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https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/big-bang/en/

https://www.imperial.ac.uk/humanities/webdesign/2012/nickyguttridge/html/page4.html

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/WebPub/Biology/hillis1e/Animated%20Tutorials/at0203/pol_0203_scr.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fgQLyqWaCbA&scrlybrkr=5a32d476

https://www.space.com/22180-neutron-stars.html

https://home.cern/science/physics/higgs-boson

https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsthe-higgs-boson

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/messenger-rna

https://lweb.cfa.harvard.edu/seuforum/bh_whatare.htm

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Einstein/From-graduation-to-the-miracle-year-of-scientific-theories

https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/space/gravity-making-waves/newton-einstein-gravity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3tbVHlsKhs&t=1s

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Proteins

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22243-amino-acids

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Transfer-RNA

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Ribosome

https://www.nature.com/articles/nchembio0807-437

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1934/urey/biographical/

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Friedrich-Wohler

https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-law-of-gravitation

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What makes a law and theory different from each other?
A theory is, as the name suggests, isn't proven. It has a lot of evidence to suggest that it is true, and most likely it is, but we cannot affirm it.
A law is irrefutable. It is proven. They are the foundations through which we understand the world we live in.

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Every particle in the cosmos attracts every other particle with a force that is equal to the total of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that exists between their centers of gravity, according to Newton's law of universal gravitation.

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This reminds me of something that Carol Shayer and her group mentioned in their presentation, about confirmation bias. Basically, people will look for things that reinforce their ideas. The germans wanted to convince themselves that this was not their fault, so they latched on to an idea that suggested that they were not to blame.

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Another example of this imaginary divide being created and leading to genocide is the holocaust.
When World War I ended, and the Treaty of Versailles was signed, Germany was left in financial ruins. The Great Depression caused the whole world's economic situation to be critical, and Germany, who, at the time, depended a lot in  USA, was worse off than anyone else. People were starving, angry, and looking for someone to blame.
Hitler gave them someone to blame. Jewish people. There was no reason. They hadn't done anything. But people were so desperate that most of them supported it. After all, Hitler promised change, and nothing could be worse than this.
It started with scapegoating, but escalated. In the end, it ended in a full-on genocide. More than 6 million people died.

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We explored the pyramid of hate in our english classes and socratic seminars, and how it all starts small, but can lead to something massive.

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A female and a male each have their own reproductive organs. For a woman, her reproductive system includes multiple things, such as uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes and vagina. The male reproductive system includes penis, scrotum, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles.
Each gender has a reproductive cell, which are called gametes. For a woman, this is her egg. For a man, this is his sperm.
Through intercourse, the sperm enters the woman's body and fertilizes her egg. This fertilized egg is called a zygote. The zygote begins as a single cell, but then starts to multiply, until it eventually becomes an embryo. This then grows to be a baby.

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The genotypes are all the possible conbinations of letters formed (example: Bb, bb, BB, bB). Meanwhile phenotypes are pretty much the results of that, how it manifests itself (blue eyes, brown eyes, blond hair, brunette hair).

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Mom: Blue - Dad: Brown - Grandmother- Blue

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Mom: Blue - Dad: Brown - Grandmother- Blue

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If your mom has blue eyes and your dad has brown, there is almost no chance you will have blue. This is because, in the square, B overpowers b every time (B is the dominant gene, brown, while b is the recessive).
However, if your paternal grandmother had blue eyes as well, then your chances are different. The tables are seen below.

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(stop codons are placed at the end of a DNA or RNA sequence, indicating this is where the amino acids end and the protein is finished).

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Sometimes, the mutation will end up not having any effect on the codons, and the amino acid produced ends up being the same. This is called a silent mutation. It happens because there is more than one possible condination of nucleotides to form an amino acid.

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The ribosome is what reads the mRNA and translates it into amino acids. There is more than one ribosome in each cell.

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RNA is what transforms nucleotides into amino acids, which then turns them into protein. There are two types of RNA: mRNA (messenger) and tRNA (transfer).
Everything in our body, our whole code, the book of us, is written in DNA. The mRNA translates this code into something our body understands, so it knows how to produce the amino acids needed for a certain type of protein. It takes one of the strands of DNA (DNA has two strands) and transcribes it. mRNA isn't able to transcribe the nucleotide T, so the correspondent to A is U.
tRNA is in charge of making sure the right amino acids are transfered in the process of making the protein. It takes the amino acids to the ribosome.

