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A retiarius fought with a trident and net. Secutores were armed with a sword and they carried a shield. Murmillones fought with a sword (and didn’t have a back-up weapon) and carried a shield. A hoplomachus fought with a lance and a dagger. Thraeces were armed with a curved sword and carried a small shield. A Samnite was heavily armed with a short sword and heavy shield. A Provocator was armed with a sword and shield. Equites started their fights on horseback with lances, but finished on foot with a sword. Essedarius gladiators were armed with both a lance and a sword. Fighting with two daggers and little armour to weigh him down, a dimachaerius relied on speed and agility to overcome an opponent. A laquerarius was just like a retiarius (see above), but instead of a net, they used a lasso to trap their opponent. A Sagittarius was armed with a bow. An Andabatus fought with lances

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When most people think about Roman gladiators, they picture two men in combat, one armed with a trident and net, and the other wearing a helmet and wielding a sword. This is an accurate picture (see below), but it doesn't tell the whole story. To keep the gladiator contests interesting, several different types of Roman gladiators developed over time. The various types of gladiators had different types of armour and weaponry and, as a result, had to use different fighting styles and techniques to beat their opponents.

Different Types of Roman Gladiators
Retiarius
A retiarus, as mentioned above, is one of the most well-know of the gladiators. They fought with a trident and net. They aimed to knock their opponents off-balance and then trap them with their nets. The retiarius were lightly armoured - they didn't have a helmet or a shield.
Secutor
A secutor usually faced a retiarius in the arena. They were armed with a sword and they carried a shield. A secutor wore a smooth helmet. The helmet was smooth to make it harder for the net of a retiarius to catch it.
Murmillo
A murmillo, often called a fish man, wore a heavy helmet (usually with a fish motif). They fought with a sword (and didn't have a back-up weapon) and carried a shield.
Hoplomachus
A hoplomachus fought with a lance and a dagger. They began their attack with the lance and if they lost this, they switched to their dagger. A hoplomachus also carried a small circular shield.
Thraex
A thraex was dressed like a warrior from Thrace in northern Greece. They were armed with a curved sword and carried a small shield.
Samnite
A samnite was heavily armed with short sword and heavy shield. They wore a helmet with a crest and a visor.
Provocator
A provocator was usually made to fight another provocator. They were the only type of gladiator to wear a full breastplate and they also wore a helmet with a visor. A provocator was armed with a sword and shield.
Eques
An eques entered the arena mounted on a horse. They started their fights on horseback with lances, but finished on foot with a sword.
Essedarius
An essedarius often fought against another essedarius. They rode into the arena on chariots pulled by horses and were armed with both a lance and a sword.
Dimachaerius
Fighting with two daggers and little armour to weigh him down, a dimachaerius relied on speed and agility to overcome an opponent.
Laquerarius
A laquerarius was just like a retiarius (see above), but instead of a net, they used a lasso to trap their opponent.
Sagittarius
A sagittarius was armed with a bow and wore a lightweight pointed helmet.
Andabatus
An andabatus fought on horseback against another andabatus. They carried lances and wore helmets without eye holes, so they couldn't see! They charged blindly at their opponents, relying on their other senses to position their attacks.

Click through to our Romans resources page to discover more facts and information about the Romans.

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Different Types of Roman Gladiators - Primary Facts

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When most people think about Roman gladiators, they picture two men in combat, one armed with a trident and net, and the other wearing a helmet and wielding a sword. This is an accurate picture (see below), but it doesn't tell the whole story. To keep the gladiator contests interesting, several different types of Roman [...]

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The Roman Gladiator fights and their combat techniques depended on the type of weapons that they used and the armor that they wore. Heavily armored gladiators were well protected for the fights but restricted in his movements by his equipment.  Lightly armed gladiators would have freedom of movement and speed during his fights but with little or to nothing to protect him. The gladiator fights, the styles and techniques therefore varied from one gladiator to another.

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History, Facts and information about Gladiator Fights *** The times and people of Ancient Rome *** The society, culture and life of the Romans *** The Romans and life in Ancient Rome *** Gladiator Fights *** Gladiator Fights *** Ancient history, facts and interesting information about the Romans

Gladiator Fights

Heavily armored gladiators were well protected for the fights but restricted in his movements by his equipment. Lightly armed gladiators would have freedom of movement and speed during his fights but with little or to nothing to protect him. The gladiator fights, the styles and techniques therefore varied from one gladiator to another.

