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“Key elements of the information processing system are sensory registers, working memory (WM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory inputs are processed in the sensory memories portions of the brain, and those that are retained long enough are transferred to working memory. Working memory seems to reside in multiple parts of the brain but primarily in the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe. Information is lost from WM in a few seconds unless it is rehearsed or transferred to long term memory. For information to be retained, there must be a neural signal to do so; that is, the information is deemed important and needs to be used. (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

Memory Network- strengthened by repeated presentation of information making the neural responses quicker with time.

Neural Connections- capability of activating appropriate brain portion through stimulation to encode synaptic connections. “With repetition, these connections increase in number and become strengthened, which means they occur more automatically and communicate better with one another” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

Language Learning- “The interaction of multiple brain structures and synaptic connections is seen clearly in language learning and especially in reading” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

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The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord and is the body’s central mechanism for control of voluntary behavior" (Schunk, 2020, p.33.).

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain and its function is to send signals to and from the brain.

The brain is large in size, composed mainly of water, fat and protein. The brain is composed of the following mayor structures:

Cerebral cortex -processes sensory information; regulates various learning and memory functions

Reticular formation - controls bodily functions

Cerebellum - regulates body balance, posture, muscular control, movement, motor skill acquisition

Thalamus - Sends inputs from senses to cortex

Hypothalamus - controls homeostatic body functions; increases heart rate and breathing during stress

Amygdala - controls emotions and aggression; assesses harmfulness of sensory inputs

Hippocampus - holds memory of immediate past and working memory; establishes information in long-term memory

Corpus callosum - connects right and left hemispheres

Occipital lobe - processes visual information

Parietal lobe - processes tactile information; determines body position; integrates visual information

Temporal lobe - processes auditory information

Frontal lobe - processes information for memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, creativity; regulates muscular movements

Broca’s area - controls production of speech

Wernicke’s area - comprehends speech; regulates use of proper syntax when speaking

Neural Organization

Neurons - communicate with one another through electrical signals and chemical reactions; do not possess regenerative capabilities like other cells.

Glial Cells - support cells and ensure that neurons operate in a good environment. They also help to remove chemicals that may interfere with neuron operation.

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Human Brain: Major Structures and their Functions

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“Brain research shows that much academic content is processed primarily in the left hemisphere, but that the right hemisphere processes context. A common educational complaint is that teaching is too focused on content with little attention to context. Focusing primarily on content produces student learning that may be unconnected to life events and largely meaningless. These points suggest that to make learning meaningful—and thereby involve both brain hemispheres and build more extensive neural connections—teachers should integrate content and context as much as possible” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.).

“Ms. Stone, a third-grade teacher, is doing a unit on butterflies. Children study material in books and on the Internet that shows pictures of different butterflies. To help connect this learning with context, she uses other activities. A local museum has a butterfly area, where butterflies live in a controlled environment. She takes her class to visit this so they can see the world of butterflies. A display is part of this exhibit, showing the different phases of a butterfly’s life. These activities help children connect characteristics of butterflies with contextual factors involving their development and environment” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.).

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“Importance: Mrs. Peoples is teaching children to find main ideas in paragraphs. She wants children to focus on main ideas and not be distracted by interesting details. Children ask the question, “What is this story mostly about?” read the story, and ask the question again. They then pick out the sentence that best answers the question. Mrs. Peoples reviews the other sentences to show how they discuss details that may support the main idea but do not state it” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

“Movement: Studying birds and animals in books can be boring and does not capture their typical activities. An elementary teacher uses Internet sources and interactive videos to show birds and animals in their natural habitats. Students can see what their typical activities are as they hunt for food, take care of their young, and move from place to place” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

“Elaboration is the process of expanding information to make it meaningful. Elaboration can help to build memory networks and link them with other relevant ones. Mr. Jackson’s students find precalculus difficult to link with other knowledge. Mr. Jackson surveys his students to determine their interests and what other courses they are taking. Then he relates precalculus concepts to these interests and courses. For example, for students taking physics he links principles of motion and gravity to conic sections (e.g., parabolas) and quadratic equations” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.).

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“Brain research shows that much academic content is processed primarily in the left hemisphere, but that the right hemisphere processes context. A common educational complaint is that teaching is too focused on content with little attention to context. Focusing primarily on content produces student learning that may be unconnected to life events and largely meaningless. These points suggest that to make learning meaningful—and thereby involve both brain hemispheres and build more extensive neural connections—teachers should integrate content and context as much as possible” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.).

