified as gifted.  Just as the Assumptions Underlying Identification of Gifted and Talented students article pointed out regarding looking at newer definitions of gifted this article addresses that as well. The article focuses on teachers, and administrators changing their thought process and looking at minorities differently.  The article provides ways minorities can be classified as gifted through non-traditional testing methods such as Nagilleri Non-Verbal Test and Ravens Standards Progressive Matrices.

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Identification Concerns and promises for Gifted Students of Diverse Populations

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I explored an article about the issues with under-identifying twice-exceptional students in gifted programs. The gifted identification process focuses highly on above grade level achievement and miss twice exceptional students that should be tested in a more comprehensive setting to look for underlying factors. The article discusses adding to the FAPE law (Free, Appropriate Public Education) to say that absolute performance requirements need to be removed to allow students with a specific learning disabilities to qualify.

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Yolanda Cobb, Ph.D. Challenges with the Identification of Giftedness with Psychological Assessments

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Yolanda Cobb, Ph.D. Challenges with the Identification of Giftedness with Psychological Assessments

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Write a summary of the article HERE.  Please limit your summary to a maximum of 5 sentences. Attach either a PDF of the research article or a link to the article so that your peers can become familiar with the topic as well.

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Challenges in the Identification of Giftedness with Psychological Assessment