Lightly Armed Gladiator Fights The gladiator fights of lightly armed men featured one of the most famous types of gladiators - the Retiarii (Net Fighters) . A Retiarius was a Roman gladiator who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman. The Retiarii were lightly armored, wore no helmet, carried no shield so they had the advantage of agility, mobility and speed in a fight. These factors were all taken into account when adopting his fighting style and technique. The Retiarius fought with the heavily armed Roman gladiators such as the Mirmillones. His fighting style was evasive and his tactics were to entangle his opponent with his net and then skewer him, as a fisherman would, with his trident.

Heavily Armed Gladiator Fights The gladiator fights of heavily armed gladiator like a Murmillo were often drawn against a Retiarius. The Murmillo fought with a sword (first the the gladius which was eventually replaced by the Spatha). This Roman Gladiator wore armor consisting of an Ocrea, or metal greave, on the lower left leg and his right arm was protected by a 'manica' of tied linen or leather. The Murmillones carried a large, rectangular, semi-cylindrical body shield called a scutum and wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest. The helmet featured small eye-holes to prevent the narrow prongs of the Retiarius' trident from penetrating to the eyes . His fighting technique was to avoid being entangled in the net and his tactics were to barge his opponent with his shield and thrust with his short sword. The Gladiator figts between such contrasting gladiators thrilled the spectators of the Roman Colosseum.

Gladiator Fights - Fighting Styles, Armor and Weapons Gladiator fights and techniques focussed on different fighting styles and weapons which were used by specific types of Roman gladiators. The majority of Roman Gladiators fell into two different types of fighters - lightly armored or heavily armored men. Roman Gladiator fights and techniques therefore varied according to their different armor, weapons and fighting methods, all of which are are described in the following links:

Types of Heavily armed Gladiators

others specialised in participating in wild animal hunts. Bows and arrows and lances might be used together with a range of other weapons all requiring different forms of gladiator fights. For a complete list click Gladiator Fights - Specialised Combat Styles There were also additional gladiators who specialised in many different styles leading to more varieties of Gladiator fights. Some gladiators fought on horseback, others from chariots. Other gladiators specialised in fighting wild animals called Bestiarii (Beast Fighters) Types of Gladiators.

Gladiator Fights The content of this Gladiator Fights category on life in Ancient Rome provides free educational details, facts and information for reference and research for schools, colleges and homework. Refer to the Colosseum Sitemap for a comprehensive search on interesting different categories containing the history, facts and information about Ancient Rome. Just like the subject of Gladiator Fights there is hardly a page of Roman history and the Romans that is not, on some way, connected to the Roman Colosseum which became a symbol of Rome, its society, culture and life.

History, Facts and information about Gladiator Fights *** The times and people of Ancient Rome *** The society, culture and life of the Romans *** Gladiator Fights *** The Romans and life in Ancient Rome *** Gladiator Fights *** Ancient history, facts and interesting information about the Romans

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History, Facts and information about Gladiator Fights *** The times and people of Ancient Rome *** The society, culture and life of the Romans *** The Romans and life in Ancient Rome *** Gladiator Fights *** Gladiator Fights *** Ancient history, facts and interesting information about the Romans Heavily armored gladiators were well protected for the fights but restricted in his movements by his equipment.

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Roman gladiators were put through rigorous physical and psychological training that included instructions on how to behave, how to die, and how to perform various war and combat tactics to stay alive during fights. Roman gladiators were thoroughly examined by physicians and trainers before being allowed to join training camps. Once accepted, gladiators learned how to use various tools such as shields and wooden swords, and how to ride horses to give themselves the greatest advantage during combat.

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Roman gladiators were put through rigorous physical and psychological training that included instructions on how to behave, how to die and how to perform various war and combat tactics to stay alive during fights. Roman gladiators were thoroughly examined by physicians and trainers before being allowed to join training camps. Once accepted, gladiators learned how to use various tools such as shields and wooden swords, and how to ride horses to give themselves the greatest advantage during combat.

Gladiators were often trained in special training schools. Over 100 training facilities existed in ancient Rome, which looked and operated like prison systems. Gladiators were essentially prisoners, although they were deemed valuable because of their roles as soldiers, which allowed them to receive better treatment than other slaves. Gladiators came in many sizes, and had different sets of skills that made them valuable for different combat situations. Some proved to have exceptionally good equine handling skills and served as horseback-mounted soldiers. Other gladiators, particularly the largest and most athletic men, were trained to engage in hand-to-hand combat on the battlefield. Some gladiators were equipped with minimal amounts of equipment, which allowed them to run quickly and launch rapid attacks, while others were heavily armed.

