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Objective 1: Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980. 

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980. 

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On September 11, 2001, aircraft slammed into the twin buildings in New York, causing them to collapse. A terrorist strike was carried out by Al Queda, headed by Osama Bin Laden. Approximately 2,000 Americans were murdered on this day; they died in the buildings, aboard passenger flights, and in the wreckage. This had an influence on the entire world, and the destruction they saw in one of the world's most industrialized nations had an impact on them as well. Fear and the installation of safety restrictions affected America's national identity, as contrasted to America's daring and valor following victories in several battles over the previous few decades.

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The plot

The September 11 attacks were precipitated in large part because Osama bin Laden, the leader of the militant Islamic organization al-Qaeda, held naive beliefs about the United States in the run-up to the attacks. Abu Walid al-Masri, an Egyptian who was a bin Laden associate in Afghanistan in the 1980s and '90s, explained that, in the years prior to the attacks, bin Laden became increasingly convinced that America was weak. "He believed that the United States was much weaker than some of those around him thought," Masri remembered, and "as evidence he referred to what happened to the United States in Beirut when the bombing of the Marines base led them to flee from Lebanon," referring to the destruction of the marine barracks there in 1983 ( see 1983 Beirut barracks bombings), which killed 241 American servicemen. Bin Laden believed that the United States was a "paper tiger," a belief shaped not just by America's departure from Lebanon following the marine barracks bombing but also by the withdrawal of American forces from Somalia in 1993, following the deaths of 18 U.S. servicemen in Mogadishu, and the American pullout from Vietnam in the 1970s.

The key operational planner of the September 11 attacks was Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (often referred to simply as "KSM" in the later 9/11 Commission Report and in the media), who had spent his youth in Kuwait. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed became active in the Muslim Brotherhood, which he joined at age 16, and then went to the United States to attend college, receiving a degree from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in 1986. Afterward he traveled to Pakistan and then Afghanistan to wage jihad against the Soviet Union, which had launched an invasion against Afghanistan in 1979.

According to Yosri Fouda, a journalist at the Arabic-language cable television channel Al Jazeera who interviewed him in 2002, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed planned to blow up some dozen American planes in Asia during the mid-1990s, a plot (known as " Bojinka ") that failed, "but the dream of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed never faded. And I think by putting his hand in the hands of bin Laden, he realized that now he stood a chance of bringing about his long awaited dream."

In 1996 Khalid Sheikh Mohammed met bin Laden in Tora Bora, Afghanistan. The 9-11 Commission (formally the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States), set up in 2002 by U.S. Pres. George W. Bush and the U.S. Congress to investigate the attacks of 2001, explained that it was then that Khalid Sheikh Mohammed "presented a proposal for an operation that would involve training pilots who would crash planes into buildings in the United States." Khalid Sheikh Mohammed dreamed up the tactical innovation of using hijacked planes to attack the United States, al-Qaeda provided the personnel, money, and logistical support to execute the operation, and bin Laden wove the attacks on New York and Washington into a larger strategic framework of attacking the "far enemy"-the United States-in order to bring about regime change across the Middle East.

The September 11 plot demonstrated that al-Qaeda was an organization of global reach. The plot played out across the globe with planning meetings in Malaysia, operatives taking flight lessons in the United States, coordination by plot leaders based in Hamburg, Germany, money transfers from Dubai, and recruitment of suicide operatives from countries around the Middle East-all activities that were ultimately overseen by al-Qaeda's leaders in Afghanistan.

Key parts of the September 11 plot took shape in Hamburg. Four of the key pilots and planners in the "Hamburg cell" who would take operational control of the September 11 attacks, including the lead hijacker Mohammed Atta, had a chance meeting on a train in Germany in 1999 with an Islamist militant who struck up a conversation with them about fighting jihad in the Russian republic of Chechnya. The militant put the Hamburg cell in touch with an al-Qaeda operative living in Germany who explained that it was difficult to get to Chechnya at that time, because many travelers were being detained in Georgia. He recommended they go to Afghanistan instead.

Although Afghanistan was critical to the rise of al-Qaeda, it was the experience that some of the plotters acquired in the West that made them simultaneously more zealous and better equipped to carry out the attacks. Three of the four plotters who would pilot the hijacked planes on September 11 and one of the key planners, Ramzi Binalshibh, became more radical while living in Hamburg. Some combination of perceived or real discrimination, alienation, and homesickness seems to have turned them all in a more militant direction. Increasingly cutting themselves off from the outside world, they gradually radicalized each other, and eventually the friends decided to wage battle in bin Laden's global jihad, setting off for Afghanistan in 1999 in search of al-Qaeda.

Atta and the other members of the Hamburg group arrived in Afghanistan in 1999 right at the moment that the September 11 plot was beginning to take shape. Bin Laden and his military commander Muhammad Atef realized that Atta and his fellow Western-educated jihadists were far better suited to lead the attacks on Washington and New York than the men they had already recruited, leading bin Laden to appoint Atta to head the operation.

The hijackers, most of whom were from Saudi Arabia, established themselves in the United States, many well in advance of the attacks. They traveled in small groups, and some of them received commercial flight training.

Throughout his stay in the United States, Atta kept Binalshibh updated on the plot's progress via e-mail. To cloak his activities, Atta wrote the messages as if he were writing to his girlfriend "Jenny," using innocuous code to inform Binalshibh that they were almost complete in their training and readiness for the attacks. Atta wrote in one message, "The first semester commences in three weeks...Nineteen certificates for private education and four exams." The referenced 19 "certificates" were code that identified the 19 al-Qaeda hijackers, while the four "exams" identified the targets of the attacks.

In the early morning of August 29, 2001, Atta called Binalshibh and said he had a riddle that he was trying to solve: "Two sticks, a dash and a cake with a stick down-what is it?" After considering the question, Binalshibh realized that Atta was telling him that the attacks would occur in two weeks-the two sticks being the number 11 and the cake with a stick down a 9. Putting it together, it meant that the attacks would occur on 11-9, or 11 September (in most countries the day precedes the month in numeric dates, but in the United States the month precedes the day; hence, it was 9-11 in the United States). On September 5 Binalshibh left Germany for Pakistan. Once there he sent a messenger to Afghanistan to inform bin Laden about both the day of the attack and its scope.

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September 11 attacks | History, Summary, Location, Timeline, Casualties, & Facts

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September 11 attacks, series of airline hijackings and suicide attacks committed in 2001 by 19 militants associated with Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda against targets in the United States, the deadliest terrorist attacks on U.S. soil in U.S. history. Over 3,000 people died in the attacks and rescue efforts.

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. 

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. 

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The rights granted to Black Americans and how the federal government may improve them have remained a policy issue from the Civil Rights movement that has endured till now. Though it has been decades since the conclusion of the Civil Rights struggle, this might represent continuity and change. What has changed, however, is Americans' attitude, since while a small percentage of the population remains racist, there is a far larger majority that is committed to racial equality and has a strong desire to see change for Black Americans. The movement known as "Black Lives Matter" took place.

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Black Lives Matter Movement

In 2013, three female Black organizers - Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi - created a Black-centered political will and movement building project called Black Lives Matter. Black Lives Matter began with a social media hashtag, #BlackLivesMatter, after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of Trayvon Martin back in 2012. The movement grew nationally in 2014 after the deaths of Michael Brown in Missouri and Eric Garner in New York. Since then it has established itself as a worldwide movement, particularly after the death of George Floyd at the hands of police in Minneapolis, MN. Most recently, #Black Lives Matter has spearheaded demonstrations worldwide protesting police brutality and systematic racism that overwhelmingly effects the Black community.

According to the Black Lives Matter website they were "founded in 2013 in response to the acquittal of Trayvon Martin's murderer. Black Lives Matter Foundation, Inc is a global organization in the US, UK, and Canada, whose mission is to eradicate white supremacy and build local power to intervene in violence inflicted on Black communities by the state and vigilantes. By combating and countering acts of violence, creating space for Black imagination and innovation, and centering Black joy, we are winning immediate improvements in our lives."

Selected Library Resources

Additional Resources

Take Action

BLM's #WhatMatters2020 Campaign: This 2020 Election-focused campaign focuses on promoting voter registration "among Millennials, Generation Z, the Black community, and allies" and education voters about a wide range of issues including "racial injustice, police brutality, criminal justice reform, Black immigration, economic injustice, LGBTQIA+ and human rights, environmental injustice, access to healthcare, access to quality education, and voting rights and suppression."

Local BLM Chapters: Local chapters of BLM in many areas of the country, including the DMV, have their own social media accounts to facilitate engagement in civil action close to home.

Follow Black Lives Matter on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram

Hashtags to Search

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HUSL Library: A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: The Black Lives Matter Movement

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This guide focuses on the civil rights that various groups have fought for within the United States.

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy. 

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy. 

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The Cold War altered American foreign policy and political philosophy, had an impact on the domestic economy and the president, and had an impact on Americans' daily lives, establishing an atmosphere of anticipated uniformity and normalcy. Dissent gradually rose towards the end of the 1950s, peaking in the late 1960s. As time passed, the country began to worry if they would have to fear communism usurping the democracy they had come to appreciate. This demonstrates politics and power since it threatened Americans with the federal government's authority and the possibility of their usurping the liberties that had been fought for throughout the Red Scare era.

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Is there, or not, a legacy of the Cold War that continues to define the international system?

By Dr Barbara Zanchetta, Senior Researcher at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies

The Cold War divided Europe and the world in two opposing spheres of influence for four and a half decades. The emergence of the United States as a dominant international actor following the Second World War was shaped by the rivalry with the Soviet Union, which, in turn, defined its new global posture on the basis of the competition with America. Cold War necessities came to dictate both superpowers' foreign and defence policies for decades. While historians agree on assessing the Cold War as an important chapter in the turbulent history of the twentieth century, far less consensus exists among analysts on the contemporary relevance of the bipolar conflict. In other words, is the Cold War still relevant today, or was it just a passing - albeit important - historical phase? Is there, or not, a legacy of the Cold War that continues to define the international system?

Key Points

Beyond the easily re-surfacing rhetoric on a 'new Cold War' when referring to the Western world's relationship with Russia, the bipolar conflict (1945-1989) shaped the international system in tangible ways that remain highly relevant today.

The concrete legacy of the Cold War rotates around three elements: nuclear weapons and the related arms control and non-proliferation treaties; local conflicts with long-lasting consequences; and international institutions that continue to play a key role today.

Current instability in the world's hotspots - from the Korean peninsula to Afghanistan - cannot be understood, nor future courses charted, without turning to the Cold War in search for the roots and causes of today's dilemmas.

The major institutions that govern the 'West' - NATO and the EU - are both rooted in the bipolar era, and the sense of community, belonging and shared values that characterise them was forged throughout the decades.

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Is there, or not, a legacy of the Cold War that continues to define the international system? By Dr Barbara Zanchetta, Senior Researcher at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies The Cold War divided Europe and the world in two opposing spheres of influence for four and a half decades.

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Objective 4: Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time. 

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Objective 4: Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time. 

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The Cold War influenced American foreign policy and political philosophy. By the end of the 1950s, there had been a rise in dissent, which peaked in the late 1960s. With the passage of time, the country began to wonder if communism would steal the democracy they had learned to value. This exemplifies politics and power since it frightened Americans with the federal government's authority and the danger of them usurping liberties fought for during the Red Scare era.

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The END of the Cold War [APUSH Review Unit 9 Topic 3] Period 9: 1980-Present

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time. 

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time. 

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People used to dwell in huge cities like New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, where there were the greatest job prospects, despite the high levels of overpopulation. As technologies spread west and south, new opportunities arose (claims and evidence in sources). Atlanta, Miami, Los Angeles, Houston, Dallas, and other major southern and western cities have grown! In the urbanized zone, culture flourished, as did work possibilities, which helped to distribute the population (argumentation). This shows the theme of social structures as these were shifted due to the migration. It also shows America in the World as these population sources were diverse.

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MIGRATION & IMMIGRATION in the 1990s & 2000s [APUSH Review Unit 9 Topic 5] Period 9: 1980-Present

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States has faced in the 21st century. 

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States has faced in the 21st century. 

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The first time this fatal virus was discovered was in December of 2019. It wasn't generally known what was going on at the time, but it was known that China was experiencing a large epidemic of a new sickness, prompting the government to impose quarantine on its inhabitants to try stop the spread. This has an impact on culture and society since, in addition to requiring all Americans to wear masks in public areas, the government also imposed a public quarantine, which resulted in many people losing their jobs. Americans struggled, but the government helped with unemployment benefits, but it wasn't enough for many families. This displays the theme of WXT as this was greatly affected by the virus.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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This timeline provides information about select moments in the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States and around the world beginning from its known origins to today.

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Objective 7: Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity. 

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Objective 7: Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity. 

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Ronald Reagan defeated incumbent Democrat Jimmy Carter and independent candidate John Anderson in a landslide win in 1980, sending a Republican Senate to Washington on his coattails. Reagan was re-elected in a 49-state landslide in 1984, and his vice president, George H. W. Bush, was re-elected in 1988 with a comfortable victory by promising to continue Reagan's policies. As a consequence, conservatives were able to implement domestic and foreign objectives such as less government, lower taxes, and a stronger national military, which they had fought for since the 1960s.

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APUSH Review: Period 9 In 10 Minutes! (1980 - Present)

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Objective 1: Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1980. 

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Objective 1: Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1980. 

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The United States responded to an uncertain and unstable postwar world by asserting and working to maintain a position of global leadership, with far-reaching domestic and international consequences. United States policymakers engaged in a cold war with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seeking to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a free-market global economy, and build an international security system

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No event proved more important to the course of modern American history than World War II. The war cast America onto the world stage as a mighty economic and military giant. It rescued the country from the Great Depression, created full employment, and for the first time in a generation increased real income for American workers. Moreover, the poorest 40 percent of the population saw its share of the national income grow, while the top 5 percent witnessed a decline. Technology boomed, and the computer age began. African Americans and women experienced more dramatic change than they had in decades. And the contours of postwar diplomacy took shape in response to issues dividing the Western Allies on the one hand from the Soviet Union on the other. Although the war lasted only four years for the United States, its impact endured for generations.

Domestically, the war triggered massive social changes. More than 6.5 million women took jobs for the first time, increasing the female labor force by 57 percent. Most were married and over 35. Whereas before the war, the average woman worker was young, single, and poor, by the end of the war she was married, middle aged, and increasingly middle class. African Americans joined the Armed Forces in record numbers, while two million left the South for factory jobs in the North and West. While facing ongoing discrimination, black Americans pursued the “Double V” campaign—victory against racism at home as well as victory against fascism abroad. Membership in the NAACP—the largest African American protest organization—skyrocketed from 50,000 to 500,000.

In the meantime, workers with rising incomes put their money into savings accounts, since rationing limited their ability to purchase consumer goods like cars and clothes. Those funds were then available to fuel the consumer boom that followed the war. Millions took advantage of the opportunities to buy new houses in the suburbs, shop for new cars and appliances, and join the burgeoning “affluent society” of the 1950s.

The war also set the stage for the dominant political and diplomatic reality of the postwar years—the Cold War. Tensions among the Allies had existed from the beginning of World War II, and after the war profound conflicts continued to separate the superpowers. What would be the fate of Poland, whose freedom was the reason for Allied intervention in the first place? How would Germany and Japan be governed after the war? What about other Eastern European countries like Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary? Should they fall under Soviet control, or have Western-style free governments? And how about the atomic bomb? Should the United States try to be the sole nuclear power, or should it share information about atomic science?

Although Roosevelt was confident he could reconcile these tensions, he died before the war ended, and he never shared his ideas for making peace. His successor, Harry Truman, found himself in an increasingly hostile relationship with Stalin and the USSR. By 1947, polarization between the two superpowers had come to dominate all diplomatic relations. In the Truman Doctrine, the President portrayed America as being in a holy war with Soviet Union. It was a battle between good and evil, he said, with God-fearing people who believed in freedom on one side, and atheistic Communists who believed in tyranny on the other. In this worldview, there could be no room for compromise, and anyone who suggested such a course was immoral. Pursuing a policy of “containment,” the United States pledged to fight Communist incursions any place and any time they occurred.

Tensions worsened through the 1940s and 1950s as nations around the world aligned themselves on one side or the other. The United States created the Marshall Plan in 1948 to rebuild Europe and established NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance) the same year. In 1949, the USSR tested its first atomic bomb, and Communist China led by Mao Zedong emerged. In 1950, North Korea—with Russia’s approval—invaded South Korea, precipitating an immediate American response. The Korean War was the first open military conflagration of the Cold War. And in 1955, when NATO accepted the Federal Republic of Germany as a member, Russia formed the Warsaw Pact to prevent future invasions of Soviet territory and tighten control over Eastern Europe.

But Cold War anti-communism was not limited to foreign policy. The “other side of the [Cold War] walnut” was domestic anti-communism. From the hearings of the House Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC) in the immediate postwar years to the launching of McCarthyism in 1950, fear of domestic communism dominated political discourse at home. It was the primary weapon in President Truman’s re-election campaign in 1948. Threatened by the candidacy of former Vice President Henry Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket, Truman denounced “Wallace and his communists” (emphasis added), suggesting that anyone to the left of the Democratic Party mainstream was suspect. When Truman proposed national health care insurance to Congress in 1947, it was excoriated as “socialized medicine,” an effort to imitate the Soviet Union. The same allegation was made against day care centers in New York City, because such centers suggested that the state take over the responsibilities of the family, as in the Soviet Union. Those who supported such measures were denounced as “fellow travelers” and “communist sympathizers.”

As a result, a centrist consensus emerged as the dominant political style of America. Democrats and Republicans celebrated American democracy and capitalism; they agreed there were no fundamental problems with American society, and that any problems that did exist could be solved by incremental reform. Economic growth would serve as the primary means of securing social progress. The anchor of this consensus was anti-communism, both as a foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and as a political stance rejecting the kind of left-of-center politics that was prevalent in the Labor Party in England and the Social Democratic Parties of France and Germany. To be sure, Democrats and Republicans disagreed on many issues, but for the most part both parties occupied the center of the political spectrum.

Thus, Dwight Eisenhower, a Republican and a war hero, was elected president in 1952, but he never sought to undo the New Deal. Indeed, he created a Cabinet-level Department of Health, Education and Welfare and famously wrote his brother that anyone who contemplated ending Social Security must be out of his mind. Similarly, when John F. Kennedy was elected president, he focused primarily on the Cold War and on stimulating economic growth. He might have been a Democrat, but in substance, Kennedy represented continuity with, not difference from, President Eisenhower.

In spite of this political consensus, the Civil Rights Movement was able to surge forward in the postwar years, creating the foundation for a decade of rapidly expanding protest. When black veterans returned from World War II, they refused to accept second-class citizenship any longer. With their uniforms still on, they went to register to vote. When they were beaten—even murdered—for trying to exercise the franchise, they fought back. The war had kindled a new activism and a new faith among African Americans. What had previously been endured was vigorously resisted, from the bottom up. When a black woman was raped by six white police officers in Montgomery, Alabama, angry African Americans, led by a Women’s Political Council and a black labor union, insisted that the police be put on trial. One of those activists was Rosa Parks. Secretary of the local NAACP, she was determined to challenge racism wherever it existed. So when she was told to give up her seat on a public bus to a white person in December 1955, she refused. Her arrest sparked phone conversations between the Women’s Political Council and the black labor union, and the next night, the African American community poured into a Baptist church where they heard a young and unknown minister, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., implore the community to stand up for justice. For 381 days, not a single black person in Montgomery rode a public bus, until finally the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public transportation was unconstitutional.

By the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement had become a page-one story in every newspaper and had entered the political arena as a pivotal issue. On February 1, 1960, four first-year college students in Greensboro, North Carolina, “sat in” at the local Woolworth’s to demand the right to buy a cup of coffee at the lunch counter, just as they were able to purchase school supplies and toiletries at other counters. They started a flash fire of similar protests. Within two months, sit-ins had spread to fifty-four cities in nine different states, and in the North students, black and white, protested stores that practiced segregation in the South. Soon, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was created, and civil rights demonstrators sought to integrate public restaurants and hotels and register voters in every Southern state.

By 1963, President John F. Kennedy could no longer ignore what was happening around the country and went on national television to declare that racial equality was a “moral issue” as old as the Scriptures and to propose legislation that would end segregation in the work place and in all public accommodations. Five months later on November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated. He did not live to see his legislation pass, but his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, not only secured passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, but also signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, prohibiting the states from denying African Americans their right to vote in the South. The greatest reform president since Franklin Roosevelt, Johnson also waged a War on Poverty, secured passage of Medicare, which offered health insurance to senior citizens, and promoted far-reaching changes in federal aid for education, manpower retraining, and urban renewal.

As in the abolition movement more than one hundred years earlier, the battle over equal rights for African Americans quickly led to a battle over equal rights for women. Throughout the 1950s, women’s employment rate increased four times faster than men’s. Although most of those jobs were underpaid and not competitive with men’s jobs, they contradicted the dictum that “a woman’s place is in the home.” Soon, that cultural norm came under overt attack. President Kennedy established the Commission on the Status of Women, which in 1963 called for reforms in women’s status. The 1964 Civil Rights Act specifically outlawed discrimination in the workplace against women as well as African Americans, and when there was little effort to enforce that prohibition, a group of activists led by Betty Friedan created the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966. Friedan had written the best-selling Feminine Mystique in 1963, revealing the dissatisfaction of middle-class housewives who were concerned with “the problem that has no name.” It was given a name—sexism—and NOW set out to integrate women into the mainstream of American society, just as the NAACP had done for black Americans.