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People will create division where there is no need to. An example of this is the Rwandan genocide.
The root of this terrible massacre was around the end of World War II, when Rwanda became Belgium's colony. To exert power over the Rwandan people the Belgian government created a divide between the previously united Rwandans. This included three groups: the Tutsi, the Hutu, and the Twa. Belgium put the Tutsi in the government and left.
For a really long time, the Tutsi discriminated against the Hutu. All three groups were the same race and looked almost identical, but because they were told they were different, they believed it and the Tutsi thought they were superior. There started to be a lot of resentment between the two main groups Tutsi and Hutu.
The Tutsi, when seeing other African nations achieve independence, wanted the same. Belgium wasn't happy with that and whispered in the Hutu's ears the idea of taking over the government.
The Hutu, now the government, ended up making the country independent anyways. Now, they discriminated against the Tutsi the same way they were once discriminated against.
One day, the president's airplane was shot down. The Hutu used this as an excuse to start massive hate against the Tutsi, and it escalated to a full-on genocide.

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Melanin is a protein!

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Amino acids are chemicals that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. They are each made up of 3 nucleotides, which form a codon. Depending on the nucleotides, the amino acids will be different, which will in turn change the protein formed.

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Harold Urey was born in 1893 in Walkerton, Indiana. He attended the University of Montana for his bachelor's degree, and then the University of California for his Ph.D. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1934, for his discovery on heavy oxygen! That is only one of his many awards, which include Willard Gibbs Medal, Davy Medal, Franklin Medal, Medal for Merit, Honor Scroll Award, and Alexander Hamilton Award.

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Stanley Miller was born in 1930, in Oakland, California. He attained a bachelor's degree in University of California before studying at University of Chicago for his doctorate. He worked at many reveered universities, such as Caltech and Columbia. He is well known for the Miller-Urey experiment. Miller dies in 2007.

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Proteins are made up of amino acids. They play a vital role in our bodies working. There are 7 types of proteins: antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins. Our bodies can make some on their own, but some we gain though food, which is why its important to eat foods with protein to be able to grow muscles and function properly.

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He was born July 31, 1800. Friedrich always had a passion for chemistry. He gained world-wide renown for two discoveries: one, he managed to isolate alluminium from its compounds, the first man ever to do so, and two, he discovered how to chemically reproduce urea without the use of a kidney.
Wöhler died in 1882.

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Does time exist? - Andrew Zimmerman Jones

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"Time and space are modes by which we think and not conditions in which we live"

-Albert Einstein

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As said, UV radiation could cause skin cancer. However, this only develops later in life, so it wouldn't make sense for natural selection to act upon this.
Actually, UV radiation can impact the production of a chemical which is essential for procreation. Melanin protects your organs from this, so that the chemical can still be produced.
On the other side, though, UV helps your body create vitamin D, a vitamin that aids with bone strength and your immune system. People who lived in places where UV didn't reach them as easily adapted to having lighter skin that absorbs UV better.

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Adaptation happens through mutations.
Mutations are completely random; sometimes they are good, and sometimes they are bad. Natural selection basically means that if a trait is good, it will end up being incorporated into the species.
If a trait is good for the survival of a species, that will mean that it aids in the survival of an animal and helps it live longer, meaning it will be able to reproduce more, passing down this trait to its offspring. This chain will continue for hundreds of years until its incorporated in the species.
Meanwhile, if the trait is bad, the animal will usually die off and not live long enough to reproduce.

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Alleles are one or more versions of a genetic sequence. They are located in chromosomes and can be dominant or recessive. Blue eyes, for example, are a recessive allele, while brown eyes are dominant. This results in a much larger chance of a child having brown eyes when their parents have one of each.
Genotypes are variations of a gene. They are each composed of two alleles, one from your mother and one from your father.

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The worse a mutation can be is either insertion or deletion. This is because it affects the whole chain of nuceotides: if you add or remove one nucleotide, the codons all change, because they move one over to the left or to the right (depending on whether its insertion or deletion).

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Connection to english class and diversity

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Connection to english class and diversity

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Your skin color gets determined by melanin.
People are racist over melanin.
Its honestly so ridiculous. Being out in the sun adds melanin to your skin. Does that mean that someone who is out in the sun for enough time will become inferior because their skin has become darker?
Skin colors are products of natural selection. Its a part of nature, and, originally, it was meant to help us survive. Nowadays, we are all mixed up and able to live any lifestyle independant of our skin colors.
Because it doesen't matter. Melanin doesen't matter.