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Roman gladiators were put through rigorous physical and psychological training that included instructions on how to behave, how to die and how to perform various war and combat tactics to stay alive during fights. Roman gladiators were thoroughly examined by physicians and trainers before being allowed to join training camps.

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The different types of Gladiators are; Retiarius, Secutor, Murmillo, Hoplomachus, Thraex, Samnite, Provocator, Eques, Essedarius, Dimachaerius, Laquerarius, Sagittarius, and Andabatus.

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When most people think about Roman gladiators, they picture two men in combat, one armed with a trident and net, and the other wearing a helmet and wielding a sword. This is an accurate picture (see below), but it doesn't tell the whole story. To keep the gladiator contests interesting, several different types of Roman gladiators developed over time. The various types of gladiators had different types of armour and weaponry and, as a result, had to use different fighting styles and techniques to beat their opponents.

Different Types of Roman Gladiators
Retiarius
A retiarus, as mentioned above, is one of the most well-know of the gladiators. They fought with a trident and net. They aimed to knock their opponents off-balance and then trap them with their nets. The retiarius were lightly armoured - they didn't have a helmet or a shield.
Secutor
A secutor usually faced a retiarius in the arena. They were armed with a sword and they carried a shield. A secutor wore a smooth helmet. The helmet was smooth to make it harder for the net of a retiarius to catch it.
Murmillo
A murmillo, often called a fish man, wore a heavy helmet (usually with a fish motif). They fought with a sword (and didn't have a back-up weapon) and carried a shield.
Hoplomachus
A hoplomachus fought with a lance and a dagger. They began their attack with the lance and if they lost this, they switched to their dagger. A hoplomachus also carried a small circular shield.
Thraex
A thraex was dressed like a warrior from Thrace in northern Greece. They were armed with a curved sword and carried a small shield.
Samnite
A samnite was heavily armed with short sword and heavy shield. They wore a helmet with a crest and a visor.
Provocator
A provocator was usually made to fight another provocator. They were the only type of gladiator to wear a full breastplate and they also wore a helmet with a visor. A provocator was armed with a sword and shield.
Eques
An eques entered the arena mounted on a horse. They started their fights on horseback with lances, but finished on foot with a sword.
Essedarius
An essedarius often fought against another essedarius. They rode into the arena on chariots pulled by horses and were armed with both a lance and a sword.
Dimachaerius
Fighting with two daggers and little armour to weigh him down, a dimachaerius relied on speed and agility to overcome an opponent.
Laquerarius
A laquerarius was just like a retiarius (see above), but instead of a net, they used a lasso to trap their opponent.
Sagittarius
A sagittarius was armed with a bow and wore a lightweight pointed helmet.
Andabatus
An andabatus fought on horseback against another andabatus. They carried lances and wore helmets without eye holes, so they couldn't see! They charged blindly at their opponents, relying on their other senses to position their attacks.

Click through to our Romans resources page to discover more facts and information about the Romans.

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Different Types of Roman Gladiators - Primary Facts

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When most people think about Roman gladiators, they picture two men in combat, one armed with a trident and net, and the other wearing a helmet and wielding a sword. This is an accurate picture (see below), but it doesn't tell the whole story. To keep the gladiator contests interesting, several different types of Roman [...]

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Bloodthirsty roman spectators arriving to watch gladiators fight for their lives might have enjoyed a refreshing cup of wine or purchased a souvenir in the arena, researchers claim.

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Bloodthirsty roman spectators arriving to watch gladiators fight for their lives might have enjoyed a refreshing cup of wine or purchased a souvenir in the arena, researchers claim.

With the help of radar technology, scientists have re-created detailed maps of a city which was home to a gladiator school at the height of the Roman Empire.

Carnuntum, which was discovered in 2011 in Vienna, Austria, had bakeries, taverns, and shops built next to the 150,000-seated amphitheater, which is understood to be the fourth largest of its kind.

It suggests that spectators who wanted to remember the moment a bronzed, shredded, sandal-clad man ruthlessly speared his opponent to death in front of a large crowd could pop to the shop to grab themselves a souvenir.

Researchers from the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology have been studying the area since 2012.

Using radars which can penetrate the ground and high-resolution magnetic tracker they have been able to recreate the entire city of Carnuntum.