Young woman activists in the Civil Rights Movement, in the meantime, realized that they were treated as “second-class citizens,” even within a movement dedicated to equal rights. As the Civil Rights Movement split over the emergence of Black Power, many white woman civil rights activists joined the New Left, a predominantly campus-based organization that started groups like Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). There, too, women experienced condescension from white male radicals.

Soon, they started the women’s liberation movement. Not a national, hierarchical organization like NOW, women’s liberation groups emerged in grassroots settings where fifteen or twenty women gathered together for “consciousness-raising” sessions where they explored what it was like to be a woman. As such groups proliferated, a sea change occurred in the attitudes of young women. The result was a revolution in social values. No longer did most young women believe that happiness could be found solely in marriage and children. Growing numbers of women sought independence, equal relationships, and careers; they married later, had fewer children, and insisted on equal access to careers. In 1965, only 5 percent of all students entering medical school, law school, or business school were women. Twenty-five years later, that figure had skyrocketed to 50 percent.

Protest movements in the 1960s culminated when activists zeroed in on the Vietnam War as a primary example of what was wrong with American society. The war itself was a direct product of the Cold War. During World War II, Americans enjoyed an informal alliance with Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnamese resistance against Japan. But when France re-imposed its colonial regime in Indochina, the United States supported its NATO ally against Ho Chi Minh and Vietnamese nationalists. When the French withdrew in 1954, the United States supported a pro-Western South Vietnamese government. John F. Kennedy increased American troop strength from 800 to 15,000, but resisted requests for more troops. Bolstered by his success during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, Kennedy gave every indication that he would begin withdrawing American troops after the 1964 election. But after the assassination, Lyndon Johnson, far less experienced than Kennedy, believed he had to resist Communist insurrection in Vietnam at all costs. By July 1965 Johnson had begun escalating American involvement in Vietnam, and the number of troops soon reached 540,000.

Initial protest against the war was moderate. It began with “teach-ins,” where opponents of the war debated representatives of the State Department in the hope that reason would prevail. But intellectual argument changed nothing. Student activists quickly intensified their protests. They demonstrated against universities that had defense industry contracts or that hosted recruitment visits from companies like Dow Chemical, the manufacturer of napalm. Soon, anti-war protestors started burning draft cards and calling the police who opposed them “capitalist pigs.” By the end of 1967, it was nearly impossible for an administration official to visit a college campus anywhere in the country without rowdy and violent demonstrations.

As the presidential election year of 1968 dawned, the nation was split apart more severely than at any time since the Civil War. Radical student groups threatened to take over campuses. The “Weathermen,” a break-off group from SDS, called for violent revolution. More moderate reformers rallied behind the anti-war presidential candidacy of Senator Eugene McCarthy from Minnesota, who contested Lyndon Johnson in the New Hampshire primary. A rapid-fire succession of explosive developments made the world seem dramatically different with each passing month.

In January, Vietnamese insurgents launched the Tet offensive (during the Vietnamese new year), assaulting every major South Vietnamese city, even briefly occupying the US Embassy in Saigon. One month later, Eugene McCarthy captured 48 percent of the vote in the New Hampshire primary. The next week, Robert F. Kennedy, also an anti-war senator, joined the presidential campaign. On March 31, Lyndon Johnson announced a halt in the bombing of North Vietnam, then stunned the nation by declaring he would not run for re-election. Four days later, on April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. In reaction to King’s death, despite leaders urging for non-violence in his honor, riots broke out in more than 110 American cities. In May, students occupied the main administration buildings at Columbia University protesting racist policies. Then on June 5, Robert F. Kennedy was gunned down after winning the California primary, seemingly on his way to the Democratic presidential nomination. In August, the Democratic National Convention was racked by violence, and Chicago police engaged in brutal attacks against journalists and student protestors. The presidential race was dominated by a sense of domestic crisis. Alabama Governor George Wallace, a third-party candidate, lambasted all protestors as traitors. Richard Nixon, the Republican nominee, called for a return to law and order, claiming to speak for the “silent majority” who believed in patriotism, hard work, and reverence for God. Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey sought to find a middle ground in vain, though he did almost win.

The election of Richard Nixon inaugurated a new era of conservatism, based on rallying mainstream Americans against social experimentation and protest groups. Although he had dedicated his presidency to “bringing us together,” Nixon practiced a politics of polarization. His “Southern strategy” sought to use racial conflict as a basis for creating a new Solid South, this time dominated by white Republicans. Spiro Agnew, his alliterative vice president, gave repeated speeches denouncing the “nattering nabobs of negativism” who insisted on criticizing rather than celebrating America. While Nixon had spoken of a “secret plan” to end the Vietnam War, he chose a strange way of executing it, engaging in secret bombing of Cambodia and then invading the country, a course that prompted renewed student protests and led to the killing of four student demonstrators by National Guardsmen at Kent State University in Ohio. Although Nixon finally ended the war in 1973 (on terms virtually identical to those he could have had in 1969), he did so by such excessive bombing of Hanoi that he seemed to be out to prove that he was the “mad man” that he wanted his enemies to think he was.

Nixon’s greatest achievements were in the foreign policy realm, which he cared about more deeply than anything else. A person who detested most of his own Cabinet and the daily routine of presidential meetings, Nixon spent as much time as he could by himself in a small study off the Oval Office. Most often, his hopes focused on transforming America’s relations with China. As one of the most inveterate anti-Communists to ever walk the halls of Congress, Nixon was ideally situated to reverse nearly a quarter century of hostility and open relations with Peking. After all, no one could accuse him of being soft on Communism. Plotting with National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger (he never told his secretary of state about his China plans), Nixon secretly arranged the dramatic breakthrough. He went personally to China, met with Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong, and inaugurated diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China. It was a master stroke.

While Nixon could be a visionary on foreign policy, he also engaged in petty, self-destructive, and vindictive efforts to squash his political adversaries. Going into the 1972 presidential election, it was clear that Nixon would easily defeat his opponent, George McGovern. But for Nixon that was not enough; he wanted to destroy his foes. Nixon created “the Plumbers,” a group of secret operatives who broke into offices of the political opposition and sought to sabotage their campaigns. When the Plumbers entered the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex for the second time (the first effort was botched), an alert security guard noticed the break-in and the burglars were arrested. Soon two Washington Post cub reporters, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, discovered the names of White House officials in the notebook of the Plumbers’ leader. Although it took nearly two years, the full story finally came out. The President of the United States not only helped to create the Plumbers, he also schemed to pay them off if they stayed quiet and explicitly ordered a campaign to obstruct justice. Ironically, all this was taped by ubiquitous tape recorders set up by Nixon himself to document his presidency. Eventually, Watergate led Republicans and Democrats alike to conclude that Nixon had to go, and in the summer of 1974 Richard Nixon, faced with impeachment, resigned the office of the presidency. Gerald Ford assumed the presidency.

Watergate inaugurated an era of malaise in America. A series of developments in the 1970s caused the American people to doubt that the nation could continue to reign, unchallenged, as ruler of the world. In 1973 and 1974, an OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) embargo on oil sales highlighted America’s dependence on Middle Eastern fuel, with mile-long gas lines forming in every major city. “Stagflation” became the byword for the American economy. For the first time, high unemployment went hand in hand with high inflation rates, both in double digits. As the economy foundered, so too did the nation’s sense of well being and moral stability. Supreme Court decisions legalizing abortion (Roe v. Wade, 1973) and other rulings such as the outlawing of school prayer in the 1960s enraged millions of conservatives. When Americans were forced to flee Saigon in 1975, clinging to helicopters, it seemed a fitting symbol of the country’s decline, economically, politically, militarily, and on issues of basic social values.

Jimmy Carter’s election to the presidency in 1976 seemed like a partial answer. An unknown  politician and a born-again Christian who told the American people they deserved a government as moral and as competent as its citizens, the former Georgia governor seemed ideally suited to restore a sense of stability to the nation. But Carter did not know how to deal with Congress. The energy crisis overwhelmed him. So too did inflation rates nearing 20 percent. Although he represented a breath of fresh air in foreign policy, especially in espousing democratic regimes in Africa and Latin America, Carter ultimately fell victim to one of the most humiliating defeats America had experienced—the seizure of the American embassy in Teheran, Iran, and the holding of more than sixty American hostages for over a year. Nothing more powerfully exemplified America’s new sense of powerlessness.

Ronald Reagan was the “cowboy” who came riding in from the West to rescue America’s sense of well being and pride. An actor, Reagan exuded leadership and strength. He operated on a simple creed: Capitalism was the only economic system that worked; people had to free themselves of the burdens of government—especially taxation—to manifest their creativity; no one should be allowed to challenge America militarily; and with these in hand, the nation would bounce back. Once again it would be “morning time in America.” To a remarkable degree, Reagan delivered. He cut taxes, created new jobs, increased the military budget dramatically, called the Soviet Union an “evil empire,” and won back the confidence of the people. Walter Mondale, the Democratic candidate for president in 1984, never stood a chance. Reagan swept forty-nine of the fifty states.

Yet Reagan’s successes (and failures) were largely a product of the staff who served him. As long as James Baker was his chief of staff and Michael Deaver scripted his lines, Reagan’s performance was impeccable. But when Baker swapped jobs with Donald Regan, Secretary of the Treasury, everything fell apart. Regan lacked the finesse of Baker. New National Security aides Oliver North and Admiral John Poindexter had Reagan sign off on the Iran-Contra affair—a scheme to have Israel sell US arms to Iran to free hostages and then use the profits to arm the “Contra” rebels in Nicaragua. Unfortunately, aiding the “Contras” was a direct violation of the Boland Amendment, a Congressional act that prohibited such aid. Reagan, never a “hands-on” president, was oblivious to the entire disaster. With poor staff, he blundered badly and, once more, it seemed that America was doomed to be afflicted with a failed chief executive.

Yet in the end, Reagan pulled off a miracle. At his wife Nancy’s prompting, he had entered into intense negotiations with Mikhail Gorbachev, the leader of the Soviet Union. Unable to compete financially or militarily with Reagan’s arms buildup, Gorbachev was ready for peace. He also recognized the futility of pursuing policies of Stalinist repression within his own country. As a result, Gorbachev and Reagan arrived at a dramatic arms control treaty and set the world on a path that signified the end of the Cold War. Returning from a triumphant final visit to Moscow, Reagan told the press that what he had just done was like being in a Cecil B. DeMille movie. It was, he said “the role of a lifetime.”

Reagan’s immediate successor—and his vice president—was George Herbert Walker Bush, a Yankee transplanted to Texas who had been a Congressman, ambassador to the United Nations and to China, and CIA director. Using his experience to brilliant effect, Bush presided masterfully over the end of the Cold War. To the astonishment of the world, the Berlin Wall came down in 1989 after twenty-eight years. Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union itself fell apart, literally, with its constituent parts breaking away to form independent republics. Bush handled it all well, always careful to respect the sensibilities of other nations. Partly because of that skill, he shaped the most effective coalition of the post–Cold War world. Carefully putting together a military and political force of sixty-five nations under a United Nations mandate, Bush led a military drive, presided over by General Colin Powell, that removed Saddam Hussein and his Iraqi forces from the oil-rich nation of Kuwait in 1991. After “Operation Desert Storm,” Bush’s popularity rating soared to 91 percent.

Bush seemed tone deaf, however, when it came to responding to the economic recession that swept the country in 1991–1992. Due to Bush’s lack of creative response, a presidential contest that in early 1991 seemed hopeless for any Democrat suddenly became a toss-up. In the absence of other candidates—most of whom thought Bush was unbeatable—a young governor from Arkansas, William Jefferson Clinton, proved singularly adept at forging a political coalition consisting of the old New Deal Democrats and a group of new centrist Democrats who hued to the middle and loved the idea of a charismatic, bright leader.

Pivotal to Clinton-era politics was the partnership that existed between the President and First Lady Hillary Clinton. Not since Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt had there been such a political team. But unlike the Roosevelts, Bill and Hillary talked explicitly about a “co-presidency.” She was involved in decisions, at times taking the lead role. As a result, there was no single person in charge during the administration’s first two years.

In the end, the hallmark of Bill Clinton’s presidency was the deficit reduction package he passed in 1993, with increased taxes, reduced spending, and an expanded Earned Income Tax Credit for poor people. It passed by just one vote in the House, with Vice President Al Gore casting a tie-breaking vote in the Senate. The plan produced a surplus and a projected elimination of the national debt, while creating an economic climate that created a precedent-shattering twenty-two million jobs.

But the other main story of the first two years was a failed health care reform package, developed by a task force led by Hillary Clinton. In neither design nor execution did she display sensitivity to political realities. Indeed, so unpopular was the bill that it never even came to a Congressional vote. Moreover, disgust about the whole process led to a devastating defeat for the Democrats in 1994, led by Newt Gingrich, who moved forward with a conservative agenda—his “Contract with America”—that threatened to cut taxes, trim Medicare, and return to an age of laissez-faire economics.

But Clinton had not earned the label of being the “comeback kid” for nothing. During 1995–1996, he masterminded a brilliant campaign to make Gingrich look like a reactionary extremist. In 1995, in response to the devastating Oklahoma City terrorist bombing executed by right-wing militant Timothy McVeigh, Clinton drew the country together as its spiritual and political leader. He followed up with a series of modest legislative victories—V-chips for parents to monitor their kids’ television programming; 100,000 new police officers on the streets to halt crime; tax breaks for parents of students attending college; incentives for homeowners. Clinton even signed a bill on welfare reform that promised to “end welfare as we know it.” “The era of big government is over,” he declared. Perhaps most important, Clinton made Gingrich look reckless, and when Congress decided to shut the government down rather than pass Clinton’s budget, it was Gingrich, not Clinton, who looked like an irresponsible radical. Not surprisingly, Clinton soared to re-election in 1996 over Republican Robert Dole.

But Clinton could not avoid his personal demons. In the midst of the government shutdown, he had an affair with a twenty-two-year-old White House intern. When the information was raised by a Special Prosecutor investigating the Clintons for a real estate venture in Arkansas, Clinton chose to lie, under oath, about the affair. Soon there was another Congressional impeachment process underway, and Bill Clinton became the second president in history to be indicted by Congress and brought to trial before the United States Senate. (Nixon would have been the second, but he resigned.) In the end, Clinton survived. In the view of the Senate and of over 65 percent of the American people, the affair and his perjury was not the “high crime and misdemeanor” that the Founding Fathers had in mind when they created the impeachment clause. Nevertheless, Clinton largely undermined his second term in the White House and tarnished one of the most effective presidencies of postwar America.

In perhaps the most sensational and disputed election in American history, George W. Bush was elected president in 2000. Although he lost the popular vote to Al Gore by over 540,000 votes, he appeared to win the Electoral College. The state that proved decisive was Florida, with twenty-five electoral votes, although the election there was rife with voting scandals. In many areas, minorities had difficulty getting their votes counted. In Dade County, a “butterfly” ballot was printed that confused normally pro-Democratic voters. In the end, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 vote in Bush v. Gore, decided to stop the recount before it was complete and to certify the existing results. Bush would be president. But Al Gore had partially brought the defeat on himself by refusing to run on the accomplishments of the Clinton-Gore administration and by distancing himself from Clinton—who still retained an approval rating of more than 60 percent as he left the White House.

The George W. Bush administration will be remembered forever because of the terrorist attacks by Osama bin Laden’s Al-Qaeda on September 11, 2001. Al-Qaeda conspirators hijacked four jumbo passenger jets. Two were flown into the 110-story twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The towers collapsed, killing nearly 3,000 people. A third plane flew into the Pentagon. A fourth was headed for the White House when courageous passengers and crew stormed the cockpit and forced to plane to crash in the Pennsylvania countryside. It was a time of national shock parallel to that which occurred after the attacks on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Everyone was united, including allies around the globe.

But unlike the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, the American people were not asked to engage in common sacrifice. Instead of people paying more taxes for a strengthened military, tax rates were cut, especially for the rich and powerful. President Bush announced “the War on Terror,” a military campaign against Afghanistan, the home base of Osama bin Laden, with the approval of the American people. But then Bush, Vice President Richard Cheney, and Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld refocused their attention on Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. With none of the coalition-building that his father had engaged in for “Desert Storm” in 1991, the younger Bush proceeded without UN sanction. The administration cited Clinton’s 1998 Iraq Liberation Act, which stated Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, to ensure Congressional authorization for the attack. The American invasion of Iraq was carried out with less than half the number of troops Colin Powell had gathered in 1991, as the war continued in Afghanistan. What followed was an eight-year civil war inside Iraq. Despite assiduous efforts, no weapons of mass destruction were found. Confused, angry, and frustrated, Americans returned to the tortured divisions of the Vietnam War era. Like that earlier war, the Iraq conflict polarized the country, except that this time, with no draft, volunteer soldiers paid the price through multiple tours of duty, while average Americans simply enjoyed their lower taxes.

Like John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton before him, Barack Obama came to the presidency as a messenger of change, a leader who would restore America to its path as a leader among nations. The first black president, Obama rallied people who had never voted before with “Change we can believe in” and “Yes we can.” But although Obama achieved much of what he set out to accomplish—national health insurance (the first president in a hundred years to succeed), rigorous re-regulation of investment banking and Wall Street, a new arms control agreement, repeal of “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” to legalize the service of gay men and women in the Armed Forces—the recession Obama inherited from Bush would not go away. As a result, in 2010 the Democratic Party suffered a defeat in the Congressional elections parallel to that which Clinton suffered in 1994. America seemed caught in a never-ending pendulum of politics swinging from one side to the other.

Where it might end no one can predict. But every major theme of the past sixty years had its origins in World War II and its aftermath. The question is whether, as in World War II, America can find a new and shared sense of mission to carry it forward into the new millennium.

William H. Chafe is the Alice Mary Baldwin Professor of History at Duke University. His recent publications include Private Lives/Public Consequences: Personality and Politics in Modern America (2005) and The Rise and Fall of the American Century: The United States from 1890 to 2008 (2008).

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1945 to the Present | AP US History Study Guide from The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History

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No event proved more important to the course of modern American history than World War II. The war cast America onto the world stage as a mighty econo...

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Objective 2: Explain the continuities and changes in Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980. 

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Objective 2: Explain the continuities and changes in Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980. 

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During the Cold War, the United States passed a number of laws aimed at improving national security and the country's results in the event of international conflicts or war. These acts were passed because America had learnt from its mistakes during the First and Second World Wars and intended to make adjustments so that things would be better in the future. NATO is one of the most powerful Cold War initiatives that is still in place today and has been credited for keeping the country out of a current World War.NATO is an abbreviation for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which is a quasi-alliance of various European and North American nations that maintains peace until one of them is attacked. If one of NATO's members is attacked, only the other NATO members can aid with relief; otherwise, the nation must keep out of the conflict to avoid a catastrophic war. Currently, Ukraine is in the midst of a severe humanitarian and military catastrophe with Russia, which is waging a ruthless campaign against imperialist under Vladimir Putin's leadership. Ukraine is dealing with domestic unrest, and the United States and other NATO members will not be able to help until Russia strikes a NATO country.

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By 1947 it had become apparent to most observers that the world was splitting in two-East and West-leaving the inevitable conflict of the Cold War. Quickly the lines in the sand were drawn even deeper as the Soviets and Americans clashed ideologically and militarily on a number of fronts. In February, for example, Britain's decision to cease aid to Greek forces fighting a Communist insurgency prompted the Truman Administration to assume new responsibilities throughout all of Southern Europe. The ensuing "Truman Doctrine" committed $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey-a huge sum given Congressional fiscal conservatism at the time-and offered a precedent for further American assistance to any "free peoples" engaged in a struggle against "terror and oppression" and "the suppression of personal freedoms." Truman's Manichean worldview pitted the world in two, good against evil, for to American policymakers, Communism seemed everywhere on the march. "Like apples in a barrel infected by one rotten one," Secretary of State Dean Acheson explained, "the corruption of Greece would infect Iran, and all to the East." Without American aid, Europe and Africa would be next, he continued and "we and we alone could break up the [Soviet] play." Western Europe subsequently received its own brand of American economic stimulus later that year, with the Marshall Plan designed to promote economic recovery and stability as a vaccine against the Communist "infection." The Soviets refused to participate in the plan, which Foreign Minister Molotov denounced as a "new venture in American imperialism." The Soviets offered their own aid package for Eastern Europe and, with dollars flowing to one half of the continent and rubles to the other, the division of East and West grew even deeper. The Truman Administration later followed-up this aid program to Europe with "Point Four," a program similarly designed to spread American technical know- how and dollars throughout the developing world as a means of countering Soviet expansion.

Conflict continued with the Soviet Union determined to push the United States and its allies out of West Berlin. In June 1948, the Soviets imposed a blockade on West Berlin in an attempt to cut off supplies to the city. The United States and its allies began to supply the city with a massive airlift of unprecedented size, and the Soviets ended the blockade in May 1949. The United States' commitment to Western Europe's defense, exemplified by efforts during the Berlin Blockade, led to the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. NATO provided for a collective defense of its members, as the organization's charter promised that an attack on one would be considered an attack on all. NATO represented the United State's commitment to its European allies and would become an important key to containing the Soviet Union in Europe.

