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"American Frontier Paintings." FineArtAmerica.com, Fine Art America, fineartamerica.com/art/paintings/american+frontier

Foster, John Bellamy. "Indigenous peoples, local communities offer best hope for our planetary emergency." Nation of Change, 13 Oct. 2020, www.nationofchange.org/2020/10/13/indigenous-peoples-local-communities-offer-best-hope-for-our-planetary-emergency/

Kalaichandran, Amitha. "Why Black People Don't Camp." The New York Times, 15 June 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/opinion/sunday/black-bodies-green-spaces.html

Minrisky, Alexander. ENGL 2635E Lecture 3 March 2023

Savoy, Lauret Edith. Trace: Memory, History, Race, and the American Landscape. Counterpoint, 2015

White, Evelyn C. "Black Women in the Wilderness." Callaloo, vol. 20, no. 2, Spring 1997, pp. 329-341. JSTOR, doi:10.2307/2932451

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Savoy’s unique background as a woman of African American, Euro-American, and Indigenous ancestry provides her with a multi-dimensional lens through which she perceives the natural world. Her diverse identities intersect to shape her perspectives on the environment, prompting her to question her relationship to it, especially in the context of traditional environmentalist history taught in schools. She wonders,  “Imagine searching for self-meaning in such lessons. Am I civilized? Will I be a slave? The history taught wasn’t the history that made me, but I didn't know this. Any language to voice who I was, any knowledge of how land and time touched my family remained elusive” (Savoy 20). Universal understandings of the environment are problematic, as it fails to take into account the specific experiences and perspectives of individuals and communities. Due to this, she finds herself lost between who she believes she is, what her relationship with the environment is, and her heritage.

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Lauret Edith Savoy questions in her book Trace  “What of us? What of who we are is owed to memories of blood or culture, custom or circumstance… From what do we take our origin? From Blood?” (Savoy 18).  This question perfectly encompasses the importance of epistemological standpoints in regard to environmentalism. Savoy’s examination of the natural world reveals complex and specific ways in which humans have interacted with nature, and how those interactions have shaped both the land and human identities. By focusing on the particularities of these interactions, her approach contests the idea that there can be a universal understanding of the environment, rather one approaches the environment through their unique identity, memories, experiences, and stories.

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Evelyn White, as an African American, has expressed her fear of nature, which she attributes to the historical trauma and legacy of slavery that has been passed down through generations. She writes “I imagine myself in the country as my forebears were–exposed, vulnerable, and unprotected–a target of cruelty and hate” (White). Although Black Americans have developed nature-based traditions of their own, this anxiety is still extremely prevalent and differs drastically from the wilderness paradigm. This relationship with nature rejected the idea that wilderness was a universal escape, but was a unique reminder of the vulnerability and oppression of different group’s cultures and ancestors. White uses her experiences to argue that the historical exploitation and different cultural groups shape their distinct experiences and relationships with nature.

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Accounts like Evelyn C. White’s are an example of a non-universal epistemological standpoint. White carries a variety of predispositions concerning nature within her at all times due to her identity as a Black American woman. She writes in the opening  lines of Black Women and the Wilderness, “For me, the fear is like a heartbeat, always present, while at the same time, intangible, elusive, and difficult to define” (White 378). White uses a heartbeat as a metaphor to epitomize the perpetual sense of apprehension ingrained within her as a result of her ancestors’ trauma surrounding wilderness. She follows this by stating: “So pervasive, so much a part of me that I hardly knew it was there” (White 378). Although she may not realize it is within her, her fearful view of nature will always be a part of her as a direct result of the trauma passed down through generational oppression. This fear is not instilled within everyone, rather is a unique perspective possessed by Black Americans.

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In describing her realization that she had a passion for writing, Evelyn C. White expressed “That idea was so far removed from my heritage as a Black person whose ancestors had been forbidden to read or write. It made me aware of how far Black people had traveled. I took it very seriously” (White 377). Due to colonization and slavery, Black history and knowledge had been erased at the hands of white colonizers. The use of language is crucial in preserving and passing down tradition, culture, and knowledge, however, as a result of historical oppression that prohibited Black Americans to read and write, their history has been lost and replaced by a narrative of oppression on American soil. The lack of nature writing written by Black Americans is subsequently due to this, not because they did not have a unique perspective and relationship with their environment, but because they were restricted from participating.