The route to the famous gladiator arena would have led crowds through the city gates, past street food vendors, souvenir shops, and taverns - much like football games of today.

In one case a bakery had an oven which could bake bread for up to 13,000.

In a statement, the researchers, led by Professor Wolfgang Neubauer, said:"Without excavating in the ground, this analysis of the geophysical data has added more exciting chapters to the story of Carnuntum."

"Not only in Rome were so-called 'bread and games' of great importance for the entertainment of the masses, but also in Carnuntum a frontier-town along the Danube River, at the edge of the Roman Empire and on the border with barbarians to the north."

What was Carnuntum?

Carnuntum was an ancient Roman city near the Danube in Lower Austria halfway between Vienna and Bratislava.

It first occurs in history (typically spelled with a K) during the reign of Augustus (6 AD), when Tiberius made it his base of operations as a Roman fort.

Marcus Aurelius resided there from the years 172-175 AD during the war against the Marcomanni, and is believed to have written part of his Meditations there.

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Watching Roman gladiators was a lot like watching the NFL

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Bloodthirsty roman spectators arriving to watch gladiators fight for their lives might have enjoyed a refreshing cup of wine or purchased a souvenir in the arena, researchers claim. With the help of radar technology, scientists have re-created detailed maps of a city which was home to a gladiator school at the height of the Roman Empire.

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Gladiator fights have become a defining feature of the Roman Empire, but they’re part of a tradition that actually began rather slowly – and well before the Colosseum was built. So, what were gladiator fights? In ancient Rome, gladiator fights occurred as a form of entertainment (like modern day sports). Gladiators would fight to the death, sometimes accompanied by animals, to entertain the masses of Rome.

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You've booked the flights for your trip to Rome, sorted your hotel and, of course, bought your tickets for the Colosseum tour (a wise move if you want to avoid the legendary long queues!) Maybe you remember a bit of Roman history from school, or you've seen the famous film with Russell Crowe - but how much do you really know about how gladiator fights worked? In this guide, find out what really went on during Colosseum gladiator fights and more information about this brutal ancient Roman ritual.

What were gladiator fights?

Gladiator fights have become a defining feature of the Roman Empire, but they're part of a tradition that actually began rather slowly - and well before the Colosseum was built. So, what were gladiator fights? In ancient Rome, gladiator fights occurred as a form of entertainment (like modern day sports). Gladiators would fight to the death, sometimes accompanied by animals, to entertain the masses of Rome.

How did Gladiator fights start?

It is believed that the first gladiators were slaves made to fight to the death at the funeral of a distinguished aristocrat Junius Brutus Pera in 264 B.C., an event arranged by his relatives to honor his death and provide a blood sacrifice for the gods. The Roman aristocracy thought this bloodthirsty battle gave the funeral a rather lovely sense of occasion, and the idea quickly caught on.

By 174 B.C., it was relatively commonplace to have matches across the city, and the idea was boosted further by Julius Caesar, who engaged hundreds of gladiators to fight in memory of his deceased father and daughter.

Popularity for the sport increased, and by the end of the first century B.C., government officials got in on the action and started holding public games. By the time the Colosseum opened in 80 A.D., gladiator fights had evolved from ad-hoc battles to a serious business.

Who fought in Colosseum gladiator games?

Who were the gladiators? Gladiators were often slaves or prisoners of war, forced to engage in training and combat in return for the chance of freedom. However, it was not uncommon for volunteers to join their ranks - either motivated by financial gain, or to prove their status as a warrior.

How did gladiators train?

There's an idea that the fights were haphazard and lawless, but this is largely a myth - like many things in Roman times, they were actually highly organized. All gladiators, both volunteers and slaves, underwent extensive training at 'gladiator school' and were bound to service by a sacred oath.

Teachers - probably retired gladiators - taught their own specific techniques and methods but it was prohibited to train with real weapons, so to remind the students just how vicious their trade was, training also included preparation for a courageous, unflinching death.

Were women gladiators?

Good question. As unusual as it might sound, there is evidence of women taking to the Arena Floor - a marble frieze from the second century depicts a legendary fight between two women, Amazon and Achillea. Perhaps the men felt threatened, because female participation didn't last long - in 200 A.D. the Emperor Septimius Severus banned women from the games.

How did gladiator fights work?

Colosseum gladiator fights were as highly anticipated as the Superbowl or the World Cup final today. Gladiator games were advertised on billboards, publicizing the greatest gladiators of all time alongside other temptations - this could include live music, drinks, prizes and even executions (in case the fights weren't brutal enough).