Shortly after the lifting of the Berlin Blockade, in August 1949, the Soviet Union broke the American nuclear monopoly by developing its own atomic bomb. The Soviets had matched the United States' key technology sooner than most expected. This development forced the United States to reevaluate its defense posture and accelerated the creation of even more powerful weapons, such as the hydrogen bomb, to regain its nuclear superiority. An analysis of the United States' defense position was presented to President Truman in the National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC 68). NSC 68, authored largely by Paul Nitze of the State Department policy staff, would come to shape American policy for many years. NSC 68 outlined that the United States needed to be prepared globally for Soviet or communist expansionism and that containment should become a global policy. The directives outlined in NSC 68 were written prior to the North Korean invasion across the 38th parallel but were not adopted until September 1950, after this conflict proved to many the necessity of American military buildup.

By the early 1950s American foreign policymakers knew that the Cold War was here to stay. Communism seemed everywhere on the move, exemplified by the crises described above and then most dramatically with the North Korean invasion of June 1950 that began the Korean War. Western policymakers believed countries at risk from Communist aggression might fall if their neighbors succumbed, like the rotten apples of Acheson's metaphor or, more commonly, like so many dominoes: if one country was lost to the Communists, so too would be the next, and the next. Communism had to be stopped, but at what cost? The increasing conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union and the arms race would shape the United States strategic defense program and Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) development. In the Cold War, the United States would maintain its stance that the only way to halt the expansion of communism was through development of increasingly advanced weapons systems.

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American Cold War Policy (U.S. National Park Service)

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By 1947 it had become apparent to most observers that the world was splitting in two-East and West-leaving the inevitable conflict of the Cold War. Quickly the lines in the sand were drawn even deeper as the Soviets and Americans clashed ideologically and militarily on a number of fronts.

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II. 

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II. 

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Anticommunist panic erupted during the Red Scare. The Red Scare was essentially a fear of a bolshevik revolution erupting in the United States, which peaked during the 1920s. When the Americans witnessed what communism had done to Russia, they dreaded being in the same boat as an oppressive dictator. Many propaganda posters and yellow journalism regarding politicians were circulated in an attempt to diminish their public image. America had been through a period of great national misery, including the Great Depression, World War I, World War II, and the Cold War, and they believed that without a competent leader, they would never achieve peace.

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Table of Contents

1. First Red Scare: 1917-1920

2. Cold War Concerns About Communism

3. Joseph McCarthy and the House Un-American Activities Committee

4. J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI

5. Hysteria and Growing Conservatism

6. Red Scare Impact

The Red Scare was hysteria over the perceived threat posed by Communists in the U.S. during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, which intensified in the late 1940s and early 1950s. (Communists were often referred to as "Reds" for their allegiance to the red Soviet flag.) The Red Scare led to a range of actions that had a profound and enduring effect on U.S. government and society. Federal employees were analyzed to determine whether they were sufficiently loyal to the government, and the House Un-American Activities Committee, as well as U.S. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, investigated allegations of subversive elements in the government and the Hollywood film industry. The climate of fear and repression linked to the Red Scare finally began to ease by the late 1950s.

First Red Scare: 1917-1920

In the United States, labor strikes were on the rise, and the press sensationalized them as being caused by immigrants bent on bringing down the American way of life. The Sedition Act of 1918 targeted people who criticized the government, monitoring radicals and labor union leaders with the threat of deportation.

The fear turned to violence with the 1919 anarchist bombings, a series of bombs targeting law enforcement and government officials. Bombs went off in a wide number of cities including Boston, Cleveland, Philadelphia, D.C., and New York City.

The first Red Scare climaxed in 1919 and 1920, when United States Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer ordered the Palmer raids, a series of violent law-enforcement raids targeting leftist radicals and anarchists. They kicked off a period of unrest that became known as the "Red Summer."

Cold War Concerns About Communism

Did you know? FBI director J. Edgar Hoover was quick to equate any kind of protest with communist subversion, including the civil rights demonstrations led by Martin Luther King Jr. Hoover labeled King a communist and covertly worked to intimidate and discredit the civil rights leader.

Joseph McCarthy and the House Un-American Activities Committee

J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI

The information obtained by the FBI proved essential in high-profile legal cases, including the 1949 conviction of 12 prominent leaders of the American Communist Party on charges that they had advocated the overthrow of the government. Moreover, Hoover's agents helped build the case against Julius Rosenberg (1918-53) and his wife, Ethel Rosenberg (1915-53), who were convicted of espionage in 1951. The Rosenbergs were executed two years later.

Hysteria and Growing Conservatism

Public concerns about communism were heightened by international events. In 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested a nuclear bomb and communist forces led by Mao Zedong (1893-1976) took control of China. The following year saw the start of the Korean War (1950-53), which engaged U.S. troops in combat against the communist-supported forces of North Korea. The advances of communism around the world convinced many U.S. citizens that there was a real danger of "Reds" taking over their own country. Figures such as McCarthy and Hoover fanned the flames of fear by wildly exaggerating that possibility.

As the Red Scare intensified, its political climate turned increasingly conservative. Elected officials from both major parties sought to portray themselves as staunch anticommunists, and few people dared to criticize the questionable tactics used to persecute suspected radicals. Membership in leftist groups dropped as it became clear that such associations could lead to serious consequences, and dissenting voices from the left side of the political spectrum fell silent on a range of important issues. In judicial affairs, for example, support for free speech and other civil liberties eroded significantly. This trend was symbolized by the 1951 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Dennis v. United States, which said that the free-speech rights of accused Communists could be restricted because their actions presented a clear and present danger to the government.

Red Scare Impact

Americans also felt the effects of the Red Scare on a personal level, and thousands of alleged communist sympathizers saw their lives disrupted. They were hounded by law enforcement, alienated from friends and family and fired from their jobs. While a small number of the accused may have been aspiring revolutionaries, most others were the victims of false allegations or had done nothing more than exercise their democratic right to join a political party.

Though the climate of fear and repression began to ease in the late 1950s, the Red Scare has continued to influence political debate in the decades since. It is often cited as an example of how unfounded fears can compromise civil liberties.

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Red Scare: Cold War, McCarthyism & Facts | HISTORY

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The Red Scare was hysteria over the perceived threat posed by Communists in the U.S. during the Cold War era.

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Objective 4: Explain the causes of economic growth in the years after World War II. 

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Objective 4: Explain the causes of economic growth in the years after World War II. 

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Many of the family males were fighting in the war and assisting the Americans in their efforts to defeat the opposing coalition. These men's factory positions had to be filled to guarantee that the American people continued to have access to the commodities they required. Because the males in the house were not earning good pay from their military occupations, American families needed a more consistent source of income. With their outstanding ideas and work ethic, these ladies helped the country keep running efficiently at a period of uncertainty. Women continued to work in these vocations after the war, earning respect and ascending to positions of authority.

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Rosie the Riveter | Definition, Poster, & Facts

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Rosie the Riveter, media icon associated with female defense workers during World War II. Since the 1940s Rosie the Riveter has stood as a symbol for women in the workforce and for women’s independence. Beginning in 1942, as an increasing number of American men were recruited for the war effort, wo…

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of the migration of various groups of Americans after 1945. 

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of the migration of various groups of Americans after 1945. 

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Following Pearl Harbor, Asians were targeted. Because of the tragedy of the surprise assault, they were all accused of being spies and those who wished for the destruction of American triumph. Despite the fact that the bulk of these Asian Americans were excellent citizens, just like any other white person in the country, they were viewed as a threat. Thousands of Japanese-Americans were sent to internment camps, where they were separated from the rest of the community. It wasn't just Japanese Americans who were wrongfully detained; persons from other Asian nations were also detained.

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Family waiting for evacuation, Los Angeles

On December 7, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing the U.S. into the Second World War. In so doing, it also plunged Japanese immigrants and their children into the greatest crisis they had ever known, and put their very survival as a community into grave doubt.

Hours after the attack, U.S. security personnel began rounding up and arresting prominent Japanese Americans-businessmen, journalists, teachers, and civic officials-as security risks. Within a week, more than 2,000 Issei, the leaders of the Japanese American community, were behind bars. The press responded with a wave of paranoid hysteria, publishing virulent attacks on Japanese Americans and demonizing them as spies, saboteurs, and enemy agents. More ad hoc internments followed, and Japanese Americans throughout the West Coast began to be forced out of their jobs, subjected to warrantless military searches, and abused and attacked in public places.

In February of 1942, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which authorized the U.S. military to evacuate any and all persons from "military areas" and provide accommodation for them elsewhere. In March, the army issued its first Civilian Exclusion Orders, requiring that "all Japanese persons, both alien and non-alien, will be evacuated" from a number of areas on the Pacific coast and confined to "relocation camps" further inland. By the middle of November, all of California and much of Washington and Oregon had been declared military areas, and 100,000 Japanese Americans, Nisei and Issei, citizen and non-citizen alike, had been uprooted and transferred hundreds or thousands of miles away from home. By the end of the war in 1945, 125,000 people, half of them children, had spent time in what even Roosevelt admitted were concentration camps.

For the Japanese Americans who were forced into internment, the relocation process was a nightmare of dislocation and uncertainty. Once an exclusion order was issued, Japanese Americans were given one week in which to register with the authorities, gather whatever possessions they could carry, and report to an assembly center nearby. The evacuees were required to liquidate their assets in few days, and so homeowners were required to sell their houses, and business owners their farms, stores, and restaurants, hurriedly and at steep discounts, often for pennies on the dollar. The assembly centers were usually converted racetracks and fairgrounds, where thousands of people slept in stables, livestock stalls, or the open air while they waited to be transported to their assigned internment camps.

This large-scale imprisonment of U.S. citizens solely on the basis of their ancestry was met with almost universal approval by the non-Japanese-American population, and was accepted largely without question. No serious explanations were offered as to why no large-scale internment of German or Italian Americans ever took place, or why internment of people of Japanese descent was necessary on the mainland but not in Hawaii, where the large Japanese-Hawaiian population went largely unmolested. The army was never required to prove that the Americans interned in the camps posed any military threat, or that the relocations in any way made the nation safer from attack; their ancestry was considered evidence enough. No Japanese American was ever convicted of any act of sabotage during World War II.

When they reached the camps themselves, they saw spare, prison-like compounds situated on sun-baked deserts or bare Ozark hillsides, dotted with watchtowers and surrounded by barbed wire. The sites of the camps-Topaz in Utah, Minidoka in Idaho, Gila River and Poston in Arizona, Heart Mountain in Wyoming, Amache in Colorado, Rohwer and Jerome in Arkansas, and Tule Lake and Manzanar in California-had been chosen for their remoteness, and for most internees they must have seemed as alien as the surface of the moon. Life in the camps had a military flavor; internees slept in barracks or small compartments with no running water, took their meals in vast mess halls, and went about most of their daily business in public. Physical mistreatment was rare, but the armed guards and the ever-present snipers in the watchtowers were constant reminders of the residents' new status.

Over time, life in the internment camps began to follow its own routine. Students were sent to school every morning, and adult internees were given jobs, usually farming or maintaining the physical plant. Each camp had a governing council, and many of the institutions of normal community life- newspapers, businesses, sports teams, concerts, places of worship -grew and thrived within the barbed wire. At the same time, however, camp life worked to erode some of the most distinctive tenets of the Japanese American community.

The traditional structure of the Japanese family, with its emphasis on close bonds and respect for elders, was undermined by the camps' informal social milieu, where children could play for hours unsupervised and young people ate their meals with their friends rather than their parents. More importantly, however, paying jobs were only given to U.S. citizens-that is, to the Nisei. The younger generation, as the breadwinners, soon began to take on leadership roles in the internee community, while the Issei, who had worked for decades to build up businesses and lead their families, found themselves sidelined.

For an in-depth look at daily life in a Japanese American internment camp, go to the collection "Suffering Ansel Adams's Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar.

Throughout the war, interned Japanese Americans protested against their treatment and insisted that they be recognized as loyal Americans. Many sought to demonstrate their patriotism by trying to enlist in the armed forces. Although early in the war Japanese Americans were barred from military service, by 1943 the army had begun actively recruiting Nisei to join new all-Japanese American units. More than 30,000 Nisei men served in uniform, mostly in Europe, although a few were sufficiently fluent in Japanese to work as translators in the Pacific. One all-Nisei unit, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, went on to become the most decorated unit of its size in U.S. history, having received more than 18,000 individual decorations, including 52 Distinguished Service Crosses and one Congressional Medal of Honor.

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Behind the Wire | Japanese | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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Family waiting for evacuation, Los Angeles On December 7, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing the U.S. into the Second World War. In so doing, it also plunged Japanese immigrants and their children into the greatest crisis they had ever known, and put their very survival as a community into grave doubt.

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Objective 6: Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time. 

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Objective 6: Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time. 

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The African American heritage was challenged during the civil rights movement because of the stigma attached to being a person of color in the 1950s and 1960s. This mindset was ultimately harmful to people of color because they were kept apart from the facilities and opportunities available to the rest of the country. Because they were seen as less valuable and inferior to white people, preserving and appreciating their culture was a challenging undertaking. They were able to retain their legacy by using the arts as an outlet; many authored poetry and performed songs about their past and current challenges in the jazz and rap genres.

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CULTURE After 1945 [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 5] Period 8: 1945-1980

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Objective 7: Explain how and why the civil rights movements developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960.

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Objective 7: Explain how and why the civil rights movements developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960.

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Civil rights activists and political leaders trying to fulfill Reconstruction-era promises were able to win some legal and political successes, but progress toward racial equality remained gradual. The three branches of the federal government used actions like integration of the military services and Brown v. Board of Education to promote greater racial equality (1954).

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The Civil Rights Movement in the 1940s & 1950s [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 6] Period 8: 1945-1980

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Objective 8: Explain the various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time.

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Objective 8: Explain the various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time.

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Following the unrest that followed World War II, many people began their own battle for independence. The vast majority of requests were approved. The Soviet Union and the United States would draw these countries to their respective sides and force them to choose between democracy and communism. The US pursued this in one of two ways: diplomatically or militarily. Israel is a good example of diplomacy. When Israel gained independence, the United States immediately recognized it.

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America as a WORLD POWER [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 7] Period 8: 1945-1980

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Objective 9: Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War. 

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Objective 9: Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War. 

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The Vietnam War was one of the most bloody conflicts in American history. During this conflict, Americans felt a strong sense of purpose and enthusiasm. Another significant feature of this war that influenced the acceptability of Black Americans into the most American of occupations, the military, was its impact on the admission of African-Americans into the military. This was a post-Civil War conflict. Because the bulk of American society acknowledged their rights, African Americans in the country were not deterred from taking on the dangerous duty of fighting in the war. The Vietnam War provided the United States with its first black war heroes, which was beneficial to future generations of Americans.

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Objective 10: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. 

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Objective 10: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time. 

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The emergence of new government programs elicited diverse emotions among Americans. One point of view was that these regulations were necessary for the safety of the American people, since they were afraid for their safety once the war began, making Americans fearful of surprise assaults. Americans used to see immigrants such as Europeans and Asians as aliens who didn't belong in their nation, and they used to make derogatory and racist statements about them. The Europeans took the comments to heart and joined together with others from their home countries to safeguard their culture and history in this strange new environment.

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Setting the Stage for the COLD WAR & DECOLONIZATION [AP World History] Unit 8 Topic 1 (8.1)

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Objective 11: Explain the continuities and changes in immigration patterns over time. 

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Objective 11: Explain the continuities and changes in immigration patterns over time. 

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In the 1960s and 1970s, the majority of immigrants to the United States were from Asia and Eastern Europe. Because of the additional options that the country possessed, several national reforms caused a change in immigration. The country had a fresh inflow of individuals who wanted to go to university and gain a higher education so that they may have a better chance of making a better life for themselves. Many Asian and Eastern European individuals yearned for a better future for their children and grandchildren. In addition, America provided more scholarship options, which was a big benefit for immigrants searching for a better financial future.

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Under the motto e pluribus unum (from many, one), U.S. presidents frequently remind Americans that they share the immigrant experience of beginning anew in the land of opportunity. ¹ Immigration is widely considered to be in the national interest, since it permits individuals to better themselves as it strengthens the United States.

For its first 100 years, the United States facilitated immigration, welcoming foreigners to settle a vast country. Beginning in the 1880s, an era of qualitative immigration restrictions began as certain types of immigrants were barred: prostitutes, workers with contracts that tied them to a particular employer for several years, and Chinese. In the 1920s, quantitative restrictions or quotas set a ceiling on the number of immigrants accepted each year. ²

Immigration law changed in 1965. Qualitative and quantitative restrictions were maintained, but national origin preferences that favored the entry of Europeans were dropped. U.S. immigration policy began to favor the entry of foreigners who had U.S. relatives and foreigners requested by U.S. employers. During the 1970s, the origins of most immigrants changed from Europe to Latin America and Asia: Between 2000 and 2009 over three-fourths of the 10 million immigrants admitted were from Latin America and Asia.

U.S. immigration has occurred in waves, with peaks followed by troughs (see figure). The first wave of immigrants, mostly English-speakers from the British Isles, arrived before records were kept beginning in 1820. The second wave, dominated by Irish and German Catholics in the 1840s and 1850s, challenged the dominance of the Protestant church and led to a backlash against Catholics, defused only when the Civil War practically stopped immigration in the 1860s.

The third wave, between 1880 and 1914, brought over 20 million European immigrants to the United States, an average of 650,000 a year at a time when the United States had 75 million residents. Most southern and eastern European immigrants arriving via New York's Ellis Island found factory jobs in Northeastern and Midwestern cities. Third-wave European immigration was slowed first by World War I and then by numerical quotas in the 1920s.

Between the 1920s and 1960s, immigration paused. Immigration was low during the Depression of the 1930s, and in some years more people left the United States than arrived. Immigration rose after World War II ended, as veterans returned with European spouses and Europeans migrated. The fourth wave began after 1965, and has been marked by rising numbers of immigrants from Latin America and Asia. The United States admitted an average 250,000 immigrants a year in the 1950s, 330,000 in the 1960s, 450,000 in the 1970s, 735,000 in the 1980s, and over 1 million a year since the 1990s.

Almost 110,000 foreigners enter the United States on a typical day. Three major entry doors exist: a front door for immigrants, a side door for temporary visitors, and a back door for the unauthorized. Almost 3,100 foreigners a day receive immigrant visas or green cards that allow them to live, work, and become naturalized U.S. citizens after five years. Over 105,000 tourist, business, and student visitors arrive; some stay only a few days, while others stay for several years. Finally, over 1,500 unauthorized foreigners a day were settling in the United States until the 2008 recession reduced their number sharply. Half of the unauthorized eluded apprehension at the Mexico-U.S. border, while the others entered legally through the side door but violated the terms of their visitor visas by working or not departing. ³

During the 1990s, contentious debates arose about the relationship of immigrants and their children to the U.S. educational, welfare, and political systems; and more broadly, whether the immigration system served U.S. national interests. Since then, the immigration debate has centered on preventing the entry of terrorists, controlling unauthorized migration, and dealing with U.S. employers who request foreigners to fill jobs.

Today, unauthorized migration is the main policy concern. The number of unauthorized foreigners peaked at 12.2 million in 2007, fell by almost 1 million during the recent recession, and may have increased again with economic recovery. Debates over how to prevent unauthorized migration and deal with the unauthorized already living in the United States are polarized. Many Republicans, especially in the House of Representatives, prefer an enforcement-first approach-more agents and fences on the Mexico-U.S. border and a requirement that U.S. employers submit data on newly hired employees to prevent unauthorized workers from getting jobs. President Obama and many Democrats prefer "comprehensive immigration reform" that includes more border and interior enforcement to discourage entry and employment, but also a path to legal immigrant status.

In 2006 and 2013, the U.S. Senate approved comprehensive immigration reform bills that included a path to legalization. The Senate's Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013 would:

Step up enforcement to deter illegal migration.

Provide a 13-year path to U.S. citizenship for unauthorized foreigners who arrived in the United States before Dec. 31, 2011, and remained continuously since their arrival.

Create new guest worker programs for low-skilled farm and nonfarm workers.

Increase the number of temporary work visas available to foreigners with college degrees coming to the United States to fill jobs.

The House approved an enforcement-first bill in 2005 and has opted for a piecemeal approach to immigration reform in 2013, with bills that increase border and interior enforcement and expand guest worker programs for farm and information technology (IT) workers.

References

1. Exceptions are Native Americans, slaves, and those who became U.S. citizens by purchase or conquest, such as French nationals who became Americans with the Louisiana Purchase, Mexicans who became Americans with the end of the Mexican War, and Puerto Ricans who became U.S. citizens after the American victory over Spain in 1898.

2. Susan Martin, A Nation of Immigrants (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

3. U.S. immigration statistics distinguish between Entries Without Inspection (EWIs) and overstayers, those who entered legally and violated the terms of their entry or did not depart. About 55 percent of the 11 million unauthorized foreigners in 2012 were EWIs.

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Objective 12: Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980. 

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Objective 12: Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980. 