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Our skin color fluctuates depending on how much melanin we have. People with lighter skin colors have less melanin, while people with darker skin have more. Melanin acts as a natural sunscreen, protecting your skin from radiation and therefore mutation, meaning that people with darker skin have less likelihood of developing skin cancer.
As your body gets exposed to sunlight, it starts producing melanin to protect your body from the radiation. This is why we get tanned!

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Mutations happen all the time; they can be good or bad. Mutation happens when a nucleotyde is added, deleted, or replaced. Some things that can cause mutation are radiation, such as UV light. Smoking can also trigger mutation.
If relatives procreate, there is a higher likelihood for there to mutation, because if there is a recessive diesease running in the family, the diesease will be more likely to develop.

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Nucleotides are the molecules that make up our DNA. There are four types: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C). These link together to form a polymer.
These nucleotides don't like being alone, so they bond. However, they don't all bond between each other. There are only two combinations: A and T, and C and G. This is because they have the same amount of bonds as each other, meaning they join each other better.

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Humans have 46 chromosomes; 23 from your mother and 23 from your father. Chromosomes are DNA organized around proteins so that it doesn't get tangled, since DNA is 3 feet long and has to fit in the cell nucleus, which is very small, and squeezing the DNA in would leave it all disorganized. Two of the chromosomes determine your gender. If you have two X chromosomes, you are female. If you have one Y chromosome and one X, you are male. The chromosomes have instructions for your cells to follow, so they know how to become certain body parts.

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1 meter=100 centimeters
1 cm= 10 millimeters
1 meter= 1000mm
1mm=1000 micrometers
1 meter= 1 million μm
1 μm= 1000 nanometers
1 meter= 1 billion nm
1 nm= 1000 picometers
1 meter= 1 trillion pm
1 atom=100 pm

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Albert Einstein is modern science's most influential and important figure. Born March 14, 1879, in Germany, he won the Nobel prize for physics in 1921. Einstein is widely known for his theories of relativity.

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Albert Einstein is more well known for his theory of relativity, but that wasn't his only contribution to science. He proposed the idea that a mass might easily prod space. It has the ability to push, pull, bend, and distort. When a mass exists in space, gravity is a natural byproduct. This is his theory of gravity.

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Stanley Miller and Harold Urey made an experiment to test whether, under the circumstances where life emerged billions of years ago, it would be able for the molecules needed to form life to assemble without components from space.
They simulated the atmosphere thought to surround earth at the time, and then used electrical sparks to simulate lightning. Passing the gases through cold water, they condensed them and collected samples. Turns out, the sparks caused new compounds to form, such as amino acids or purines.
So yes, it would be possible for life to form in the circumstances it did.

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Timelines/change through time in purple.
What we learned in class in blue.
Connections to other classes/english in green.
Important people in yellow

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If molecules are left with an energy source and time, they will form larger molecules, and chains of chemical reactions will start to develop. Some molecules even self-assemble into structures similar to cells or DNA, which before wasn't even thought to be possible. This is quite random, though.
The earliest cells, thought to have been formed billions of years ago, might have emerged from molecules randomly bonded together to become life.

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Friedrich Wöhler accidentally replicated uhrea, one of the main components in urine, which was previously thought to be impossible. This opened doors to the conclusion that life, just like anything else, happens because of chemical reactions.

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Scientists thought that you could only find molecules similar to DNA, as well as components inside life cells, like amino acids, in living things. They determined hat what caused things to be alive was something called the "vital force", and it was impossible to chemically replicate anything that had these components.

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During our 9th Grade festival project, we explored the concept of time, and whether it is the conditions we live in or just a medium humans created and think through, very much related to an Albert Einstein quote. Having previously discussed space, we talked about why we could move through space in every direction (front back up down left right) and time in one: forward. We cannot travel to the past. All of the proven equations we have relating to our world do not include time in them... why is that? Is it possible that time isn't actually real on a fundamental level? The video to the right explains a little bit more of the things that we ended up discussing.

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This movie, which is set in a dystopian future in which humankind is fighting for survival, centers on a team of astronauts who venture through a wormhole close to Saturn in the quest to find a new planet for humanity to inhabit. In the film, the astronaut's spaceship breaks down on a planet where 1 hour equals 7 years back on Earth, and when the team finally manages to leave they find that it has been 23 years. The main character's daughter, previously a kid, is an adult, who grew up thinking her dad was never coming back. The film does a really good job of exploring the concept of time and its warping based on the theory of relativity.

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Black holes, as said before, warp space and time. They suck in everything that falls into them, even light. However, if an object were to fall into them, the object would appear to be frozen in time, because the blackhole essencially swallows it too. The closer you get to a black hole, the slower time passes.