Bloodthirsty though they may have been, the Romans were nothing if not dignified. Every event would begin with a procession of the referees and the editor. The person who organized and paid for the games, often the Emperor himself - walked in followed by a fanfare and, finally, the bringing in of the 'gods' to witness the fight.

Rules of gladiator fights:

After the fights started, it wasn't the brutal free-for-all one might expect - trained gladiators were expected to follow professional rules of combat. Most matches had a senior referee and an assistant, often retired gladiators whose judgment was, for the most part, final. They could caution or separate opponents during the match, as well as pause games to allow the warriors to rest - or even stop them entirely. Most matches lasted between 10 and 15 minutes and were won by the gladiator who overcame or killed his opponent.

Did gladiators fight to the death?

As bloody as gladiator fights undoubtedly were at times, they didn't always end in death. Gladiator fights were a big business. Managers and promoters spent huge amounts of money training and publicizing their strongest men, and it would have been bad for business if they allowed them to be killed off every week.

A gladiator could admit defeat by raising a finger, asking the referee to appeal to the editor to stop the fight. The final decision lay with the editor, who often listened to the crowd, typically bayed for blood, or if the fighter in question was particularly popular or longstanding, pleading for his life.

Whilst in the early years, death was the penalty for defeat, this changed as time went on. During the imperial period, it was common to have matches ' sine missione': where loss would not equal the death sentence. As the popularity of gladiator fights increased, however, the age-old principles of supply and demand kicked in. There were too many gladiators to fill the spaces available, and Emperor Augustus declared there was only one solution: the banning of sine missione matches, and a return to survival of the fittest.

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The Colosseum Games: What were Colosseum Gladiator Fights?

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You've booked the flights for your trip to Rome, sorted your hotel and, of course, bought your tickets for the Colosseum tour (a wise move if you want to avoid the legendary long queues!)

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A Roman gladiator was a man (rarely a woman), typically a convicted criminal or enslaved person, who participated in one-on-one battles with each other, often to the death, for the entertainment of crowds of spectators in the Roman Empire.

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A Roman gladiator was a man (rarely a woman), typically a convicted criminal or enslaved person, who participated in one-on-one battles with each other, often to the death, for the entertainment of crowds of spectators in the Roman Empire.

Gladiators were mostly either convicted criminals or first-generation enslaved people who had been bought or acquired in war, but they were a surprisingly diverse group. They usually were common men, but there were a few women and a few upper-class men who had spent their inheritances and lacked other means of support. Some emperors such as Commodus (ruled 180-192 CE) played as gladiators for the thrill; the warriors came from all parts of the empire.

However they ended up in the arena, in general, throughout the Roman era they were considered "crude, loathsome, doomed, and lost" men altogether, without worth or dignity. They were part of the class of moral outcasts, the infamia.

History of the Games

The combat between gladiators had its origins in Etruscan and Samnite funeral sacrifices, ritual killings when an elite personage died. The first recorded gladiatorial games were given by the sons of Iunius Brutus in 264 BCE, events that were dedicated to their father's ghost. In 174 BCE, 74 men fought for three days to honor the dead father of Titus Flaminus; and up to 300 pairs fought in the games offered to the shades of Pompey and Caesar. The Roman emperor Trajan caused 10,000 men to fight for four months to celebrate his conquest of Dacia.

During the earliest battles when the events were rare and the chances of death were about 1 in 10, the fighters were almost entirely prisoners of war. As the numbers and frequency of the games increased, the risks of dying also increased, and Romans and volunteers began enlisting. By the end of the Republic, about half of the gladiators were volunteers.

Training and Exercise

Gladiators were trained to fight in special schools called ludi (singular ). They practiced their art at the Colosseum, or in circuses, chariot racing stadiums where the ground surface was covered with blood-absorbing harena "sand" (hence, the name "arena"). They generally fought one another, and were rarely, if ever, matched with wild animals, despite what you may have seen in the movies.

Gladiators were trained at the ludi to fit into specific gladiator categories, which were organized based on how they fought (on horseback, in pairs), what their armor was like (leather, bronze, decorated, plain), and what weapons they used. There were horseback gladiators, gladiators in chariots, gladiators who fought in pairs, and gladiators named for their origin, like the Thracian gladiators.