“Ms. Stone, a third-grade teacher, is doing a unit on butterflies. Children study material in books and on the Internet that shows pictures of different butterflies. To help connect this learning with context, she uses other activities. A local museum has a butterfly area, where butterflies live in a controlled environment. She takes her class to visit this so they can see the world of butterflies. A display is part of this exhibit, showing the different phases of a butterfly’s life. These activities help children connect characteristics of butterflies with contextual factors involving their development and environment” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.).

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Link 1: Non-invasive Neurophysiology in Learning and Training: Mechanisms and a SWOT Analysis
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2020.00589/full

Link2: Learning Impact of a Virtual Brain Electrical Activity Simulator Among Neurophysiology Students: Mixed-Methods Intervention Study
https://games.jmir.org/2020/4/e18768/

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Link 1: Organizational Structures
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042816311582

Link 2: Approaches for Organizational Learning: A Literature Review
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244018794224

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Brain Development has educational implications for teaching and learning that vary depending on the level of how the brain develops. “Although human brains are structurally similar, there are wide individual differences. Five influences on brain development are genetics, environmental stimulation, nutrition, steroids, and teratogens” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.).

Genetics: “Human brains have a similar genetic structure, but they nonetheless differ in size and structure. Studies of monozygotic (twins show that they sometimes develop brains that are structurally different Genetic instructions determine the size, structure, and neural connectivity of the brain)” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.).

Environmental Stimulation: “Brain development requires stimulation from the environment. Prenatal development sets the stage for learning by developing a neural circuitry that can receive and process stimuli and experiences. Brain development lags when experiences are missing or minimal. Although there are certain critical periods when stimulation can have profound effects (Jensen, 2005), research suggests that stimulation is important during the entire lifespan to ensure continued brain development” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.).

Nutrition: “Lack of good nutrition can have major effects on brain development, and the particular effects depend on when the poor nutrition occurs” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.).

Steroids: “refer to a class of hormones that affect several functions, including sexual development and stress reactions Steroids can affect brain development in various ways” (Schunk, 2020, p.54.).

Teratogens: “are foreign substances (e.g., alcohol, viruses) that can cause abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus (Byrnes, 2001). A substance is considered to be a teratogen only if research shows that a not unrealistically high level can affect brain development” (Schunk, 2020, p.54.).

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“Give Simple and Straightforward Directions

Mr. Glenn, who teaches 10th grade English, knows that his students’ memories may not accommodate many ideas at once. For each novel students read, they must do a literary analysis that comprises several sections (e.g., plot summary, literary devices, analysis of a major character). Mr. Glenn reviews these sections carefully. For each, he explains what it should include and shows a sample or two” (Schunk, 2020, p.55.).

“Incorporate Decision Making

The rapid development occurring in teens’ brains means that their decision making often is flawed. They may base decisions on incomplete information or what they think will please their friends, and they may fail to think through potential consequences. Mr. Manley incorporates much decision making and many discussions of consequences into his marine science classes. Students study topics such as global warming and water pollution, and he presents them with case studies that they discuss (e.g., a ship’s captain who wants to dump garbage at sea). He asks students questions that address topics such as the potential consequences of possible actions and other ways that the problem could be addressed” (Schunk, 2020, p.55.).

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Link 1: Environmental influences on the pace of brain development
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41583-021-00457-5

Link 2: Cortical Malformations: Lessons in Human Brain Development
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2019.00576/full

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“Motivation is defined as the process whereby goal-directed activities are instigated and sustained. Motivated actions include choosing to engage in tasks, expending physical and mental effort, and persisting in the face of difficulties.” (Schunk, 2020, p.62.).

When looking at motivation, there are two kinds of neural counterparts:

Reward- “Cognitive and constructivist theories of motivation postulate that it is the expectation of reward, rather than the reward itself, that motivates behavior. Rewards can sustain motivation when they are given contingent on competent performance or progress in learning” (Schunk, 2020, p.63.). Research shows that when a person is expecting a reward based on performance, this produces the neurotransmitter dopamine.  “Dopamine increases when there is a discrepancy between expected and realized reward. The dopamine system can help people adjust their expectations, which is a type of learning” (Schunk, 2020, p.63.).

Motivational states- “are complex neural connections that include emotions, cognitions, and behaviors”  (Schunk, 2020, p.63.).

“Emotions are feelings or internal events that typically are short-lived and intense and have specific, salient causes. Emotions are considered to be integral parts of learning and memory” (Schunk, 2020, p.64.).