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The American government used to support the racist slogan "Separate but Equal," which was advocated by the American people. People reasoned that allowing Black Americans to utilize the same facilities as white residents but separating which ones they could use from which ones they could use was fine since they weren't legally deprived of anything. Although Black Americans were segregated, they were not treated equally; the amenities available to them were far inferior to those available to white people. In 1964, the federal government started action to eliminate the system.

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Civil Rights in America Part 1 - Manny Man Does History

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Objective 13: Explain the various ways in which the federal government responded to the calls for the expansion of civil rights. 

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Objective 13: Explain the various ways in which the federal government responded to the calls for the expansion of civil rights. 

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The three branches of the federal government used measures including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to promote greater racial equality. Truman's Executive Order 9981 desegregated the military in 1948. In terms of the judicial branch, brown v Board overturned Plessy vs. Ferguson. In society in general, said discrimination in the workplace was illegal and equal access in public places.

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Overview

A civil right is an enforceable right or privilege, which if interfered with by another gives rise to an action for injury.

Discrimination occurs when the civil rights of an individual are denied or interfered with because of the individual's membership in a particular group or class. Various jurisdictions have enacted statutes to prevent discrimination based on a person's race, sex, religion, age, previous condition of servitude, physical limitation, national origin, and in some instances sexual orientation.

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

People often confuse civil rights and civil liberties. Civil rights refer to legal provisions that stem from notions of equality. Civil rights are not in the Bill of Rights; they deal with legal protections. For example, the right to vote is a civil right. A civil liberty, on the other hand, refers to personal freedoms protected by the Bill of Rights. For example, the First Amendment's right to free speech is a civil liberty.

Reconstruction Era

The Reconstruction Era was the period following the Civil War in which the federal government attempted to pass laws aimed at helping victims of slavery, primarily African-Americans.

Reconstruction Amendments

The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution constituted the largest expansion of civil rights in the history of the United States. The Thirteenth Amendment outlawed involuntary servitude. The Fourteenth Amendment made it illegal for a state to pass laws "which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of the citizens of the United States... [or] deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, [or] deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the U.S. or any state to deny a citizen the right to vote based on that person's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." These Amendments are called the Reconstruction Amendments because they were passed during the Reconstruction Era.

Some Reconstruction Laws

During the Reconstruction Era, Congress enacted numerous civil rights statutes. Many of these are still in force today and protect individuals from discrimination and from the deprivation of their civil rights. Section 1981 of Title 42 (Equal Rights Under the Law) protects individuals from discrimination based on race in making and enforcing contracts, participating in lawsuits, and giving evidence. See 42 U.S.C. § 1981. Other statutes, derived from acts of the reconstruction era, that protect against discrimination include: Civil Action for Deprivation of Rights (See 42 U.S.C. § 1983); Conspiracies to Interfere With Civil Rights (See 42 U.S.C. § 1985); Conspiracy Against Rights of Citizens (See 18 U.S.C. § 241); Deprivation of Rights Under Color of Law, (See 18 U.S.C. § 242); The Jurisdictional Statue for Civil Rights Cases (See 28 U.S.C. § 1443); and Peonage Abolished (See 42 U.S.C. § 1994).

Civil Rights Act of 1964

The most prominent civil rights legislation since Reconstruction is the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Congress, using its power to regulate interstate commerce, enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 under Title 42, Chapter 21 of the United States Code. Discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national origin" in public establishments that have a connection to interstate commerce or are supported by the state is prohibited. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000a. Public establishments include places of public accommodation (e.g., hotels, motels, and trailer parks), restaurants, gas stations, bars, taverns, and places of entertainment in general. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent legislation also declared a strong legislative policy against discrimination in public schools and colleges which aided in desegregation. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination in federally funded programs. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits employment discrimination where the employer is engaged in interstate commerce. Congress has passed numerous other laws dealing with employment discrimination.

The judiciary, most notably the Supreme Court, plays a crucial role in interpreting the extent of the civil rights, as a single Supreme Court ruling can alter the recognition of a right throughout the nation. The federal courts have been crucial in mandating and supervising school desegregation programs and other programs established to rectify state or local discrimination.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

The Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1964, banned poll taxes. A poll tax is a tax imposed on anybody who votes at a polling place. Poll taxes discouraged poorer citizens from voting, disproportionately affecting minorities. As such, poll taxes interfere with the civil right of voting.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is codified in 52 U.S. Code § 10101. The act states: "All citizens of the United States who are otherwise qualified by law to vote at any election by the people . . . shall be entitled and allowed to vote at all such elections, without distinction of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

Civil Rights Act of 1968

The Civil Rights Act of 1968 is also known as the Fair Housing Act. This Act protects against numerous sorts of housing discrimination, including rentals, sales, real estate transactions, and brokerage services. The Act "prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of dwellings based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin." Congress also created housing discrimination protections for individuals with disabilities through the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. These Acts, in essence, expanded upon the scope of the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Congress also expanded housing protection to the elderly in the Housing for Older Persons Act of 1995.

State Civil Rights Efforts

In addition to federal guarantees, some states provide further protection of civil rights. New York's New York State Human Rights Law is one such example.

Numerous international agreements and declarations recognize human rights.  The United States has signed some of these agreements, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

Disenfranchisement

Disenfranchisement refers to the removal of civil rights, primarily the the right to vote. States are able to place certain restrictions on who can vote, including restrictions based upon someone's criminal record.

The Supreme Court affirmed in Richardson v. Ramirez, 418 U.S. 24 (1974) that under Section Two, states can prohibit convicted felons from voting after serving their prison sentence.

Vermont and Maine do not practice felon disenfranchisement; Florida, Virginia, Iowa, and Kentucky do not allow felons to vote; the other 44 states have some sort of criminal disenfranchisement law.

As an example, Florida has its felon disenfranchisement law included in its state Constitution. As such, in order to change the policy, the state would need to pass a state constitutional amendment.

Further Reading

For more on the Voting Rights Act, see this Columbia Law Review article

For more on the Civil Rights Act of 1964, see these articles from a Boston University Law Review Symposium.

For more on the Civil Rights Act of 1968, see this Villanova Law Review article.

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Objective 14: Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century. 

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Objective 14: Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century. 

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Although anti-communist foreign policy faced little domestic opposition in previous years, the Vietnam War inspired sizable and passionate anti-war protests that became more numerous as the war escalated and sometimes led to violence. Protest activity against the Vietnam War took place prior to and during the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Some groups on the left, such as the Black Panther Party also rejected liberal policies, arguing that political leaders did too little to transform the racial and economic status quo at home and pursued immoral policies abroad.

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Two Days in October | Article

From the Collection: Vietnam War

They marched by the thousands, on campuses from coast to coast. At different times they chose different targets: the Pentagon, Presidents Nixon and Johnson, the draft, Dow Chemical. But the students all acted from a common belief that the Vietnam War was wrong. As that conflict escalated, the protests grew in strength, and some turned violent. They also triggered a backlash.

Courtesy: Wisconsin Historical Society

Getting Started
In many ways the student protests at the University of Wisconsin mirrored those taking place on campuses across the country. The first substantial demonstration, in October 1963, occurred when there were only American military advisers in Vietnam, and it opposed the government's support for Ngo Dinh Diem, the repressive president of South Vietnam. Some early antiwar events were organized by faculty, such as the teach-in on April 1, 1965, that future Chancellor William Sewell put together. It was the second such teach-in in the nation and came only a few weeks after the first American combat troops arrived in Vietnam. Some teach-ins involved only lectures and discussion; some combined theory with practical steps, such as the 15,000 who marched from the University of California at Berkeley towards the Oakland Army Terminal in October 1965.

Protesting the Draft
Demonstrations grew in 1966, spurred by a change in the Selective Service System's draft policy that exposed students in the bottom of half of their classes to the possibility that their deferments would be revoked and they would be drafted. Teach-ins changed to sit-ins - student take-overs of administration offices. A three-day event at the University of Chicago got national attention in May 1966, and University of Wisconsin students also staged their own occupation of an administration building that month. The Madison draft protest, which drew several thousand students to one rally, was peacefully resolved by a promise that the faculty would review the school's draft policy. But tensions rose at campuses like Cornell, where students tried to organize a national burn-your-draft-card movement; and Harvard, where protesters trapped Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara in a police car and assailed him with questions about the war.

Anti-Dow Sentiment
As 1967 began, many antiwar students continued traditional forms of dissent, writing letters to the editor and taking out advertisements in campus publications. But even as antiwar student body presidents were meeting with Secretary of State Dean Rusk, other students were planning sit-ins tied to napalm-maker Dow Chemicals attempts to recruit on campus. The first anti-Dow protests took place in October 1966, with more than a hundred occurring at colleges nationwide within a year. University of Wisconsin students staged their first Dow-related sit-in in February 1967, and when Dow returned that October, the protests and police response marked the first time that a campus antiwar demonstration had turned violent.

Courtesy: Wisconsin Historical Society

Violence on Campuses
It would not be the last time violence broke out. Rough confrontations became much more common in the years that followed, culminating most horribly in the May 1970 shooting of 13 Kent State University students by National Guardsmen. Four of those Kent State students died. That event, combined with Nixon's invasion of Cambodia, led to protests at more than 1,300 college campuses, with some 500 closed by student and faculty strikes. ROTC facilities were attacked, and police and National Guard troops were dispatched to more than a hundred colleges. In August of that year, the antiwar protests at the University of Wisconsin took an ominous turn; a bomb destroyed the building holding the Army Math Research Center, killing one young scientist.

The Backlash
Since the first wave of teach-ins hit campuses, the American government had been working to get its side of the story out at universities. For example, it supported the American Friends of Vietnam, a pro-administration group that held a rally in June 1965 at Michigan State University. The group could never match the intensity or numbers of antiwar demonstrations. But the violent consequences of some of those protests helped trigger a backlash of support for the government and targeted corporations like Dow. A record number of University of Wisconsin students signed up for Dow interviews in the wake of the October 1967 bloodshed. Wisconsin legislation held hearings denouncing student protests. And local newspaper editorials overwhelmingly supported Dow and criticized the students. The pro-war group Young Americans for Freedom saw increased enrollment in its University of Wisconsin chapter. A right-wing student newspaper was founded, the Badger Herald. And polls after the Dow protests showed that large majorities felt the demonstrations were "acts of disloyalty" against the soldiers in Vietnam that hurt the larger antiwar cause.

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Protests and Backlash | American Experience | PBS

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As the Vietnam War esclated, protests grew in strength, some turning violent. They also triggered backlash.

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Objective 15: Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980. 

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Objective 15: Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980. 

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Ideological, military, and economic concerns shaped U.S. involvement in the Middle East, with several oil crises in the region eventually sparking attempts at creating a national energy policy. In the Suez Crisis of 1956, Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez canal and in exchange, Britain and France attacked Egypt. The US helped end conflict because they feared USSR involvement. Also, environmental problems and accidents led to a growing environmental movement that aimed to use legislative and public efforts to combat pollution and protect natural resources.

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The Modern Environmental Movement | American Experience | PBS

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Explore a timeline of the environmental movement from 1948 to 1990.

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Objective 16: Explain the effects of the growth of religious movements over the course of the 20th century. 

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Objective 16: Explain the effects of the growth of religious movements over the course of the 20th century. 

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The various American Awakenings spawned revivalism based on personal sentiments, literalist interpretations of scriptures, and charismatic preachers, culminating in a highly moralistic populism that supported third-rate hot-gospellers like Billy Sunday and Carrie Nation. The culmination of this was Prohibition, which handed over enormous segments of public life to organized crime, which is now a part of the American urban experience. In the United States, moralistic evangelical fervour is still a dividing influence.

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Religion in Twentieth-Century America | US History Lecture 80 of 84

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Objective 17: Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1980 reshaped national identity. 

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Objective 17: Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1980 reshaped national identity. 

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The United States responded to an uncertain and unstable post-war world by asserting and struggling to maintain its global leadership, with profound national and international implications. The US government waged a Cold War with the authoritarian Soviet Union to stop the spread of Communist military power and ideological influence, establish a global market economy, and build an international security system. Due to Cold War politics, public debates developed about the power of the federal government and the strategies for pursuing international and national goals while preserving civil liberties.

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The Spread of COMMUNISM after 1900 [AP World History] Unit 8 Topic 4 (8.4)

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which America grew into its role as a world power.

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which America grew into its role as a world power.

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America grew into its role as a world power mainly through economic and industrial growth that happened in the Gilded Age. Also, America expanded westward with the ideals of the Manifest Destiny stating that America had to right to expand. Also, the rise in immigration and the belief of the American dream aided in the belief of America as a world power.

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World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations

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How Did the United States Become a Global Power?

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Learn about the three wars that transformed the United States' standing in the world.

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Objective 2: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.

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Objective 2: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.

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This artifact connects to the objective by showing the national's role in the world. During this time period American was focused on imperialism for instance in the Spanish-American war as shown in the video.
The similarities between the late 1800s and the Reconstruction era in terms of the nation's legitimate place in the globe were striking. After separation and the successful acquisition of new lands, the nation watched as it rebuilt itself (like Alaska being a gold mine).. They witnessed the Spanish conquering both East Asian and Latin American lands. As America's time of isolationism came to an end, this emboldened them to join the imperialism bandwagon. The imperialistic ideologies was fueled by manifest destiny.

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American Imperialism: Crash Course US History #28

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Objective 3: Explain the effects of the Spanish–American War. 

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Objective 3: Explain the effects of the Spanish–American War. 

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This video talks about the effects of the Spanish American war and how America benefited in many ways from it. For instance it gaiend the territories of puerto rico and the philipines.

The Spanish-American War had a major impact in both America and the rest of the world. America emerged victorious from the war and triumphantly as a world power. As a result of its victory, America was able to reclaim some regions from the Spanish conquistadors and return them to a democratic state. Guam, the Philippines, and land in Latin America were all won by the Americans (islands). These territories allowed America to have territory on several continents, which not only made them feared by other countries, but also made them powerful in terms of trade because they had internal ports for imports and exports. Having these additional territories provided advantages such as having other regions where items that could not be manufactured in America could be produced.

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Causes and Results of the Spanish American War

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Objective 4: Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement. 

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Objective 4: Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement. 

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This video talks about the progressive era and how there was an advocating for rights. For instance this was major supporting period of woman suffarge.
The progressive movement's main purpose was to build a nation with higher moral standards. The Americans desired to remain more truthful, kind, moral, and thoughtful. In the progressive movement, they were more religiously inclined, and they wished for people to be as sinless as possible. They desired to have the strongest possible relationship with God. It was strongly backed by Black people/women because it would prohibit white males in positions of power/in the home from becoming inebriated and abusive. Some people believed that it was a natural right to drink.

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The Progressive Era: Crash Course US History #27

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Objective 5: Compare attitudes toward the use of natural resources from 1890 to 1945. 

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Objective 5: Compare attitudes toward the use of natural resources from 1890 to 1945. 

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This artifact shows how the united states implemented the use of its vast natural resources for funding. This gave vasts amount of money to the states. Between 1890 and 1945, America had a new perspective on how to use natural resources. More precisely, throughout the progressive era, the majority of Americans supported conservationism. They realized how inefficiently the land they used to mine was being used, and they saw how they might make the space more efficient. After seeing an effective solution to this problem, I decided to take action. The Americans recognized how they could make better use of their natural resources and, as a result, waste less.

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Yosemite Valley, California

In the mid to late 19th century, natural resources were heavily exploited, especially in the West. Land speculators and developers took over large tracts of forests and grazing land. Acreage important to waterpower was seized by private concerns. Mining companies practiced improper and wasteful mining practices. Assuming a seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources, Americans developed a "tradition of waste."

Alarmed by the public's attitude toward natural resources as well as the exploitation of natural resources for private gain, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources and the preservation of those resources for future generations. In President Theodore Roosevelt, the conservationists found a sympathetic ear and man of action. Conservation of the nation's resources, putting an end to wasteful uses of raw materials, and the reclamation of large areas of neglected land have been identified as some of the major achievements of the Roosevelt era.

President Roosevelt's concern for the environment was influenced by American naturalists, such as John Muir, and by his own political appointees, including Gifford Pinchot, Chief of Forestry. Working in concert with many individuals and organizations, the Roosevelt administration was responsible for the following: the Newlands Act of 1902, which funded irrigation projects from the proceeds of the sale of federal lands in the West; the appointment of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907 to study the relation of rivers, soil, forest, waterpower development, and water transportation; and the National Conservation Commission of 1909, which was charged with drawing up long-range plans for preserving national resources. Along with a vocal group of conservationists, the Roosevelt administration created an environmental conservation movement whose words and actions continue to be heard and felt throughout the nation today.

To find additional documents in Loc.gov, use such words as conservation, reclamation, natural resources, preservation, and Theodore Roosevelt.

Documents

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Conservation in the Progressive Era | Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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Alarmed by the public's attitude toward natural resources as well as the exploitation of natural resources for private gain, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources and the preservation of those resources for future generations.

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I. 

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I. 

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This artifact talks about the effects america had once they entered the war, They suffered a lot of social protest.
The continual German incitement was one of the factors that led to American engagement in WWI. Germany continued to irritate America, and at some time, the United States could no longer avoid participating in the war. Germany would send U-Boats and submarines to attack American ships and blow them up at random! For a long time, this infuriated the Americans, who tried to refrain from retaliating. After one particularly violent strike, the Americans declared war and donned their game faces.

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How WWI Changed America: America Goes to War

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Objective 7: Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.

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Objective 7: Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.

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Several people moved westwards in search of farmland as shown in this article. This artifact talks about the numbers and statistics of migration patterns and how that connects to the objective.
The term "great migration" refers to the movement of thousands of African-Americans from the South to the North during World War I. The Black American population was mostly concentrated in the South since it was where most of the enslavement occurred and it was the only location they had ever known in the country. Because the North was where the abolitionist movement originated, Black Americans learned about the improved treatment of African-Americans there. Many African Americans moved merely to get away from having to work on farm lands because they didn't know how to do anything else.

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Immigration and Migration | AP US History Study Guide from The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History

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The United States emerged in the last third of the nineteenth century as an industrial powerhouse, producing goods that then circulated around the wor…

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Objective 8: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time. 

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Objective 8: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time. 

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This artifact taks about the invention and wide use of the telephone. This fits the theme wxt because of its tech advancements. World War I provided the impetus for Americans to develop new technological breakthroughs. They wanted to have cutting-edge technology so that the competition would be astonished when America arrived with new assault techniques. The first airplane for air strikes and faster communication for travel to Europe, telegrams for communication, and motorized weaponry for quick and efficient assaulting were among technical developments that led to the victory of the Americans in the First World War. These developments were found to be successful, and they continued to work on them.

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Technological change has played a central role in US economic growth since the 19th century. The pioneering work of Solow (1957) and Abramovitz (1956) both suggested that expansion in labor and capital accounted for no more than 15% of total growth in US output per head between the middle of the 19th century and the 1950s. The remaining 85%, labeled the "residual," is widely interpreted as a measure of the economic effects of technological change, although Abramovitz famously referred to it as a "measure of our ignorance". This essay explores the changing characteristics of innovation and the relationship between innovation and US economic growth during this lengthy period.

The transition from the 19th to the 20th centuries was accompanied by a shift in the sources of US economic growth from exploitation of a rich domestic endowment of natural resources to the exploitation of "created" resources based on knowledge and trained scientists and engineers. Advances in technology and knowledge aided the exploitation of the US resource endowment during the 19th century, enabling the United States to overtake the global economic leader of the time, Great Britain. Beginning in the late 19th century, however, the United States embarked on a prolonged transition from resource-led to knowledge-led economic growth.

Institutional innovation was an indispensable complement to technological innovation during and after this period in US economic development. Public and private investments in new organizational structures for the support of knowledge creation, innovation and education were essential to the changing trajectory of US economic growth in the 19th and 20th centuries. State and federal government investments supported the creation of a higher education infrastructure that eventually proved to be an important source of scientific and engineering knowledge and personnel (Goldin and Katz, 2009). Industrial investment in the development of new technologies also made important contributions during the 20th century. And the 1945-89 period, dominated by geopolitical tensions that sparked massive investment of public funds in defense and related missions by the federal government, witnessed a further transformation of this complex mix of public and private institutions devoted to supporting innovation.

This essay surveys the development of the US "national innovation system" from the late 19th to the late 20th centuries. The "national innovation system" framework for analyzing innovative performance and policy is the subject of a substantial body of scholarship that has flourished since the first articulation of the concept in Freeman (1987; see also Lundvall, 1992 and Nelson, 1993). "National" innovation systems typically include the institutions, policies, actors, and processes that affect the creation of knowledge, the innovation processes that translate research into applications (either for commercial sale or deployment in such "nonmarket" contexts as national defense), and the processes that influence the adoption of innovations.

Accordingly, the US national innovation system includes not just the institutions performing R&D and the level and sources of funding for such R&D, but policies-such as antitrust policy, intellectual property rights, and regulatory policy-that affect technology development, the training of scientists and engineers, and technology adoption. Institutional elements, such as national systems of higher education and corporate finance and governance, represent other important components of national innovation systems. The structure of a nation's innovation system is the result of complex historical processes of institutional development that are affected by public policy and other influences. Moreover, the performance of these systems depends in part on the actions and decisions of private enterprises that can reinforce or offset the effects of government policies.