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The Higgs field is essential for the world as we know it; this is how fundamental particles get mass. It's important to note that not all fundamental particles have mass.

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It took seconds for quarks and electrons to form. With the Higgs field, they gained mass, and soon neutrons and protons were created. It didn't take long to atom nuclei to form... but electrons couldn't yet join them, as the world was way too fast and the electrons were moving too quickly.
Only after 380,000 did atoms form completely. The first elements to form were hydrogen and helium. Then, through the life of a star, the other elements formed too.

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When atoms bond with each other, they form molecules. Sometimes, these molecules are composed of the same atom, such as O2, which is the air we breathe, but different atoms can bond too, to form a compound. Nearly everything is a compound, from water (H2O) to eggshells (CaCO3).

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One type of boson is the Higgs boson. This is a particle with no charge and no spin. It was confirmed in March 2013 that this particle had been found by scientists.

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There are 6 types of Leptons, three negative and three neutral. The negative include electrons, as well as muons and tau particles.

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Our universe is filled with bosons, which are particles that transport forces and energy.

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A quark is a elementary particle that makes up protons and neutrons.
There are 6 types of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. It is through combinations of different types of quarks that hadrons, such as protons and neutrons, are formed. For example, protons are made up of two up and 1 down.
Quarks are indivisible, which means that they are fundamental and cannot be broken down into anything smaller.

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"It all started with the big bang".
Before the big bang, there was nothing.
Milliseconds after, electrons and quarks were formed. A little bit after, protons and neutrons were formed.
At this time, the universe was still too hot for atoms to form, since electrons had too much energy and couldn't bond with protons and neutrons.

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The leftover core of an avarage star will become a white dwarf.

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Red giants will desintegrate, blowing off lots of gas. Gravity holds the core.

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Avarage stars turn into red stars when they run out of hydrogen. The pressure causes the star to swell.

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Stars are what first formed the elements of the periodic table. Through fussion, hydrogen turned into helium, which released lots of energy. With time, elements started being created. Then, with supernovas, the last elements were formed. We are all stars.

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Massive stars burn through hydrogen a lot quicker than avarage stars, making them hotter and have shorter lifespans.

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If the explosion is large enough, the remains are gravitationally crushed and warp space and time, forming a black hole.

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With the heat and pressure of the supernova, protons and electrons essencially melt into each other to form neutrons, which form the neutron star. These stars spin incredibly quickly.

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Massive stars end their life violently with a massive explosion. All the elements inside the star and its core get spread through the galaxy.

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Red supergiants are the largest stars that can exist. They have elements such as magnesium, titanium, and iron.

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Avarage stars are about the size of the sun. They are kept in check by gravity, considering that without it, the energy being released would be too much.

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Star nebulas are the nursery to stars. Its where a star is born.

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Elements will vary depending on their atomic number and their number of protons

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Beta particles consist of just electrons.

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Corpuscular radiation is physical radiation, as the name suggests. This is made up of atomic or subatomic particles, such as isotopes, alpha particles, and beta particles.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of rays. This would be UVC, gamma rays, and x-rays. These are examples of ionizing radiation, but you can have non-ionizing, or not dangerous radiation with microwaves or visible light.

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Alpha particles are basically just the nucleus of an atom. They are composed of two protons and two neutrons bound together.

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Isotopes happen when the amount of neutrons is different than what it should be, whether that is for more or less. If an element is an isotope, it is most likely unstable. Unstable elements are radioactive. There are some cases of stable isotopes, but if an isotope is lab-made, it is going to be unstable- and dangerous.

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Ions are classified into two: Cations and Anions. Cations are positive ions, which means they have less electrons. Wait... less? Yes! this is because electrons are negative, so Cations, positive ions, mean fewer electrons, while Anions, negative ions, mean more electrons.

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Electrons are a subatomic particle that makes up an atom. They have a negative charge, and attract protons, since they have a positive charge. This is why atoms form, because the subatomic particles bond.
In an element, there is usually the same amount of protons as there is electrons, if an atom is neutral. The elements of the periodic table, for example, are. If it has one more or one less electron, its called an ion.

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Protons and Neutrons are subatomic particles that make up an atom. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have a neutral or no charge. Both lie in an atom's nucleus (red and blue in the image).
The number of protons an atom has will determine what kind of element it is. Hydrogen, for example, has 1 proton. If you added one more, the atom would turn into a Helium particle.

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Atoms are the building blocks of our world; they make up everything. Atoms are very small; in fact, they are the smallest that matter can be before being broken down into electric particles.