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Emotion and Motivation - Theories Of Emotion

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“Mrs. Ortiz wants her elementary students to enjoy school, and she knows how important it is to arouse children’s emotions for learning. She tries to link academic content to students’ experiences so that their positive emotions associated with these experiences become associated with the learning. When her children read a story about a child who took a trip, she asks them to tell about when they took a trip to visit a relative, go on vacation, or so forth. When working on mathematical division, she asks children to think about something that was divided into parts (e.g., pizza, cake) so that several people could enjoy it” (Schunk, 2020, p.66.).

“Dr. Smith-Burton understands that some students might view her elementary social studies methods course as dry and boring. To invoke her students’ emotions, each week she has her students focus on one or two concepts to address in their school internships. For example, reading about learning can be dull, but seeing a child learn is exciting. As her students work with schoolchildren, they keep a log on the children’s behaviors and reactions as they are learning. Her students report how excited they become when they are tutoring children and the children begin to show that they are learning. As one of her students reported, “I became so happy while working with Keenan when he said, ‘Oh I get it,’ and sure enough he did!”” (Schunk, 2020, p.66.).

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Link 1: Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01647/full?

Link 2: The Role of Perception of Support in the Classroom on the Students’ Motivation and Emotions: The Impact on Metacognition Strategies and Academic Performance in Math and English Classes
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02794/full

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“Educational researchers increasingly believe that understanding brain processes provides additional insights into the nature of learning and development” (Schunk, 2020, p.67.).

Brain Myths:

The most important learning occurs before the age of 3 years

There are critical periods for learning

We use only 10% of our brains

Men and women have different brains

You can learn while you sleep

People are right brained or left brained

“Brain research is relevant to psychology and education to the extent that it helps psychologists and educators develop a clearer understanding of learning, development, and motivation; that is, it is relevant when it helps to substantiate existing predictions of learning theories” (Schunk, 2020, p.70.).

“Problem-based learning is an effective learning method (Chapter 8). Problem-based learning engages students in learning and helps to motivate them. When students work in groups (peer collaboration; supported by constructivism), they also can improve their cooperative learning skills. Problem-based learning requires students to think creatively and bring their knowledge to bear in unique ways. It is especially useful for projects that have no one correct solution” (Schunk, 2020, p.71.).

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Instructional Design Tutorial - Introduction to the Neuroscience of Learning

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Instructional Design Tutorial - Introduction to the Neuroscience of Learning

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Introduction to the Neuroscience of Learning | lynda.com

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Dr. Britt Andreatta introduces her presentation, The Neuroscience of Learning. Understand how the neuroscience of learning can help educators and learners alike tap into hidden potential. http://www.lynda.com/Education-Higher-Education-tutorials/Neuroscience-Learning/188434-2.html?utm_campaign=BEMTmumw8Rk&utm_medium=social&utm_source=youtube-earned Watch the entire 1 hour course in the lynda.com library. Get the latest research and inspiring examples that will help you tap into your hidden potential.

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“Mr. Abernathy’s eighth graders have studied their state’s geography, including characteristics of the main regions and cities of the state. He divided the class into small groups to work on the following problem. A large company wants to open a facility in the state. Each small group of students is assigned a specific region in the state. The task for each group is to make a convincing argument for why the facility should be located in that region. Factors to be addressed include costs associated with locating in that area, accessibility to major highways and airports, availability of a labor force, quality of schools, nearness of higher education facilities, and support from the community. Students gather information from various sources (e.g., media center, Internet), prepare a poster with pictures and descriptions, and give a 10-minute presentation with slides supporting their position. Each member of a group has responsibility for one or more aspects of the project” (Schunk, 2020, p.71.).

“Ms. Carring’s civics class has been studying U.S. presidential elections. U.S. presidents are elected by electoral votes. There have been occasions where presidents elected by gaining the necessary electoral votes have not had a majority (50%) of the popular vote or have actually had a lower popular-vote total than the losing candidate. Ms. Carring holds a class discussion on the topic, “Should U.S. presidents be elected by popular vote?” She facilitates the discussion by raising questions in response to points raised by students. For example, Candace argued that a popular vote better reflects the will of the people. Ms. Carring then asked whether, if we used only a popular vote, candidates would tend to focus on voters in heavily populated states (e.g., California, New York) and neglect voters in states with small populations (e.g., Montana, Vermont)” (Schunk, 2020, p.72.).

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Link 1: The Effects of Blended Learning to Students’ Speaking Ability: A Study of Utilizing Technology to Strengthen the Conventional
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gede-Ginaya/publication/324905956_The_effects_of_blended_learning_to_students'_speaking_ability/links/5b6b5d0c92851ca6505196a1/The-effects-of-blended-learning-to-students-speaking-ability.pdf

Link 2: Developing Critical-Thinking Skills through the Collaboration of Jigsaw Model with Problem-Based Learning Model

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1201249