Overview of US economic "catch-up," 1800-1910

US economic growth during the 19th century has been characterized by Abramovitz and David (2000), David and Wright (1997), and Wright (2007) as more capital- and natural resource-intensive than Western European growth during the same period. The capital-intensive trajectory of US economic growth during the 19th century reflected the high rates of investment and significant innovation in the transportation and communications infrastructure (canals, railways, the telegraph and telephone) that contributed to the development of another major factor in 19th-century US economic growth-the large, unified domestic market that manufacturers in particular exploited in the wake of the Civil War. Through much of the 19th century, this domestic market was characterized by relatively low levels of income inequality, by comparison with Great Britain and other European economies, resulting in a large, homogeneous profile of consumer demand. Reliable all-weather inland transportation also facilitated the export of the produce of the abundant and relatively fertile expanse of farmland within the United States.

During the last two decades of the 19th century, the US economy began a prolonged transition from the extensive growth trajectory that relied on expanding capital, resource, and labor inputs to a more knowledge-intensive growth trajectory that was associated with higher rates of total factor productivity growth (Abramovitz and David, 2002). One of the most dramatic illustrations of this gradual shift was the increased exploitation of scientific and technical knowledge in US resource extraction industries that began in the late 19th century (David and Wright, 1997). As David and Wright pointed out, the United States pioneered in the development of new institutions for research and education in mining engineering, geology and related fields that supported expansion in US output of minerals and related raw materials during this period. Based in part on a growing endowment of economically relevant natural resources, US firms had moved to the technological frontier in mass-production manufacturing, particularly in metalworking and machinery industries, by the late 19th century (Nelson and Wright, 1994: 135).1

Many of the first academic institutions specializing in these fields of research and education were publicly funded, illustrating another important characteristic of the post-1870 period of economic catch-up. The 1862 Morrill Act established a foundation for publicly funded higher education, and (along with the 1887 Hatch Act) expanded federal and state government funding for research and extension activities in agriculture. The development of mass higher education in the United States occurred in parallel with the emergence of the first US "research university" (Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876), which was based on the German research university structure that had proven to be effective in supporting scientific research and collaboration with industry. Although decades (and billions in public funding) were required to bring US universities to positions of global scientific leadership, even before their attainment of research excellence these institutions played a crucial role in training generations of scientists, engineers, and managers, and developed networks of collaboration in scientific and technical research with US industry that contributed to US economic growth in the late 19th and 20th centuries.

Much of the technological innovation that drove US economic development during the 19th century was "pre-scientific," relying as much on trial-and-error experimentation by skilled practitioners as on activities that might be described as "R&D". The reliance of 19th century innovation on "tinkering" declined in the final decades of the century, with the growth of new areas of industrial production and innovation that relied on more complex technologies that were linked to the frontiers of scientific and engineering knowledge. Their reliance on more formalized knowledge meant that the growth of the "new industries" of the Second Industrial Revolution, particularly chemicals and electrical machinery, was associated with investments in R&D within the firm, an activity with little precedent in most US firms.

The pioneers in this organizational innovation were the large German chemicals firms of the last quarter of the 19th century, whose growth was based on innovations in dyestuffs. But by the early 20th century, a number of large US firms had also established in-house R&D organizations. The growth of these laboratories almost certainly could not have occurred without complementary changes in institutions external to the firm, ranging from the development of US universities to the growth of new mechanisms for industrial finance. Nonetheless, the rise of the industrial R&D laboratory represented a fundamental shift in the structure of the US national innovation system.

The Growth of US Industrial Research in the "Second Industrial Revolution," 1890-1945

By the first decade of the 20th century, a number of large US manufacturing firms had established in-house industrial research laboratories as part of a broader restructuring that transformed their scale, management structures, product lines, and global reach. Many of the earliest US corporate investors in industrial R&D, such as General Electric and Alcoa, were founded on product or process innovations that drew on advances in physics and chemistry. The corporate R&D laboratory brought more of the process of developing and improving industrial technology into the boundaries of US manufacturing firms, reducing the technological and economic importance of the independent inventor (Schmookler, 1957).

But the in-house research facilities of large US firms were not concerned exclusively with the creation of new technologies. Like the laboratories of the German dyestuff firms, these US industrial laboratories also monitored technological developments outside the firm and advised corporate managers on the acquisition of externally developed technologies. Many of Du Pont's major product and process innovations during this period, for example, were obtained from sources external to the firm, and Du Pont further developed and commercialized them (Mueller, 1962; Hounshell and Smith, 1988; Hounshell, 1995).2 In-house R&D in US firms developed in parallel with independent R&D laboratories that performed research on a contract basis (see also Mowery, 1983a). But over the course of the 20th century, contract-research firms' share of industrial research employment declined.

The evolution of industrial research in the United States was influenced by another factor that was absent in Germany during the late 19th and early 20th centuries - competition policy. By the late 19th century, judicial interpretations of the Sherman Antitrust Act had made agreements among firms for the control of prices and output targets of civil prosecution. The 1895-1904 merger wave in the United States, particularly the surge in mergers after 1898, was one response to this new legal environment. Since informal and formal price-fixing and market-sharing agreements had been declared illegal in a growing number of cases, firms resorted to horizontal mergers to control prices and markets.3

The Sherman Act's encouragement of horizontal mergers ended with the Supreme Court's 1904 Northern Securities decision, but many large US firms responded to the new antitrust environment by pursuing strategies of diversification that relied on in-house R&D to support the commercialization of new technologies that were developed internally or purchased from external sources. George Eastman saw industrial research as a means of supporting the diversification and growth of Eastman Kodak (Sturchio, 1988, p. 8). The Du Pont Company used industrial research to diversify out of the black and smokeless powder businesses even before the 1913 antitrust decision that forced the divestiture of much of the firm's black powder and dynamite businesses (Hounshell and Smith, 1988: 57).

Although it discouraged horizontal mergers among large firms in the same lines of business, US antitrust policy through much of the pre-1940 period had little effect on efforts by these firms to acquire new technologies from external sources. The development of industrial research, as well as the creation of a market for the acquisition and sale of industrial technologies, also benefited from reforms in US patent policy between 1890 and 1910 that strengthened patent-holder rights (See Mowery, 1995).4 Judicial tolerance for restrictive patent licensing policies further increased the value of patents in corporate research strategies. Although the search for new patents provided an incentive to pursue industrial research, the impending expiration of these patents created another important impetus for the establishment of industrial research laboratories. Both American Telephone and Telegraph and General Electric, for example, established or expanded their in-house laboratories in response to the intensified competitive pressure that resulted from the expiration of key patents (Reich, 1985; Millard, 1990: 156). Intensive efforts to improve and protect corporate technological assets complemented the acquisition of patents in related technologies from other firms and independent inventors.

Many of the elements of the "Open Innovation" model, defined by its leading proponent as a new model for managing corporate innovation in which "firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas" (Chesbrough, 2003), were present in the early development of US industrial R&D. The in-house R&D facilities of leading industrial firms served as monitors of external technological developments that supported the purchase by their parent firms of important innovations from independent inventors and other firms.

Another area in which the pre-1940 era in the development of industrial research resembles that of the past two decades is the evidence of collaborative linkages between industrial and academic research. Furman and MacGarvie (2005) show that pharmaceuticals industry R&D facilities founded during 1927- 46 in the United States tended to locate near leading research universities, and provide other evidence of university-industry collaboration in pharmaceuticals during this period. Other scholars (Mowery et al., 2004; Rosenberg, 1998) have emphasized the importance of university-industry collaboration during this period, not least in the development of such important fields of university research as chemical engineering.

Training by public universities of scientists and engineers for employment in industrial research also linked US universities and industry during the first decades of the 20th century. The Ph.D.s trained in public universities were important participants in the expansion of industrial research employment during this period (Thackray, 1982: 211).5 The size of this trained manpower pool was as important as its quality; although the situation was improving in the decade before 1940, Cohen (1976) noted that virtually all "serious" US scientists completed their studies at European universities. Thackray et al. (1985) argue that American chemistry research during this period attracted attention (in the form of citations in other scientific papers) as much for its quantity as its quality.

Federal expenditure for R&D throughout the 1930s constituted 12-20% of total US R&D expenditure, and industry accounted for about two-thirds of the total. The remainder came from universities, state governments, private foundations, and research institutes. One estimate suggests that state funds may have accounted for as much as 14% of university research funding during 1935-36 (National Resources Planning Board, 1942: 178). Moreover, the contribution of state governments to non-agricultural university research appears from these data to have exceeded the federal contribution, in sharp contrast to the postwar period. The modest role of the federal government in financing US R&D during the 1930s changed radically as a result of the political events of the next 20 years.

The transformation of the US innovation system, 1945-1989

The global conflict of 1939-1945 transformed the structure of R&D throughout the industrial economies. In few if any other industrial economies, however, was this transformation as dramatic as in the United States. The structure of the pre-1940 US R&D system resembled those of other leading industrial economies of the era, such as the United Kingdom, Germany, and France: industry was a significant funder and performer of R&D, and central government funding of R&D was modest. But the postwar US R&D system differed from those of other industrial economies in at least three aspects: 1. US antitrust policy during the postwar period was unusually stringent; 2. small, new firms played an important role in the commercialization of new technologies, especially in information technology;6 and 3. defense-related R&D funding and procurement exercised a pervasive influence in the high-technology sectors of the US economy.

A central characteristic of the institutional transformation of the US national innovation system during this period was increased federal support for R&D, most of which was defense-related. Defense-related R&D spending accounted for more than 80% of total federal R&D spending for much of the 1950s, and rarely has dropped below 50% of federal R&D expenditure during the entire 1949-2005 period (figure 1; data from US Office of Management and Budget, 2005). Since federal R&D spending accounted for more than 50% of total national R&D spending during 1953-78 (data for overall national R&D investment are available only after 1952), and only dropped below 40% in 1991 (its postwar low point of 25% appeared in 2000, as Figure 2 shows; data from National Science Board, 2006), the significance of the federal government's defense-related R&D investment is obvious-in some years during the postwar period (e.g., the late 1950s and early 1960s), public defense-related R&D investment accounted for nearly one-half of total national R&D spending.

Figure 1. Federal and Nonfederally funded R&D, 1953-2002

Figure 2. Defense & Nondefense share of total federal gov't R&D outlays, 1949-2005

Defense-related R&D programs affected innovation throughout the postwar US economy. Much of the "R&D infrastructure" of the postwar economy, including large research facilities in industry, government, or academia, was built with funding from defense-related R&D programs. In addition, defense-related funding for academic research in fields ranging from computer science to oceanography supported the training of thousands of scientists and engineers. A second important channel of influence was associated with technological "spinoffs" - technological advances developed for defense-related applications that found large markets in the civilian economy. Such spinoffs proved to be particularly significant in aerospace and information technology.6

A third important channel through which defense-related spending on new technologies advanced civilian technological applications, aiding the exploitation of technological "spinoffs", was procurement. Postwar defense-related R&D programs typically were complemented by substantial purchases of new technologies. The US military services, whose procurement requirements typically emphasized performance above all other characteristics (including cost), played a particularly important role during the post-1945 period as a "lead purchaser," placing large orders for early versions of new technologies. These procurement orders enabled suppliers of products such as transistors or integrated circuits to reduce the prices of their products and improve their reliability and functionality.7 Government procurement allowed innovators to benefit from production-related learning and cost reductions by expanding output of early versions of a new technology. Reductions in production costs led to lower prices for the technologies, by opening up civilian markets, which typically are more price-sensitive.

Examples of technological "spinoffs" from defense-related R&D spending in the postwar United States include the jet engine and swept-wing airframe that transformed the postwar US commercial aircraft industry. Major advances in computer networking and computer memory technologies, which found rapid applications in civilian as well as military programs, also trace their origins to defense-supported R&D programs. Defense-related procurement was particularly important in the postwar US information technology industry. In other areas, however, such as numerically controlled machine tools, defense-related demand for applications of novel technologies had detrimental effects on the commercial fortunes of US machine tool firms (Mazzoleni, 1999; Stowsky, 1992). And the light-water nuclear reactor technologies that were first developed for military applications proved to be poorly adapted to the civilian sector (Cowan, 1990).

The "spinoff" and "procurement" channels of interaction were most significant when defense and civilian requirements for new technologies overlapped significantly and/or when defense-related demand accounted for a large share of total demand for a new technology. In both aerospace and information technology, the economic and technological significance of military-civilian spinoffs appear to have declined as a result of growing divergence in the technological requirements of military and civilian products, as well as the growth of civilian markets for these products. Moreover, in some cases, such as information technology, the influence of defense applications on the overall direction of technical development not only declined by the 1990s; defense technologies in some areas lagged behind those in the civilian sector, reflecting the reduced influence of defense-related demand and R&D investment on the innovative activities of private firms.

Although defense-related R&D programs typically are dominated by spending on "development," rather than "research, the sheer size of the overall investment of public funds meant that government defense-related R&D supported academic research in a diverse array of disciplines in the physical sciences and engineering. But federal R&D funding in the bio-medical sciences, which was allocated largely to research, also grew substantially during the post-1945 period. Although the primary federal funder of biomedical research, the National Institute of Health (NIH), was established in 1930, its extramural research program received significant support only after the founding in 1937 of the National Cancer Institute, the first of 28 research institutes within the NIH (Swain, 1962) and during the late 1940s, NIH's extramural research programs began to grow more rapidly.8 By 1970, NIH funding of academic research amounted to $2 billion (in 2000 dollars), which had grown to more than $13 billion by 2009.

Rapid growth in the NIH budget, along with slower growth in defense-related R&D after 1970, shifted the disciplinary composition of federally funded research away from the physical sciences and engineering and toward biomedical research. Growth in federally funded biomedical R&D has been more than matched by growth in privately funded R&D investment in the US pharmaceuticals industry since 1990. By the early 21st century, federally funded R&D spending accounted for less than 40% of overall R&D spending in this sector.9 The NIH now supports half of all federal non-defense R&D and over 60% of federally funded research in American universities.10

NIH support of academic research contributed to the scientific advances in molecular biology and related fields that gave rise to the biotechnology industry during the 1970s and 1980s. Scientific advances at such universities as Columbia, Stanford, and the University of California at San Francisco held out considerable potential for applications in pharmaceuticals and related industries. All three of these universities, as well as others, became important "incubators" for new firms, and increasingly patented faculty discoveries. Even before the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, important patents had been filed on behalf of these three universities, and university licensing in biomedical fields grew rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s (See Mowery et al., 2004).

In contrast to federal investments in IT, federal R&D policy in the biomedical sector did not combine federal procurement-related "demand-pull" with its large investments in research. But the dominance of third-party payment (from both public and private sources) for the majority of US healthcare meant that patients and doctors alike were more responsive to performance than to price. As a result, new technologies tended to command a higher price premium in the United States biomedical market than in other industrial economies, where public insurance systems often limited prices and margins. These incentives to adopt and apply new technologies quickly may well have influenced the commercial exploitation by US pharmaceutical, medical device, and biotechnology firms of the knowledge and techniques produced by NIH R&D investments.

As I noted earlier, an internationally unique characteristic of the US national innovation system that dates back to the late 19th century has been the unusually stringent character of US antitrust policy, which exerted great influence on the early R&D strategies of many leading US industrial firms. Antitrust policy continued to affect the development of industrial R&D during the postwar period. US antitrust policy during the 1950s and 1960s made it more difficult for large US firms to acquire firms in "related" technologies or industries, and increased their reliance on intra-firm sources for new technologies (see Fligstein, 1990). In the case of Du Pont, the use of the central laboratory and Development Department to seek technologies from external sources was ruled out by senior management as a result of perceived antitrust restrictions on acquisitions in related industries. As a result, internal discovery (rather than development) of new products became paramount (Hounshell and Smith, 1988 emphasize the firm's postwar expansion in R&D and its search for "new nylons"11), in contrast to the firm's R&D strategy before World War II. The inward focus of Du Pont research appears to have impaired the firm's postwar innovative performance, even as its central corporate research laboratory gained a sterling reputation within the global scientific community.

In other US firms, senior managers sought to maintain growth through the acquisition of firms in unrelated lines of business, creating conglomerate firms with few if any technological links among products and processes. Chandler (1990) and others (e.g., Ravenscraft and Scherer, 1987; Fligstein, 1990) argue that diversification weakened senior management understanding of and commitment to the development of the technologies that historically had been essential to the competitive success, eroding the quality and consistency of decision-making on technology-related issues.12

Another novel characteristic of the US national innovation system during the 1945-90 period - one that contrasted with the pre-1940 period -was the prominence of new firms in commercializing new technologies. In industries that effectively did not exist before 1940, such as computers, semiconductors, and biotechnology, new firms played important roles in the commercialization of innovations. These postwar US industries differed from their counterparts in Japan and most Western European economies, where established electronics and pharmaceuticals firms retained dominant roles in the commercialization of these technologies.

Several factors contributed to the importance of new firms in the postwar US innovation system. The large basic research establishments in universities, government, and a number of private firms served as "incubators" for the development of innovations that "walked out the door" with individuals who established firms to commercialize them. Although Klepper (2009) argues that a similar pattern of entrepreneurial exit and establishment of new firms within the same geographic region also characterized the US automobile industry in the early 20th century, the evolution of the postwar US biotechnology, microelectronics and computer industries was heavily affected by such new-firm "spinoffs" from established firms. Indeed, high levels of labor mobility within regional agglomerations of high-technology firms served as an important channel for technology diffusion and as a magnet for other firms in related industries to locate in these areas. Such labor mobility also aided in the transfer of knowledge and know-how within many of these nascent high-technology industries.13 The importance of new firms in commercializing postwar innovations in these new industries in the postwar US economy also relied on the extension to much smaller firms of the equity-based system of industrial finance that distinguished the US economy from those of Germany and Japan.

Conclusion

Along with other industrial economies, the United States shifted from an economy whose performance was based on the exploitation of domestic natural resources, including agricultural resources, to a "knowledge-based economy" during the 20th century. This transition took decades, but it also was characterized by a number of phenomena widely cited as hallmarks of 21st-century innovation. "Open innovation," for example, in which large corporations utilize intra-firm capabilities to scan the technological horizon for potential acquisitions of new technologies, accurately describes the strategies of many of the large US corporate pioneers of in-house R&D during the early 20th century. Their acquisitions of technologies from external sources also relied on the operation of a market for intellectual property that was widespread during the early decades of the 20th century, although its importance was subsequently supplanted by the in-house technology development activities of large firms.

This brief survey also highlights the close interaction among technological, policy, and institutional influences within the evolution of the US national innovation system. The discussion underscores the linkages between the processes of technological innovation and adoption that are essential to economic growth in all industrial economies. Much of the economic influence of post-1945 federal R&D spending, for example, flowed from the effects of public policy on both support for the development of new technologies and support for their rapid adoption. Moreover, in fields such as information technology, the widespread adoption by US users of such innovations as desktop computers and computer networking created a vast domestic platform that supported user-led innovation. For this "general purpose technology" in particular, innovation and adoption interacted and accelerated one another. Public policies to address future technological challenges such as global climate change or public health must take into account the importance of consistency and support for both technological innovation and adoption.

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Notes

1 "These new turn-of-the-century achievements may be thought of as the confluence of two technological streams: the ongoing advance of mechanical and metalworking skills and performance, focused on the high-volume production of standardized commodities; and the process of exploring, developing, and utilizing the mineral resource base of the national economy.

2 The research facilities of AT&T were instrumental in the procurement of the "triode" from independent inventor Lee de Forest, and advised senior corporate management on their decision to obtain loading-coil technology from Pupin (Reich, 1985). General Electric's research operations monitored foreign technological advances in lamp filaments and the inventive activities of outside firms or individuals, and pursued patent rights to innovations developed all over the world (Reich, 1985: 61). The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey established its Development Department precisely to carry out development of technologies obtained from other sources, rather than for original research (Gibb and Knowlton, 1956: 525). Alcoa's R&D operations also closely monitored and frequently purchased process innovations from external sources (Graham and Pruitt, 1990: 145-147).

3 See Stigler (1968). The Supreme Court ruled in the Trans Missouri Association case in 1898 and the Addyston Pipe case in 1899 that the Sherman Act outlawed all agreements among firms on prices or market sharing. Data in Thorelli (1954) and Lamoreaux (1985) indicate an increase in merger activity between the 1895-1898 and 1899-1902 periods. Lamoreaux (1985) argues that other factors, including the increasing capital-intensity of production technologies and the resulting rise in fixed costs, were more important influences on the US merger wave, but her account (p. 109) also acknowledges the importance of the Sherman Act in the peak of the merger wave. Lamoreaux also emphasizes the incentives created by tighter Sherman Act enforcement after 1904 for firms to pursue alternatives to merger or cartelization as strategies for attaining or preserving market power.

4 These technology-acquisition strategies built on a domestic market for intellectual property that grew substantially during the 1880-1920 period. According to Lamoreaux and Sokoloff (1999), the development of a national market for intellectual property enabled independent inventors to specialize and thereby enhanced their productivity and the overall innovative performance of the US economy during this period. By the early 20th century, however, the increased costs of inventive activity and greater demand for formal scientific and engineering training led to the supplanting of independent by corporate inventors (Lamoreaux and Sokoloff, 2005).