Health and Welfare

Popular skilled gladiators were allowed to have families, and could become very wealthy. From under the debris of the volcanic eruption of 79 CE in Pompeii, a presumed gladiator's cell (that is, his room in a ludi) was found that included jewels that may have belonged to his wife or mistress.

Archaeological investigations in a Roman gladiators' cemetery in Ephesus identified 67 men and one woman-the woman was likely a gladiator's wife. The average age at death of the Ephesus gladiator was 25, slightly more than half the lifespan of the typical Roman. But they were in excellent health and received expert medical care as evidenced by perfectly healed bone fractures.

Gladiators were often referred to as hordearii or "barley men," and, perhaps surprisingly, they ate more plants and less meat than average Romans. Their diets were high in carbohydrates, with an emphasis on beans and barley. They drank what must have been vile brews of charred wood or bone ash to increase their calcium levels-analysis of the bones at Ephesus found very high levels of calcium.

Benefits and Costs

The gladiator life was clearly risky. Many of the men in the Ephesus cemetery died after having survived multiple blows to the head: ten skulls had been bashed by blunt objects, and three had been punctured by tridents. Cut marks on rib bones show that several were stabbed in the heart, the ideal Roman coup de grace.

In the sacramentum gladiatorium or "oath of the Gladiator'" the potential gladiator, whether enslaved or a hitherto free man, swore uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari patior -"I will endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword." The gladiator's oath meant that he would be judged dishonorable if he ever showed himself unwilling to be burned, bound, beaten, and killed. The oath was one way-the gladiator demanded nothing of the gods in return for his life.

However, victors received laurels, monetary payment, and any donations from the crowd. They could also win their freedom. At the end of a long service, a gladiator won a , a wooden sword which was wielded in the games by one of the officials and used for training. With the rudis in hand, a gladiator might then become a gladiator trainer or a freelance bodyguard-like the men who followed Clodius Pulcher, the good-looking trouble-maker who plagued Cicero's life.

Gladiatorial games ended one of three ways: one of the combatants called for mercy by raising his finger, the crowd asked for the end of the game, or one of the combatants was dead. A referee known as the editor made the final decision about how a particular game ended.

There appears to be no evidence that the crowd signified their request for the life of the combatants by holding their thumbs up-or at least if it was used, it probably meant death, not mercy. A waving handkerchief did signify mercy, and graffiti indicates the shouting of the words "dismissed" also worked to save a downed gladiator from death.

Attitudes Toward the Games

The Roman attitudes toward the cruelty and violence of the gladiator games were mixed. Writers like Seneca may have expressed disapproval, but they attended the arena when the games were in process. The Stoic Marcus Aurelius said that he found the gladiatorial games boring and abolished a tax on gladiator sale to avoid the taint of human blood, but he still hosted lavish games.

Gladiators continue to fascinate us, especially when they are seen to rebel against oppressors who control them. Thus we have seen two gladiator box-office smash hits: the 1960 Kirk Douglas Spartacus and the 2000 Russell Crowe epic . In addition to these movies stimulating interest in ancient Rome and the comparison of Rome with the United States, art has affected our view of gladiators. Gérôme's painting "Pollice Verso" ('Thumb Turned' or 'Thumbs Down'), 1872, has kept alive the image of gladiator fights ending with a thumbs up or thumbs down gesture, even if untrue.

Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst

Carter, Michael. "Accepi Ramum : Gladiatorial Palms and the Chavagnes Gladiator Cup." Latomus 68.2 (2009): 438-41.

Curry, Andrew. "The Gladiator Diet." Archaeology 61.6 (2008): 28-30.

Lösch, Sandra, et al. "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd C. AD)-Implications for Differences in Diet." PLoS ONE 9.10 (2014): e110489.

MacKinnon, Michael. "Supplying Exotic Animals for the Roman Amphitheatre Games: New Reconstructions Combining Archaeological, Ancient Textual, Historical and Ethnographic Data." Mouseion 111.6 (2006).

Neubauer, Wolfgang, et al. "The Discovery of the School of Gladiators at Carnuntum, Austria." Antiquity 88 (2014): 173-90.

Reid, Heather L. "Was the Roman Gladiator an Athlete?" Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 33.1 (2006): 37-49.

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Roman Gladiators Risked Death for a Chance at a Better Life

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A Roman gladiator was a man (rarely a woman), typically a convicted criminal or enslaved person, who participated in one-on-one battles with each other, often to the death, for the entertainment of crowds of spectators in the Roman Empire.