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The Wilderness Paradigm is a concept that describes the cultural belief that wilderness areas are pristine and untouched by humans, and that nature should be preserved in this state. It advocates for purity and authenticity which rests on categorical distinctions between nature and culture (Menrisky). More so, it represents nature and culture as two separate spheres, rather than two interconnected entities. This belief can be extremely problematic, however, as our perceptions of nature are mediated by culture and are constantly changing. It also ignores nature’s long history of human use and management, perpetuates discriminatory narratives, and overlooks the complex and sometimes positive relationships people have with nature, leading to the erasure of cultural and historical connection.

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Intersectionality is a term that describes the interconnected nature of social categories, such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other forms of identity. These identities and the ways they interact with one another impacts the ways in which one behaves, is perceived, or how they understand the world around them. Intersectionality highlights the need to consider the ways in which different systems and structures intersect and influence each other to create unique experiences for individuals (Menrisky). The interconnection of these characteristics affect all aspects of life, including socially, politically, and economically as well have a direct impact on the treatment of an individual.

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The ecological Indian stereotype refers to the notion that Native North Americans are inherently closer to nature, ecologically minded, and conservationist (Menrisky). This stereotype dates as early back to the Romantic Reversal when wilderness became associated with God and the sublime. Due to this, both Indians and the environment were viewed as untouched, pure, and uncivilized. Even in instances where this stereotype is used celebratorily, the characterization of Native peoples as “primitive” infantilizes them and reinforced a rigid dichotomy between nature and culture that spread to people as well (Menrisky). This view neglects to acknowledge the centuries of contemporary activities such as controlled burning, complex irrigation, and tenacious movements for control and use of natural resources.

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Statistically in America, women, women of color, Black Americans, gay men, and nonbinary people fear wilderness the most. Along with this, Black Americans have been and continue to be less likely than Anglo-Americans to visit recreational centers (Minrisky). These statistics are not a mere coincidence but rather are rooted in America’s long history of discrimination and segregation. African Americans are less likely to engage with nature due to segregated access to parks, threats and experiences of violence, and subcultural values and associations based on past experiences of discrimination and slavery (Menrisky). Throughout history, Black Americans and the environment have been subjected to similar forms of exploitation, being viewed as property to be used for profit and gain rather than equal beings. Due to this, African Americans possess a separate complex and unique epistemological standpoint that is reflected within Black American written environmental narratives.

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Universalism is the belief that every individual experiences the world in more or less the same way, including self-perceptions, views of others, their environment, and circumstances (Menrisky). This viewpoint can be extremely problematic, however, especially in relation to environmentalism. Assuming that all individuals have had/will have the same relationship with the environment disregards the ways in which diverse communities interact and understand their natural surroundings. No two groups of people share the exact epistemological standpoint, thus, universalism may lead to exclusionary policies and practices that harm marginalized groups and perpetuate environmental injustice. The repercussions of universalism have disproportionately impacted African Americans and Native Americans, especially in regards to their relationship with the environment.

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Epistemology refers to the study of knowledge that involves examining the characteristics that differentiate substantiated beliefs from opinions, seeking to answer the question “how do we know the world and through what means?” (Menrisky). Epistemology is a crucial aspect to understanding our environments and the ways in which we interact with it. As a result of diverse life experiences, every individual possesses distinct perspectives, which ultimately shape their perceptions and relationships with the world around them. In regards to environmental literature, it is important to acknowledge differentiating epistemological standpoints as one’s beliefs about nature are directly affected by an intersectionality of their identities, such as race, gender, ethnicity, age, time period, and more. Recognizing these differences can help us better understand the author’s message and ways in which we can approach environmental issues in a more inclusive and effective way.

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Lauret Edith Savoy and Evelyn C. White contest the notion of environmental universalism through their respective epistemological standpoints.