5 Hounshell and Smith (1988: 298) report that 46 of the 176 Ph.D.s overseen by Carl Marvel, longtime professor in the University of Illinois chemistry department, went to work for one firm, Du Pont. According to Thackray (1982: 221), 65% of the 184 Ph.D.s overseen by Professor Roger Adams of the University of Illinois during 1918-58 went directly into industrial employment. In 1940, 30 of the 46 Ph.D.s produced by the University of Illinois chemistry department were first employed in industry.

6 Chandler and Hikino (1997) argue that established firms dominated the commercialization of new technologies in most sectors of the postwar US economy, with the significant exception of "...electronic data-processing technologies, based on the transistor and integrated circuit..." (p. 33).

7 New technologies undergo a prolonged period of "debugging", performance and reliability improvement, cost reduction, and learning on the part of users and producers about applications and maintenance (Mowery and Rosenberg, 1999). The pace and pattern of such progressive improvement affect the rate of adoption, and the rate of adoption in turn affects the development of these innovations.

8 A substantial majority (80%) of the annual research budget of the NIH supports research conducted in laboratories at universities, generally in medical schools.

9 The US Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association estimated that foreign and US pharmaceuticals firms invested more than $26 billion in R&D in the United States in 2002, substantially above the $16 billion R&D investment by the National Institute of Health in the same year (See Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, 2003, for both estimates).

10 National Science Foundation/Division of Science Resources Statistics, Survey of Research and Development Expenditures at Universities and Colleges, FY 2006. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf08300/pdf/nsf08300.pdf

11 Hounshell and Smith (1988) and Mueller (1962) both argue that discovery and development of nylon, one of Du Pont's most commercially successful innovations, was in fact atypical of the firm's pre-1940 R&D strategy, which bore more than a passing resemblance to "open innovation." Rather than being developed to the point of commercialization following its acquisition by Du Pont, nylon was based on the basic research of Carothers within Du Pont's central corporate research facilities. The successful development of nylon from basic research through to commercialization nevertheless exerted a strong influence on Du Pont's postwar R&D strategy, not least because of the fact that many senior Du Pont executives had direct experience with the nylon project. Hounshell (1992) argues that Du Pont had far less success in employing the "lessons of nylon" to manage such costly postwar synthetic fiber innovations as Delrin.

12 Graham's discussion (1986) of the failure of RCA to commercialize its videodisk technology in the face of the firm's extensive diversification into such unrelated industries as automobile rental agencies and frozen food is an illustrative analysis of the failures of technology management that accompanied the conglomerate-diversification strategies of many US firms in the 1960s and 1970s.

13 Discussing the development of laser technology, Bromberg (1991) highlights the importance of linkages among research funders and performers within the United States during the 1950s and 1960s that in turn were based on researcher mobility: "Academic scientists were linked to industrial scientists through the consultancies that university professors held in large and small firms, through the industrial sponsorship of university fellowships, and through the placement of university graduates and postdoctoral fellows in industry. They were linked by joint projects, of which a major example here is the Townes-Schawlow paper of [sic] optical masers, and through sabbaticals that academics took in industry and industrial scientists took in universities. Academic scientists were linked with the Department of Defense R&D groups, and with other government agencies through tours of duty in research organizations such as the Institute for Defense Analyses, through work at DoD-funded laboratories such as the Columbia Radiation Laboratory or the MIT Research laboratory for Electronics, and through government study groups and consultancies. They were also linked by the fact that so much of their research was supported by the Department of Defense and NASA." (Bromberg, 1991: 224).

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Technological Change and the Evolution of the U.S. "National Innovation System", 1880-1990 | OpenMind

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Technological change has played a central role in US economic growth since the 19th century. The pioneering work of Solow (1957) and Abramovitz (1956) both suggested that expansion in labor and capital accounted for no more than 15% of total growth in US output per head between the middle of the 19th century and the 1950s.

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Objective 9: Explain the causes and effects of developments in popular culture in the United States over time. 

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Objective 9: Explain the causes and effects of developments in popular culture in the United States over time. 

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In American pop culture, the Roaring Twenties were a period of transition. It was a watershed moment in the American entertainment business! The emergence of jazz was one of the most fascinating aspects of the Roaring Twenties. Because there were popular Black singers who were praised for their Jazz, the Jazz genre of music was crucial for African Americans to share their stories. The notorious flappers rose to prominence. The Americans invented dances to Jazz
music that they performed at social events. Jazz music was unique for African Americans since it was liked by both black and white people.

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Women's Independence

Multiple factors-political, cultural and technological-led to the rise of the flappers.

During World War I, women entered the workforce in large numbers, receiving higher wages that many working women were not inclined to give up during peacetime.

In August 1920, women's independence took another step forward with the passage of the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote. And in the early 1920s, Margaret Sanger made strides in providing contraception to women, sparking a wave of women's rights to birth control.

The 1920s also brought about Prohibition, the result of the 18th Amendment ending legal alcohol sales. Combined with an explosion of popularity for jazz music and jazz clubs, the stage was set for speakeasies, which offered illegally produced and distributed alcohol.

Henry Ford 's mass production of cars brought down automobile prices, allowing the younger generation far more mobility than in earlier eras. Many people, a number of them young women, drove these cars into cities, which experienced a population boom.

With all these pieces in place, an unprecedented social explosion for young women was all but inevitable.

What Is a Flapper?

No one knows how the word flapper entered American slang, but its usage first appeared just following World War I.

The classic image of a flapper is that of a stylish young party girl. Flappers smoked in public, drank alcohol, danced at jazz clubs and practiced sexual freedom that shocked the Victorian morality of their parents.

Flapper Dress

Flappers were famous-or infamous, depending on your viewpoint-for their rakish attire.

They donned fashionable flapper dresses of shorter, calf-revealing lengths and lower necklines, though not typically form-fitting: Straight and slim was the preferred silhouette.

Flappers wore high heel shoes and threw away their corsets in favor of bras and lingerie. They gleefully applied rouge, lipstick, mascara and other cosmetics, and favored shorter hairstyles like the bob.

Designers like Coco Chanel, Elsa Schiaparelli and Jean Patou ruled flapper fashion. Jean Patou's invention of knit swimwear and women's sportswear like tennis clothes inspired a freer, more relaxed silhouette, while the knitwear of Chanel and Schiaparelli brought no-nonsense lines to women's clothing. Madeleine Vionnet's bias-cut designs (made by cutting fabric against the grain) emphasized the shape of a woman's body in a more natural way.

F. Scott Fitzgerald

F. Scott Fitzgerald found his place in American literary history with "The Great Gatsby" in 1925, but he had already garnered a reputation before that as a spokesperson for the Jazz Age.

The press at the time credited Fitzgerald as the creator of the flapper because of his debut novel, " This Side of Paradise," though the book didn't specifically mention flappers.

The credit stuck and Scott began to write about flapper culture in short stories for the Saturday Evening Post in 1920, opening up the Jazz Age lifestyle to middle-class homes.

A collection of these stories was published that year under the title "Flappers and Philosophers," cementing Fitzgerald as the flapper expert for the next decade.

Zelda Fitzgerald

If Fitzgerald was considered a chronicler of flappers, his wife Zelda Fitzgerald was considered the quintessential example of one.

A native of Montgomery, Alabama, Zelda was a stylish, free-spirited young woman who met Fitzgerald in 1918 while he was stationed there in the military. She was 17 at the time and-as the daughter of a prominent local judge-her hedonistic escapades scandalized her family.

The pair was married in New York City one month after "This Side of Paradise" was released and soon embarked on a lifestyle of reckless partying and publicity-seeking in Europe and across America.

Both publicly claimed that Zelda was Fitzgerald's inspiration for all his female characters, bringing her in as much demand for her insight as he was. She was soon writing articles about the "modern" flapper lifestyle.

Lois Long

Lois Long was another writer chronicling flapper culture in print. Using the pseudonym Lipstick, Long began writing for The New Yorker shortly after its inception.

Her work chronicled the life of a flapper and recounted her real-life adventures of drinking and dancing all night long. She typically wrote her column-first named "When Nights Are Bold" and "Tables For Two," launched in 1925-directly after her nights out, typing into the wee hours.

Flappers in Advertising

Recognizing that women now had disposable incomes of their own, advertising courted their interests beyond household items. Soap, perfume, cosmetics, cigarettes and fashion accessories were all the subjects of ads targeting women.

Helen Lansdowne Resor was the most powerful woman in advertising at the time. The head of women's advertising at the J. Walter Thompson Agency, she worked her way up from secretary thanks to her keen understanding of selling to women. She was the first advertising executive to push sex appeal as a method of marketing to women, often focused on getting male attention.

Flapper style regularly graced the covers of magazines like Vanity Fair and Life, drawn by artists like John Held and Gordon Conway.

Flappers on Film

Anita Loos' book "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" and its follow-up "But Gentlemen Marry Brunettes" were famous satires of the world of flappers. The books focused on flapper Lorelei Lee and her male conquests. The first film version of "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" was released in 1928 (another version was released in 1953, starring Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell).

The popularity of movies exploded during the 1920s, though the screen versions of flappers were typically less permissive than the real-world versions. The first popular flapper movie was "Flaming Youth," released in 1923 and starring Colleen Moore, who was soon Hollywood's "go-to" actress for playing flappers onscreen.

Louise Brooks auditioned for a part in "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" but failed. Nonetheless, the image of Brooks and her precise bob has become the archetypal vision of a flapper. The Hollywood portion of her film career featured several starring flapper roles before she moved on to more serious dramas.

The 'It' Girl

Clara Bow 's nickname was "the It Girl," referring to her 1927 film "It," which was adapted from a magazine article by Elinor Glyn. Bow was the most successful screen flapper, beloved for the unpretentious manner of her portrayals and her frank sex appeal.

Anna May Wong broke barriers as the first Chinese-American movie star. Her image as a flapper off-screen was encouraged by movie studios to increase her appeal beyond the exotic roles in which they cast her.

Dancing was a crucial part of flapper culture. The Charleston and the Black Bottom were popular and considered more suggestive than any moves that had come before. The acclaimed 1923 British play "The Dancers," which starred Tallulah Bankhead, examined the dance obsessions of two flappers.

Criticism of Flappers

Not everyone was a fan of women's newfound sexual freedom and consumer ethos, and there was inevitably a public reaction against flappers.

Utah attempted to pass legislation on the length of women's skirts. Virginia tried to ban any dress that revealed too much of a woman's throat and Ohio tried to ban form-fitting outfits.

Women who populated beaches in bathing suits that were deemed inappropriate were escorted off the beach by police or arrested if they refused.

Popular Washington, D.C., hostess Mrs. John B. Henderson attempted to start a mass movement against what she considered vulgar fashions, appealing to prominent women's clubs and colleges for help.

Clergymen like Rabbi Stephen S. Wise and Baptist pastor Dr. John Roach Straton became known for their tirades against young women's fashions.

Flappers also received criticism from women's rights activists like Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Lillian Symes, who felt flappers had gone too far in their embrace of licentiousness.

End of the Flappers

The age of the flapper came tumbling down suddenly on October 29, 1929, with the stock market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression. No one could afford the lifestyle any longer, and the new era of frugality made the freewheeling hedonism of the Roaring Twenties seem wildly out of touch with grim new economic realities.

Many film-star flappers had already met their end two years earlier with the advent of talking film, which was not always kind to them. The Hays Code in 1930, which severely limited sexual themes in movies, made independent women in the flapper mold almost impossible to portray onscreen.

Sources

Flapper. Joshua Zeitz.
Flappers: A Guide To An American Subculture. Kelly Boyer Sagert.
Flappers and the New American Woman. Catherine Gourley.
A Perfect Fit: Clothes, Character, and the Promise of America. Jenna Weissman Joselit.

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Multiple factors-political, cultural and technological-led to the rise of the flappers. During World War I, women entered the workforce in large numbers, receiving higher wages that many working women were not inclined to give up during peacetime. In August 1920, women's independence took another step forward with the passage of the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote.

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Objective 10: Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy. 

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Objective 10: Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy. 

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The Great Depression was a period in American history when the economy collapsed, leaving citizens in ruins. People who had previously had steady occupations were now unemployed and begging for food. The American people's lives were turned upside down, and they had to adjust to having less than they had before. The stock market crash of 1929 was the catalyst for this upheaval. Tariffs also contributed to the fall, and commerce (both locally and internationally) swiftly declined. People could no longer afford to buy necessities due to severe inflation, which caused the prices of ordinary commodities to soar dramatically. To keep alive, some people starved, chilled, or resorted to theft.

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Dave Wheelock discusses suggested causes including: the stock market crash, the collapse of world trade due to the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, government policies, bank failures and panics, and the collapse of the money supply. (Part 5 of The Great Depression presentation)

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Objective 11: Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time. 

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Objective 11: Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time. 

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President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed "The New Deal," a post-Great Depression recovery plan. He sought to utilize the New Deal to safeguard the citizens of the United States and compensate them for part of their losses. The American people were trying to make ends meet, but FDR's new strategy aided them and earned him popularity. The New Deal was a scheme to have Americans insured for their losses, so that if banks collapsed, they would be safeguarded and would not have to bank run again since their money would not be jeopardized.

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Franklin D. Roosevelt Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Digital File Number: cph 3c17121)

Reacting to the ineffectual response of the administration of U.S. President Herbert Hoover during the onset of the Great Depression, American voters overwhelmingly elected Franklin D. Roosevelt as the next president on his promise of creating opportunities for dispossessed and struggling Americans.

Roosevelt was opposed to the traditional American political philosophy of laissez-faire, the policy of minimum governmental interference in the economic affairs of individuals and society.

Because of the scale of the economic suffering of so many Americans, Roosevelt did not see a better solution to the immediate problem than swift executive intervention.

Roosevelt's New Deal program generally embraced the concept of a government-regulated economy aimed at achieving a balance between conflicting economic interests.

Certain New Deal laws were declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court on the grounds that neither commerce nor taxing provisions of the Constitution granted the federal government authority to regulate industry or to undertake social and economic reform. Roosevelt differed with the Court and in 1937 sought to pack the court (or expand it) to make it more amenable to his programs and federal initiatives. The ploy failed, but the Supreme Court ended up not ruling against all of Roosevelt's reforms.

Despite resistance from business and conservative segments of the United States to the alleged " socialistic " ambitions or purposes of the New Deal, many of its reforms gradually achieved national acceptance.

Roosevelt's domestic programs were largely followed in the Fair Deal of U.S. President Harry S. Truman (in office 1945-53), and both major political parties came to accept most New Deal reforms as a permanent part of the national life.

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List of some of the major causes and effects of the New Deal, domestic program of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the 1930s. President Roosevelt started the New Deal program to help the country recover from the economic problems of the Great Depression.

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Objective 12: Explain how and why U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society. 

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Objective 12: Explain how and why U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society. 

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Americans were once again proud to support their country, and they encouraged one another to join the fight. In addition, the American society had changed because it was more inclusive of both genders in the workplace. With so many men fighting in the war, women had to step up to fill positions that had previously been occupied by men. The ladies were inspired by the fact that they were having such a significant effect on America's prosperity.

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Every aspect of the lives of Americans was affected by the war. There was an increased wave of patriotism immediately following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Americans from all walks of life participated in acts of patriotism that encapsulated the United States during the war.

The Office of War Information managed a campaign to encourage patriotism through a series of posters. Click on the link below for examples of posters from World War II from the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.

World War II Posters

Newspapers and radio programming were geared toward reporting the war and keeping civilians informed. There were songs and movies produced with patriotic themes. Actors, singers, and other entertainers traveled across the country to entertain the troops.
Source: Poster, Poster 133, Minnesota Historical Society
Men and women voluntarily enlisted into the armed forces in record numbers. By the end of the war, there were more than 12 million members of the United States Armed Forces. More than 350,000 women served in the U.S. military and more than 70,000 served as Army and Navy nurses.

In 1942, President Roosevelt created the Women's Auxiliary Forces, which included branches of the military specifically for women. The following is a list of Women's Auxiliary Forces:

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAC or WAAC)

Women Air Force Service Pilots (WASP)

Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES)

U.S. Coast Guard Women's Reserve (nicknamed SPARS)

Women were not allowed to participate in armed conflict, and most women in the military served in roles that were considered traditional female jobs. These jobs included clerks, secretaries, and mail sorters. These positions were important to military functions because they kept the flow of communication moving. Women who served in the medical corps faced more danger because their work was usually performed closer to the front lines.

Although all Americans were working toward a victory in World War II, many of the social problems that plagued the United States also followed American troops to war. At the beginning of the U.S. involvement in the war, the military was segregated. African-American troops lived, worked, and relaxed in separate facilities. They had separate training and were then placed in separate military units, which were led by white officers.

African-American soldiers were frequently assigned to supply units instead of combat. Although these soldiers were discriminated against at home and in the military, they proudly served their country in the war.

An example of such bravery came on the day that the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Doris Miller was a mess attendant (cook) on the U.S.S. West Virginia at the time of the attack. Despite enemy strafing and bombing, Miller helped move his mortally wounded Captain to a place of greater safety. He then manned and fired a machine gun against the attacking Japanese planes until ordered to leave the ship's bridge.

In the African-American community, Miller's actions were a source of pride. Miller continued his service in the navy until he died when the U.S.S. Liscome Bay was sunk by a Japanese submarine torpedo in 1943.
Source: Doris Miller, National Archives Source: [Photograph of several Tuskegee airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945], Tony Frisell, Library of Congress
During the time that most African American soldiers were relegated to duties such as cooking and cleaning, a heroic group of African Americans known as the Tuskegee Airmen emerged. The Tuskegee Airmen was a group of specially trained African-American combat pilots who studied at Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. The Tuskegee Airmen were assigned the task of escorting American bomber planes flying missions over enemy territory in Europe.
Source: Col. Benjamin O. Davis, air base at Rametti, Italy, Toni Frissell, Library of Congress
Colonel Benjamin O. Davis commanded the Tuskegee Airmen. In combat over Europe, they shot down more than 100 enemy planes without losing one of the American bombers they escorted. Davis would later become the first African-American general in the U.S. Air Force.

While segregation persisted in the armed forces, some change came on the home front. A. Philip Randolph, an African-American labor leader, presented President Roosevelt with a list of grievances regarding the civil rights of African-American workers in the nation's defense industry. Randolph planned a huge protest march in Washington, D.C., if the demands were not met. Fearing such a protest would undermine wartime unity, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, banning discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work. Click on the link below to view a video about A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington Movement.
Source: WWII & NYC: March on Washington, New York Historical Society, YouTube Source: Navajo Code Talkers, Bradipus, Wikimedia
A special group of American Indians called the Navajo Code Talkers was another group that made an important contribution to World War II. The Navajo Indians were recruited to transmit and receive secretly coded radio communications for the U.S. Marines. This was essential because enemy forces intercepted and listened to radio transmissions pertaining to Marine maneuvers and combat.

The Navajo Code Talkers developed a secret code of communication based on the Navajo language. The enemy was unable to decode the Navajo language, thus making the Navajo Code Talkers essential to the success of the Allies during World War II.

Over 500,000 Latinos (including 350,000 Mexican Americans) served in World War II. Unlike African Americans, they were not segregated into separate units. Latino soldiers who were fluent in Spanish served an important role in fighting in the Philippines. Their knowledge of Spanish was invaluable when serving with Spanish speaking Filipinos. In Europe, Latino soldiers from the 36th Infantry Division from Texas were among the first soldiers to land in Italy. Seventeen Medals of Honor have been awarded to Latinos for service during World War II.

While women and minorities were making contributions to the war overseas and at home, they still faced the obstacles of a country that continued to foster inequality and discrimination. Click on the image hotspots below to learn more about the struggles of some of the ethnic minorities in the United States.

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World War II Impact on U.S. Economy and Society

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Every aspect of the lives of Americans was affected by the war. There was an increased wave of patriotism immediately following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Americans from all walks of life participated in acts of patriotism that encapsulated the United States during the war.

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Objective 13: Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis Powers.

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Objective 13: Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis Powers.

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The Axis forces were defeated in World War II. The Axis forces were a powerful union with a stronghold over nations across Europe. They did, however, overlook the ocean's powers, particularly when they are exploited. They employed powerful boats and placed determined officers in command of the naval system, directing strikes on the Axis Powers' inferior naval forces. Imperialism and land grabs were more important to the Axis nations. The axis powers had a crippled ecpomony after the war.

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Objective 14: Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II. 

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Objective 14: Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II. 

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The United States' participation in World War II provided societal advantages to the country's women. Many males were serving in the military, either as overseas troops or as military help. This resulted in the loss of critical occupations such as factory work, clothing production, and the packaging of first-aid or food products. This increased the visibility of women in the workplace, which had never been seen previously. Women were not only introduced to new prospects, but they were also valued in their current positions. The ladies were introduced to more than being stay-at-home mothers, and the Americans were introduced to a new industry.

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Impact of World War II on the U.S. Economy and Workforce | PBS LearningMedia

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America's involvement in World War II had a significant impact on the economy and workforce of the United States. The United States was still recovering from the impact of the Great Depression and the unemployment rate was hovering around 25%. Our involvement in the war soon changed that rate.

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Objective 15: Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity. 

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Objective 15: Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity. 

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Pearl Harbor was an important event that influenced American identity. The surprise attack on an American naval base in Hawaii by Japan was known as Pearl Harbor. Not only did this strike precipitate the United States' entry into World War II. The American people had developed a new phobia of all Japanese, which quickly evolved into a terror of Koreans, Chinese, and Filipinos in the nation. They felt that all of the Asian Americans weren't trustworthy, and that they were in reality spies sent to provide American secrets to the Japanese in order to gain an edge in the war.

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By: Mark Loproto

Every drastic action comes with consequences. On December 7th, 1941, Japan surprised the United States in one of the most stunning moves of the war by bombing the naval base at Pearl Harbor. From that decision to attack the officially-neutral power, a series of consequences was set into motion that changed the course of history forever.

Within the United States

Once the smoke cleared from Pearl Harbor, the United States launched an investigation into the attack to determine how a surprise assault was possible. Taking the fall for the events of the day and the failure to respond were Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel and Lieutenant General Walter Short. Both were relieved of their commands shortly after the attack for not preparing the base with an appropriate defense.

Immediately after the Japanese attacked, and as word spread to the mainland, an outpouring of anti-Japanese sentiment became impossible to stifle. Camps on the US mainland were set up to confine people of Japanese descent-as well as German and Italian residents-including many who were American citizens. Known as "relocation camps," they were justified as a means against espionage. Many Japanese-Americans argued against this treatment, including Fred Korematsu, who took the case to the US Supreme Court, but it wasn't until 1945 that most of the internees were released.

Fear gripped the nation, but so did pride. As men went off to fight in the war, women stepped up to play a far more important role than they were ever given the chance to in the past. They took over important manufacturing jobs left vacant by the men sent overseas, helping the nation run as smoothly as possible during the war.

The Biggest Consequence

Of course, the most important consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor was the American declaration of war against Japan. While this was expected, Japan thought the US would be entering the war with a crippled and broken navy. Despite the efforts of the bombing runs on December 7th, the United States Navy wasn't nearly as hindered as it was meant to be.

In fact, most of the battleships that were damaged during the attack were refloated and repaired to join the war and take part in battles all across the Pacific.

Three days after the United States declared war on Japan, due to the Tripartite Pact signed by the Axis and Japan, Germany and Italy declared war against the United States.

Historically significant not just for the United States but also for the world, the attack on Pearl Harbor is said to have sealed the Allied victory as it provided the other partners with badly-needed assistance. By drawing the United States into World War II-"Awaking the Sleeping Giant,"-the Japanese engaged a formidable foe that eventually led to their total defeat in 1945.

Arguably the most devastating of the consequences of Pearl Harbor had on Japan, however, was the dropping of two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Estimates vary widely, but at least 100,000 people were killed immediately-with another number at least as large dying over the following months-from the effects of the bombs.

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The Consequences of Pearl Harbor - Pearl Harbor

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By: Mark Loproto Every drastic action comes with consequences. On December 7th, 1941, Japan surprised the United States in one of the most stunning moves of the war by bombing the naval base at Pearl Harbor. From that decision to attack the officially-neutral power, a series of consequences was set into motion that changed the course of history forever.

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Objective 1: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.

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Objective 1: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.

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Capitalistic ideas were fueled by the industrial revolution. The biggest event following reconstruction was the industrial revolution. Slavery and agriculture came to be seen as less than ideal ways to produce money in the North, and were even frowned upon. Inventors recognized the problems that Americans faced and attempted to solve them in a variety of ways, thus they focused their efforts on the mechanical revolution. Small typewriters to large-scale cotton mills were manufactured, and the economic culture of America was forever transformed. The port of the north was one of the busiest for imports and exports. They established worldwide commercial links and a stable economic foundation. The theme of Work, Exchange, and Technology is evident because the rise in inventions and new labor forces in immigrants led to the rise of industrial capitalism. The historical skill of Contextualization can be applied here because the rise in immigration and new innovations were important factors that happened in the late 1800s which led to the rise of industrial capitalism.

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The Industrial Revolution completely transformed the United States until it eventually grew into the largest economy in the world and became the most powerful global superpower.

The industrial revolution occurred in a number of places across the world including England, North America, Continental Europe, Eastern Europe and Asia.

While the first phase of the industrial revolution, which took place between 1750 and 1850, began in England and then spread to Continental Europe and North America, the second phase of the industrial revolution, which took place between 1850 and 1914, began in America and then spread to Europe.

The following is an overview of the American Industrial Revolution:

When Was the Industrial Revolution in America?

Full-scale Industrialization didn't occur in America until two textile manufacturers, Samuel Slater and Francis Cabot Lowell, introduced mechanized textile manufacturing to the United States in the late 1790s and early 1800s.

Where Did the Industrial Revolution Take Place in America?

The American industrial revolution began in New England. Several large-scale textiles mills were established in the region during the late 18th and early 19th century which quickly led to widespread industrialization in the region:

The Beverly Cotton Manufactury in Massachusetts in 1787
Slater Mill in Rhode Island in 1790
Waltham Mill in Massachusetts in 1814

Massachusetts's role in the industrial revolution was pivotal, particularly because of its textile mills. As a result, it is often referred to as the "cradle of the American industrial revolution."

Although the early American industrial revolution was largely confined to New England, it eventually to spread to the West and then, after the second industrial revolution occurred in the late 19th century, spread to the South.

What Were the Causes of the Industrial Revolution in America?

The causes of the first industrial revolution in America were:

Embargo Act of 1807:

The Embargo Act of 1807 prohibited American merchant ships from leaving for foreign ports and prohibited foreign vessels from carrying American goods out of American ports.

The act was the result of the Napoleonic Wars between France and England and was intended to cut both England and France off from the American market. The hope was that England and France would suffer economically and would then cease to attack American merchant ships and stop blocking each other from trading with the Americans.

The act had no effect on the British or French economy but completely devastated the American economy. But the lack of access to foreign goods forced the Americans to begin producing more of their own goods.

War of 1812:

The War of 1812 led to a British blockade of the United States eastern coastline, which brought shipping and fishing to a halt. Cut off from the sea, Americans began focuses more heavily on manufacturing in order to make money and create the goods they couldn't get through trade.

The causes of the second industrial revolution in America were:

Natural Resources:

The United States had a number of natural resources, such as timber, water, coal, iron, copper, silver and gold. Industries took advantage of these natural resources to manufacture a number of goods to put on the market.

Railroads:

Railroad networks in the U.S. promoted the growth of industries like coal and steel and sped up the transportation of goods to market thus encouraging mass production, mass consumption and economic specialization.

Abundant Labor Supply:

Railroad work also attracted a large number of immigrant workers to the United States which provide an abundant labor supply for growing businesses.

The immigrants who migrated to America were young, hard workers who were not afraid of risk and arrived determined to make something of themselves, according to Charles R. Morris in his book The Dawn of Innovation:

"Finally, the contribution of immigration to American population growth was generally strong in this era, and immigrants punched above their weight. They were disproportionately young adults with few dependents - adventurous risk takers who had come to work."

Laizze-Fair Politics:

The lack of government regulation allowed businesses to flourish and grow at a rapid pace. Business owners had full control of their companies without government interference. Although this was good for business, it created widespread environmental problems and poor working conditions.

New Inventions:

In the second half of the 19th century, new inventions brought about even more industrialization.

For example, the invention of electricity and the light bulb allowed factories to stay open longer which vastly increased production volumes.

The invention of electricity also led to the invention of the electric motor, which greatly improved transportation and led the electric trolley and the electric subway train.

In addition, Henry Ford's assembly line and the rise of mass production after the turn of the 20th century also spurred industrialization.

As a result, the total manufacturing output of the United States was 28 times higher in 1929 than it was in 1859.

What Happened During the American Industrial Revolution?

As Charles R. Morris states in his book The Dawn of Innovation: "The story of American development can be charted as an evolution from local to regional and finally to national networks."

In the early 1800s, the Northeast started to develop strong regional economies.

By the 1820s, rural New England and the Middle Atlantic became heavily industrialized with clocks, textiles, shoes and cast-iron stoves becoming the predominant industries there.

As factories produced more goods, transporting these goods became important. In the 1820s and 30s, manufacturers began trying to find new ways to reach consumers in the West since transportation to this region at the time was virtually nonexistent.

To help reach these Western consumers, the Erie Canal, which cut across the state of New York and created a water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes, was completed in 1825. Shipping goods through the canal cut shipping costs to a fraction of what it used to be via ground transportation.

After the western steamboat was developed, around 1814, by Henry Shreve and Daniel French, it finally allowed for large cargo loads to be transported upstream even in shallow water, which helped spur industrialization in the West, according to Morris:

"Within a decade the region's great grain, lumber, and meat animal enterprises were centralizing in Cincinnati, as a tight-knit riverine economy took shape within the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi valleys. Cincinnati invented the meatpacking 'disassembly' line later made famous by Chicago, and Cincinnati brothers-in-law Proctor and Gamble were innovators in America's first chemical industry."

In 1837, the Federal government completed a 620-mile national road from Maryland to Illinois in an effort to help manufacturers transport goods westward.

Then in the 1840s, 50s and 60s, newly established widespread railroad systems finally linked the Northeast and Midwest into an "intergrated commercial and industrial unit." (Morris xii)

As a result, midwestern industries of coal, iron, food processing, lumber, furniture and glass increased sharply while Northeaster industries like clocks, textiles, and shoes grew to a global scale.

Due to all of this Northern and Midwestern industrialization, the South became a supplier of the raw materials necessary for industrialization, instead of developing its own industries, according to Morris:

"The South, in the meantime, slipped into the position of an internal colony, exploiting its slaves and being exploited in turn by the Northeast and Midwest. Boston and New York controlled much of the shipping, insurance, and brokerage earnings from the cotton trade, while the earnings left over went for midwestern food, tools, and engines, shipped down the Mississippi and its branches."

In 1850, the second industrial revolution, which saw the rise in electricity, petroleum and steel, began in the United States and then spread to Europe and the rest of the world.

Industrialization increased greatly in the late 19th century and early 20th century due to technological advances, according to Jonathan Rees in his article, Industrialization and Urbanization in the United States, 1880-1929, on the Oxford Research Encyclopedias website:

"Before 1880, industrialization depended upon a prescribed division of labor-breaking most jobs up into smaller tasks, and assigning the same people to repeat one task indefinitely. After 1880, industrialization depended much more on mechanization-the replacement of people with machines-to increase production and maximize profits. The development of the modern electrical grid, starting in the early 1880s, facilitated such technological advances. Henry Ford's assembly line and the rise of mass production after the turn of the 20th century only strengthened this effect. As a result, the total manufacturing output of the United States was twenty-eight times greater in 1929 than it was 1859."

By the 1890s, the United States surpassed Britain for first place in manufacturing output and by the beginning of the 20th century, per capita incomes in the United States were double that of Germany and France, and 50% higher than Britain. The United States is now the largest economy in the world.

Inventions of the Industrial Revolution in America:

Cotton Gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793
McCormick Reaper, invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1831
Steel plow, invented by a blacksmith named John Deere in 1837
Telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse in 1844
Vulcanized rubber, invented by Charles Goodyear in 1844
Sewing machine, invented by Elias Howe in 1846
Safety break for elevators, invented by Elisah Otis in 1853
Bessemer process, invented by Henry Bessemer in 1856
First telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876
First roller coaster, patented by Edwin Prescott in 1898
First airplane, Orville and Wilber Wright invented the first plane that was not powered by wind in 1903
Model T, Henry Ford invented the Ford Model T automobile in 1908

How the Industrial Revolution Changed America:

The industrial revolution caused rapid urbanization in America, with people moving from the countryside to the cities in droves. In 1800, only 6 percent of the population of America lived in cities but by 1900, that number had increased to 40 percent. By 1920, the vast majority of Americans lived in cities.

The industrial revolution also caused a rise in unskilled labor. Prior to the 19th century, most Americans who were not employed in agriculture performed a skilled trade. Industrialization made apprenticeships obsolete and commoditized labor itself.

The use of child labor also led to new labor laws, such as the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act.

Poor working conditions and low wages led to the growth of labor unions. These labor unions came about because workers had little political support due to the fact that many of them were immigrants and women who were not allowed to vote.

These new economic changes led to social and cultural transformations such as the formation of distinct social classes, in particular a new middle class/bourgeoisie which consisted of entrepreneurs, businessmen, law and medical professionals.

Each social class had its own specific culture and views and its own set of values and they would often clash as a result leading to more polarized political parties and factions.

To learn more about the industrial revolution, check out this article on the best books about the industrial revolution.

Sources:
Matus, Douglas. "To What Extent Did the Industrial Revolution Change American Social, Economic & Political." Seattle PI, education.seattlepi.com/extent-did-industrial-revolution-change-american-social-economic-political-life-6960.html
Rees, Jonathan. "Industrialization and Urbanization in the United States, 1880-1929." Oxford Research Encyclopedias, July 2016, americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-327
Morris, Charles R. The Dawn of Innovation: The First American Industrial Revolution. Public Affairs, 2012.
Smith, Robert W. Spotlight on America: Industrial Revolution. Teacher Created Resources, Inc, 2007.
Engleman, Ryan. "The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870-1914." U.S. History Scene, ushistoryscene.com/article/second-industrial-revolution/
"What Caused the American Industrial Revolution?" Investopedia, 23 Jan. 2018, www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/042015/what-caused-american-industrial-revolution.asp

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The Industrial Revolution in America - History of Massachusetts Blog

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The Industrial Revolution completely transformed the United States until it eventually grew into the largest economy in the world and became the most powerful global superpower. The industrial revolution occurred in a number of places across the world including England, North America, Continental Europe, Eastern Europe and Asia. While the...

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898. 

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898. 

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The process of westward expansion and settlement was complicated by the fact that there were various competing viewpoints in Congress regarding how settlements should have been distributed. The utilization of the railroad system to transfer developed commodities and products from the North to the ever-changing West aided Westward colonization tremendously. The items and more were not affected by the train's route because they were delivered straight and effectively. The inhabitants of the West most likely came from the north, with some coming from the south, but it was widely agreed that their territories should be free states, with their African American counterparts living in peace with them. The theme of Migration and Settlement is evident because due to the rise of the railroad system more people settled West on inhabited land. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because the construction of railroads where the primary cause of migration to the west because people could actually go west now.

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Westward Expansion: Crash Course US History #24

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Objective 3: Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898. 

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Objective 3: Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898. 

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Slavery was abolished in the United States thanks to the 13th amendment. The monopolizing plantation owners could no longer regard African Americans as slaves, but rather as full human beings, which was a huge victory for the abolitionist cause. African Americans now had legitimate work options and were protected by the United States Constitution. For the inhabitants of the South, this was a significant economic and cultural shift. Their economy was only able to thrive because they were able to take advantage of the free labor that slavery provided. Plantation owners were the wealthiest people in the nation. The theme of American and Regional Culture is evident because there was a change in the regional culture in the South with African Americans now having political positions but the beliefs of local southerners largely remained the same. Hence, the historical skill of continuity and change can be applied because while there was much change in terms of African American rights, the beliefs remained the same in Southern culture.

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The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution

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SECTION. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

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Objective 4: Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time.

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Objective 4: Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time.

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The Industrial Revolution provided America with technological and other innovations that improved their lives for decades to come. America exploded with inventors who saw the problems that Americans faced on a daily basis and chose to make a difference by bringing about change that would improve the lives of Americans. New steam engines, motorized machinery, the first telephone, typewriters, cotton gins, and more are just a few of the technical developments. These innovations not only made life simpler for the average American, but they also created thousands of new employment possibilities. The theme of Politics and Power is evident because due to technological advances, industrialists became more power in terms of politics and with more wealth, had more power in society. The historical skill of argumentation is evident because in this article, the author argues that technological advances resulted in certain industrialists getting rich and cites examples like Andrew Carnegie to support his argument.

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It was at this time, 1876-1877, that a new invention called the telephone emerged. It is not easy to determine who the inventor was. Both Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray submitted independent patent applications concerning telephones to the patent office in Washington on February 14, 1876. Bell, in Boston at the time, was represented by his lawyers and had no idea that the application had been submitted. Gray's application arrived at the patent office a few hours before Bell's, but Bell's lawyers insisted on paying the application fee immediately; as a result, the heavily burdened office registered Bell's application first.

Bell's patent was approved and officially registered on March 7, and three days later the famous call is said to have been made when Bell's summons to his assistant ("Mr Watson, come here. I want to see you.") confirmed that the invention worked.

Alexander Graham Bell, one year younger than Lars Magnus Ericsson, had been born in Edinburgh. Bell's interest in telephony came through his mother, who was deaf, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, who was a teacher of elocution, famous for the phonetic transcription system he had developed to help the deaf learn to speak (and which he described in a book entitled Visible Speech). The Bell family migrated to Canada in 1870; two years later Alexander Melville Bell was offered a teaching post at a school for the deaf in Boston in the United States, but he successfully recommended his son for the post instead. Father and son were at this time working together to try to discover whether sound could be made visible for the deaf with the help of telegraphy.

But many others had already been pursuing the idea of telephony for years. A resolution of the US House of Representatives in June 2002 claimed that Bell had nefariously acquired and exploited an apparatus, the "teletrophono", invented by Antonio Meucci long before Bell and Gray.

One damaging piece of evidence for Bell was that Meucci's material had disappeared without trace from the very laboratory at which Bell was carrying out his experiments. In the 1880s, proceedings initiated by the American government charged Bell with "fraudulent and dishonest conduct" and claimed that his patent should be revoked. These proceeding were discontinued after Meucci's death in 1889 and the expiry of Bell's patent in 1893.

A later investigation, published by A. Edward Evenson in 2000, claims that Bell's attorneys acquired technical details from Gray's attorneys (both had lawyers acting as their agents) that are said to have been added to Bell's patent after it had been submitted. The whole saga has elements reminiscent of a thriller.

One salient fact was that Bell saw no need to take out patents for the telephone in the Nordic countries. This meant that anyone anywhere there was free to manufacture and sell telephones.

Bell presented the telephone before a large audience for the first time at the World Exhibition in Philadelphia in June 1876. In the audience was the physicist William Thomson (later known as Lord Kelvin), who in August that year presented Bell's telephone to the British Association in Glasgow. In Sweden, on September 30 that year, Dagens Nyheter became the first newspaper to refer to "the speaking telegraph", an apparatus that "plainly and clearly conveyed the words uttered at one end of the telegraph line to the other".

The first version of Bell's telephone, as it was described in the patent application, was not suitable for practical purposes. Only after "a relatively thorough reconstruction", to quote Hemming Johansson, could a telephone be designed for large-scale production. The Bell Telephone Company began operating on July 11, 1877. In the same month, the first useable Bell telephone arrived in Europe to be presented in Plymouth to the British Association by the chief engineer of the General Post Office, William H. Preece, in the presence of Bell himself.

Author: Svenolof Karlsson & Anders Lugn

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It was at this time, 1876-1877, that a new invention called the telephone emerged. It is not easy to determine who the inventor was. Both Alexander Graham Be...

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Objective 5: Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898. 

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Objective 5: Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898. 

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The affluent owners of enormous businesses who recruited thousands of Americans in factories continued to become richer and richer following the Industrial Revolution, yet the Americans never felt financially secure after performing exponential amounts of labor for long hours every day. The Americans' sense of economic instability never completely went away, which made life tough for many families who lived in frequently deplorable conditions. The theme of social structures because the poor continued to be poor with the growth of industrial capitalism if not more poor and the wealth gap increased. The historical skill of claims and evidences from sources can be applied because the claim being made is that life didn't get much better for the poor and the author cites the average salary of a factory worker to support his argument.

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The Industrial Revolution took place over more than a century, as production of goods moved from home businesses, where products were generally crafted by hand, to machine-aided production in factories. This revolution, which involved major changes in transportation, manufacturing, and communications, transformed the daily lives of Americans as much as- and arguably more than-any single event in U.S. history.

Background

An early landmark moment in the Industrial Revolution came near the end of the eighteenth century, when Samuel Slater brought new manufacturing technologies from Britain to the United States and founded the first U.S. cotton mill in Beverly, Massachusetts. Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, like many of the mills and factories that sprang up in the next few decades, was powered by water, which confined industrial development to the northeast at first. The concentration of industry in the Northeast also facilitated the development of transportation systems such as railroads and canals, which encouraged commerce and trade.

The technological innovation that would come to mark the United States in the nineteenth century began to show itself with Robert Fulton's establishment of steamboat service on the Hudson River, Samuel F. B. Morse's invention of the telegraph, and Elias Howe's invention of the sewing machine, all before the Civil War. Following the Civil War, industrialization in the United States increased at a breakneck pace. This period, encompassing most of the second half of the nineteenth century, has been called the Second Industrial Revolution or the American Industrial Revolution. Over the first half of the century, the country expanded greatly, and the new territory was rich in natural resources. Completing the first transcontinental railroad in 1869 was a major milestone, making it easier to transport people, raw materials, and products. The United States also had vast human resources: between 1860 and 1900, fourteen million immigrants came to the country, providing workers for an array of industries.

The American industrialists overseeing this expansion were ready to take risks to make their businesses successful. Andrew Carnegie established the first steel mills in the U.S. to use the British "Bessemer process" for mass producing steel, becoming a titan of the steel industry in the process. He acquired business interests in the mines that produced the raw material for steel, the mills and ovens that created the final product and the railroads and shipping lines that transported the goods, thus controlling every aspect of the steelmaking process.

Other industrialists, including John D. Rockefeller, merged the operations of many large companies to form a trust. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust came to monopolize 90% of the industry, severely limiting competition. These monopolies were often accused of intimidating smaller businesses and competitors in order to maintain high prices and profits. Economic influence gave these industrial magnates significant political clout as well. The U.S. government adopted policies that supported industrial development such as providing land for the construction of railroads and maintaining high tariffs to protect American industry from foreign competition.

American inventors like Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Alva Edison created a long list of new technologies that improved communication, transportation, and industrial production. Edison made improvements to existing technologies, including the telegraph while also creating revolutionary new technologies such as the light bulb, the phonograph, the kinetograph, and the electric dynamo. Bell, meanwhile, explored new speaking and hearing technologies, and became known as the inventor of the telephone.

For millions of working Americans, the industrial revolution changed the very nature of their daily work. Previously, they might have worked for themselves at home, in a small shop, or outdoors, crafting raw materials into products, or growing a crop from seed to table. When they took factory jobs, they were working for a large company. The repetitive work often involved only one small step in the manufacturing process, so the worker did not see or appreciate what was being made; the work was often dangerous and performed in unsanitary conditions. Some women entered the work force, as did many children. Child labor became a major issue. Dangerous working conditions, long hours, and concern over wages and child labor contributed to the growth of labor unions. In the decades after the Civil War, workers organized strikes and work stoppages that helped to publicize their problems. One especially significant labor upheaval was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Wage cuts in the railroad industry led to the strike, which began in West Virginia and spread to three additional states over a period of 45 days before being violently ended by a combination of vigilantes, National Guardsmen, and federal troops. Similar episodes occurred more frequently in the following decades as workers organized and asserted themselves against perceived injustices.

The new jobs for the working class were in the cities. Thus, the Industrial Revolution began the transition of the United States from a rural to an urban society. Young people raised on farms saw greater opportunities in the cities and moved there, as did millions of immigrants from Europe. Providing housing for all the new residents of cities was a problem, and many workers found themselves living in urban slums; open sewers ran alongside the streets, and the water supply was often tainted, causing disease. These deplorable urban conditions gave rise to the Progressive Movement in the early twentieth century; the result would be many new laws to protect and support people, eventually changing the relationship between government and the people.

The Industrial Revolution is a complex set of economic, technological, and social changes that occurred over a substantial period of time. Teachers should consider the documents in this collection as tools for stimulating student thinking about aspects of the Industrial Revolution.

Suggestions for Teachers

After providing a definition of the Industrial Revolution and explaining the time span across which it took place, teachers might supply small groups of students with a set of the documents in this primary source set. Students can categorize the documents by whether they provide information about what happened, why it happened, or its effects. Some documents may fit into more than one category. When small groups have completed their work, the teacher can facilitate creating a class list of events of the Industrial Revolution, causes (or supporting factors), and effects. Students may search the Library's online collections to find additional evidence to support the causes and effects on the class chart.

Using the documents in this primary source set, students can create a timeline of important events in the Industrial Revolution. The last document in the set is dated 1919. Was the Industrial Revolution over by 1919? Challenge students to find evidence in the Library of Congress digital collections to support their answer (there are documents that suggest industrialization in the South was still taking place into the 1930s).

Understanding a historical event as it was experienced by those who lived through it is an important skill of historical thinking-and one that can be difficult to develop. Teachers may challenge students to study documents in the collection to identify varied perspectives on the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution, as experienced by people of the day. Would students classify the responses as mainly positive, mainly negative, or about equally divided? How did people respond to what they perceived as negative effects of the Industrial Revolution?

In 1893, Chicago hosted the World's Columbian Exposition, which highlighted achievements of the United States and other nations in a variety of fields, including manufacturing and technology. An entire building was devoted to electricity. Using the primary source set as a starting point, ask students to design an exhibit about the development of American industry for the World's Columbian Exposition.

Additional Resources

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The Industrial Revolution in the United States | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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Jump to: Background Suggestions for Teachers Additional Resources The Industrial Revolution took place over more than a century, as production of goods moved from home businesses, where products were generally crafted by hand, to machine-aided production in factories.

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Objective 6: Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time. 

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Objective 6: Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time. 

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America was the epicenter of new work prospects, particularly in the nation's northern big cities. This drew Europeans to America in quest of a better life or a better career. Others came for other reasons, such as religious freedom or fleeing the government, but the fact that they would almost certainly be able to find work was a big incentive for them to do so. As the Americans learned how economically strong they were, American nationalism prevailed again, and Europeans were occasionally subjected to racial intolerance. The theme of Migration and Settlement is evident because immigrants came to America for a better life and the gilded age created the belief that America is a land of opportunity. The historical skill of sourcing and situation is evident because this video is from khanacademy, an educational source whose purpose is to inform and spread information.

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Immigration and migration in the Gilded Age (video) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Objective 7: Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time. 

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Objective 7: Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time. 

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As the Gilded Age advanced, Americans had diverse views to the influx of European immigrants into the country. Americans regarded Europeans as extra hands in factories, and they would be beneficial to the workforce since they would work for a low wage and be an effective component of manufacturing employment. Another set of Americans viewed this as a negative since it resulted in a significant increase in American nationalism and racism. The theme of America in the World is evident because Americans viewed themselves as better than immigrants from the rest of the world and nativism grew with people believing that immigrants were taking their jobs. The historical skill of development and processes can be applied because the development of the belief of nativism grew with the rise in immigration.

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Group of Immigrants Cabinet of American Illustration

In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution, and nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England - the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. Even so, a relatively large group of Chinese immigrated to the United States between the start of the California gold rush in 1849 and 1882, when federal law stopped their immigration.

With the onset of hard economic times in the 1870s, European immigrants and Americans began to compete for the jobs traditionally reserved for the Chinese. With economic competition came dislike and even racial suspicion and hatred. Such feelings were accompanied by anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California, for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. The result of this pressure was the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by Congress in 1882. This Act virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century.

Immigrants entered the United States through several ports. Those from Europe generally came through East Coast facilities, while those from Asia generally entered through West Coast centers. More than 70 percent of all immigrants, however, entered through New York City, which came to be known as the "Golden Door." Throughout the late 1800s, most immigrants arriving in New York entered at the Castle Garden depot near the tip of Manhattan. In 1892, the federal government opened a new immigration processing center on Ellis Island in New York harbor.

Although immigrants often settled near ports of entry, a large number did find their way inland. Many states, especially those with sparse populations, actively sought to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming. Many immigrants wanted to move to communities established by previous settlers from their homelands.

Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. Men were generally paid less than other workers, and women less than men. Social tensions were also part of the immigrant experience. Often stereotyped and discriminated against, many immigrants suffered verbal and physical abuse because they were "different." While large-scale immigration created many social tensions, it also produced a new vitality in the cities and states in which the immigrants settled. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

To find other documents in Loc.gov relating to this topic, use such key words as immigration or immigrants, or include the names of specific immigrant or ethnic groups, such as German, Irish, Scandinavian, Swedish, Norwegian, or Chinese.

Documents

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Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States.

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Objective 8: Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society. 

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Objective 8: Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society. 

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For Americans, the Gilded Age had both beneficial and terrible consequences. The negative social implications were generally thought to exceed the good social advantages. The Gilded Age brought economic prosperity to the country, but not to its citizens. In the Gilded Age, the typical working man was still destitute and striving to make ends meet. During the Gilded Age, working-class living conditions were deplorable. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because the land of opportunity became part of the national identity with the idea of the american dream becoming popular. The historical skill of causation because the rise in technology led to causes of increased economic opportunity but workers remained power and exploited.

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Objective 9: Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age. 

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Objective 9: Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age. 

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The Americans were preparing to march for reform in the labor union. In the plant, the workers were subjected to appalling working conditions. They were forced to work in horrible, hot, sticky, and hazardous conditions, and they were surrounded by a variety of toxins. In the appalling circumstances that tens of thousands of Americans were forced to work in, it was very simple to become ill. The major business owners were being unjust by allowing the abuse of these people to continue for so long. The theme of America and Regional Culture because America began to protest and form labor unions for more rights. The historical skill of contextualization can be applied here because reform movements developed due to the Gilded Age widening the wage gap as a result of limited government interference.

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Reform and the Gilded Age

1. Politics and Corruption

1. The 1870s and 1880s were marked by weak presidents, a strong Congress, and widespread corruption

2. Patronage at the root of most politics

1. Powerful politicians doled out favors - money, jobs, contracts, in exchange for loyalty and votes

2. Government money was used to fund campaigns, and government workers were forced to contribute an volunteer in campaigns

3. Corruption rampant in local politics

1. In most large cities, power went to party "bosses" who could deliver the growing immigrant vote through power of patronage

2. The result was political "machines," where neighborhood party officials distributed cash, booze, and patronage to deliver votes

3. The most effective of these was Tammany Hall, the political machine led by George Washington Plunkitt that ran New York City

4. Emphasis on patronage and resulting corruption did little to resolve social problems

1. The rapid industrialization of the the late 19th century produced a large urban poor and many social problems

2. Pollution, crime, urban poverty, and labor violence were common problems, and growing

5. Civil Service reform

1. President James Garfield was assassinated in 1881 by a supporter who did not get the patronage job he felt he deserved

2. This led to calls for reform of in the patronage system

3. Pendleton Act (1883)

1. an early effort at replacing patronage with merit examinations for jobseekers - initially only covered 10% of government jobs

2. Parties increasingly would turn to big business for funding

6. Many elites saw no need for fundamental reform

1. Official attitude of both major parties was that government had little role to play in social reform an should take a hands off approach

2. Social Darwinism

1. popular among many elites in the Gilded Age

2. Herbert Spencer took Darwin's ideas about survival of the fittest in biology and applied them to human society

3. In Social Darwinism, people naturally rise or fall in social position based on their moral, physical and intellectual fitness

4. Any social reform would interfere with this natural process, and allow the weak to survive, retarding societies ability to progress

3. Andrew Carnegie and the Gospel of Wealth

1. One of the wealthiest men in America, Carnegie promoted a version of Social Darwinism

2. People with large fortunes like his had them because of their greater skills, intelligence, etc.

3. Wealth concentrated in the hands of the few was good, because these more fit individuals could manage this wealth for the benefit of all

2. Reformism

1. Many in the middle class did not fully accept Social Darwinism, and demanded social and political reform

2. Middle class reformers, like Social Darwinists, saw social problems as mainly the fault of the poor, but that they could be reformed

3. Some were motivated by the Social Gospel, a belief that Christian piety demanded that Christians assist the less fortunate

4. Settlement houses were one product of the Social Gospel

1. Social reformers wanted to address the underlying causes of poverty and other social problems

2. Middle class reformers moved into the slums, setting up centers to provide social services

3. Sought to bring the values of small-town, middle class America to the inner city, as a way of eliminating poverty

4. Most famous was Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889

5. Temperance movement

1. Many Gilded Age reformers felt that alcohol consumption was the main source of social problems, and sought to have it banned

2. Alcohol consumption had skyrocketed since the Civil War

3. Women were the strongest proponents of temperance

4. Temperance was also seen as a way to break the political power of Catholic immigrants, who were regarded as heavy drinkers

5. Bans on alcohol were passed in some areas -- movement would grown in the early twentieth century

6. Women's suffrage

1. Many middle class women felt social and moral reform depended on women getting the right o vote

2. In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) formed from a union of the main suffrage groups

3. Downplayed earlier efforts to gain a broad equality for women in favor of focusing on the single issue of voting

4. Argued that women needed the vote to protect themselves, and could use the vote to make society more moral and counteract the votes of immoral immigrants

3. People's Party - a more radical approach to reform

1. Founded by western farmers 1892 - also known as the Populist Party

2. Sought to break the power of the traditional parties and of big business

3. Goals

1. Direct democracy, including direct election of Senators

2. Labor reform, including the eight hour day

3. Graduated income tax

4. Cheap credit (in the form of silver money)

5. Government ownership of railroads and utilities

4. Tried to reach out to blacks, poor farmers, and urban laborers

5. Got a million votes and won four states in the 1892 presidential election, but unable to forge a winning national alliance

Identification Terms:

Pendleton Act of 1883, temperance movement, , settlement house movement, l, NAWSA, People's Party

Essay Question:

Trace the development of national politics in America during the "Gilded Age" and explain the dynamics operative during this age that persuaded middle-class reformers to turn their attention to creating social change. Who were the reformers and what were their purposes? Discuss the various reformist philosophies for confronting the problems associated with growing inequalities of wealth in the society.

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Reform and the Gilded Age Politics and Corruption The 1870s and 1880s were marked by weak presidents, a strong Congress, and widespread corruption Patronage at the root of most politics Powerful politicians doled out favors - money, jobs, contracts, in exchange for loyalty and votes Government money was used to

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Objective 10: Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.

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Objective 10: Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.

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After President Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson was the primary portion of the federal government's Executive Branch.  Being a democratic president so soon after the Civil War had a huge impact on the country's identity. After the secession back into the Union, the ex-confederate states would finally achieve what they yearned for: adequate government representation. The Confederate States of America would be acknowledged for the first time. Andrew Johnson was on the verge of being fired. The theme of America and National Identity is evident because it become a part of the values in the country to have limited government interference. The historical skill of development and processes can be applied here because the historical development of laissez-faire government rule led to the U.S. economy being less regulated and more unequal.

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Reconstruction: The Second Civil War | Article

Rebuilding the South After the War

Historians review the problems of re-building a region destroyed by four years of bitter war.

"This is a white man's government" "We regard the Reconstruction Acts (so called) of Congress as usurpations, and unconstitutional, revolutionary, and void" - Democratic Platform / / Th. Nast. Library of Congress

What kind of destruction did the South suffer?

Eric Foner

Eric Foner: The great army of the West, commanded by General William T. Sherman, enters Savannah, Georgia, at Christmas of 1864. They have just come on their march to the sea, starting out in Atlanta. They have marched through the heart of Georgia... They have destroyed everything in their path that could be of use to the Confederacy: railroad tracks, they have burned plantations. They have liberated tens of thousands of slaves, enforcing the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln... Sherman says when he starts out on the march, "I can make Georgia howl." He's bringing the war to the civilian population. He doesn't kill civilians. He doesn't attack them, but he destroys property; he destroys their livelihoods and he liberates their slaves.

He's trying to demonstrate that the South has no power that can prevent the North from prevailing in this war. If he can march right through the heart of one of the most important Southern states without any opposition even, wreaking devastation and liberating the slaves... And for generations afterward, the name Sherman will be a byword for cruelty in the minds of white Southerners and white Georgians who experience this.
What did Southerners find when they returned home?

Dana Nelson

Dana Nelson: Fan Butler describes the terrible conditions on her trip down [to her Georgia rice plantation]. You know, they're following Sherman's path, so it's desolation everywhere. Cities have been burned out. Fields have been burned out. And of course they can't find decent accommodations there. The train tracks have been blown up, so they have to portage across a river because the bridge has been blown out, and then be pulled backwards in a train car from another part of the track. They stay in miserable accommodations on the way down.

The lands haven't been cultivated for four years, and anybody who has a garden knows what happens if you don't till it and plant it every year. So the lands were in shambles and the houses had been gutted. All the furniture was gone. The houses were in real disarray. Fan complains about all the rain coming in, and all the mosquitoes, her utter inability to run a household in the way that she was accustomed to running one. And so they really had to make do. The interesting thing is that many of the newly freed residents of those islands had kept some of their goods in their possession, and so there was a trickle of household materials that came back to them, that had been saved by their former slaves for their return.
Did Northerners realize how bad conditions were down South?

David Blight

David Blight: Like the destroyed abbeys of 17th-century England in the English civil war, which are still all over the English landscape... the South now was a landscape with ruins -- ruined plantations... in the immediate aftermath of the war, ruined cities. In fact, in the immediate aftermath of the war, many major magazines and newspapers in the North sent correspondents traveling in the South, writing story after story, which were published into very popular books about the conditions of the South, the landscape of the South, what battlefields looked like, the old trench works, what the old plantations now appeared to be. America for the first time was a society with the experience of all-out war, that had given them ruins.
What were the main intentions of the federal government's reconstruction efforts?

Ed Ayers

Ed Ayers: A good way to think of Reconstruction is a set of goals that the Republicans in Washington had in mind. And those goals are for the South to rebuild the social order along the lines of the North: free labor, free ballot box, and general equality before the law. That's all. And when those things are in place, then the South is back in the Union. But as simple as that sounds, in practice it is remarkably complicated.
How did the nation approach the process of rebuilding?
David Blight: There was no script for Reconstruction. If anything, winning the war, by comparison, was easier than now that agonizing statesman like political process of planning what to do about Reconstruction. Reconstruction was a massive logistical, political, Constitutional, economic challenge like the country had never faced.

It had now faced the challenge of all-out war. It had mobilized to defeat the South. It had created the largest armies in the history of the world to conduct this war. It had found generals who could prosecute the kind of war that it took to win. There was always a rich debate, since 1863, over plans of reconstruction, which was essentially a Constitutional debate. What authority would the federal government have? How would Southern states be restored to the Union? How quickly would they be restored to the Union? And there was the beginnings of a debate about the question of black manhood suffrage: Would that occur or would that not occur? But there was not much of a debate yet about what to do with four million freed slaves, hundreds of thousands of starving white refugees, a conquered, defeated, devastated South, a destroyed economy in many regions of the South, rivers that now had to be dredged because boats had been sunk in them, cities that had been burned. Americans faced for the first time in their history a landscape of ruins, cities in ruin, crops in ruin, an economy in ruin, and a whole section of the population with their psyche, their spirit, their society in ruin. And the responsibility now was to come up with a plan to reconstruct this, to restore this society.
How did philosphies about rebuilding differ?
Eric Foner: The land issue is really one of the cruxes of the whole debate over Reconstruction, because so many different issues come into the land question. For African Americans, land is essential to really enjoying freedom. The person who is dependent, economically dependent on someone else for their livelihood, is not truly free. Now, that's not an idea that was limited only to African Americans. Jefferson had said the same thing: The truly free person is the small farmer, the yeoman farmer. Lincoln had said the same thing many times: The person who works for wages his entire life is not truly free. This was a very common idea in 19th-century America. The basis of freedom is economic independence. And in a rural, agricultural society, the only way you're going to get economic independence is by owning land. Land's not a panacea. Plenty of white farmers are having trouble at this time. But land at least gives you the wherewithal to decide for yourself how you're going to work, when you're going to work, what crop you're going to grow, not being under the direction of white either slaveowners or employers. So for blacks, land is essential to freedom.

Many in the North think that distributing land will be a punishment. "These slaveowners, these rebels, have led the South into the Civil War. They're responsible for this terrible destruction and loss of life. Take away their land. Then you will really destroy the planter class, which has been the cause of so much trouble." This is what Thaddeus Stevens, the Congressman from Pennsylvania says...

And then there's the question of what is going to be the nature of the Southern economy after the war. If the plantations remain intact, it'll still be an aristocratic society with a small group owning all the major economic resources, and then you have landless workers working for them. Is that really a democratic society? No. The South should be modeled on the North. The North is a society of small farmers out in the West, the Midwest. That's what the South should be. In other words, if you're going to really change Southern society and get away from the social structure of slavery as well as the ownership of man by man of slavery, you're going to have to break up these big plantations.
In practice, what made rebuilding so hard?
David Blight: Taxation was a huge problem. It's not the most exciting subject in history to some people, but think about it. It was a huge problem in the Reconstruction states. How do you fund public facilities? How do you fund the public school? How do you build a hospital? How do you fund the dredging of a river? How do you rebuild Charleston, South Carolina? How do you rebuild Richmond? Where would the money come from? What do you tax? Do you tax land? Do you tax livestock? You can't tax slaves anymore because they don't exist. Who gets taxed, at what level? So they're debating public policy of the most important kind. They're debating the establishment of new roads. They're debating the nature of elections. They're debating redistricting of states. In the old days, the districts of a state were gerrymandered by the planter class, so that basically the states were controlled by planters... from those regions.

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Rebuilding the South After the War | American Experience | PBS

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Historians review the problems of re-building a region destroyed by four years of bitter war.

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Objective 11: Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age.  

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Objective 11: Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age.  

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The Gilded Age in America was a period of industrial innovation, and while it allowed America to be rebuilt on a strong economic foundation, it also had bad features that created tensions between the two parties. The Republican Party was pleased with the growth of metropolitan areas in the north. They were ecstatic about the increase in job opportunities for Americans. The Democratic Party was still reeling from the loss of slavery that the thirteenth amendment brought with it. The theme of politics and power is evident with the republican party and democratic party being largely similar in terms of economic views but the dems were trying to inspire anti-slavery sentiment. The historical thinking skill of comparison can be applied here because the political parties largely remained the same during this time period except the Republicans pursued Reconstruction ideals less.

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Politics in the Gilded Age were characterized by scandal and corruption, but voter turnout reached an all-time high.

The Republican Party supported business and industry with a protective tariff and hard money policies.

The Democratic Party opposed the tariff and eventually adopted the free silver platform.

The People's (Populist) Party emerged in the 1890s to champion the interests of farmers. The party endorsed the coinage of silver to improve the financial situation of debtors.

Comparing political parties in the Gilded Age

There's a strange contradiction in Gilded Age politics: on one hand, it was the golden age of American political participation. Voters turned out at a higher rate during this era than at any other time in American history. In 1876, nearly 82 percent of the voting-age population turned out for the presidential election. Today, turnout rates hover around a dismal 50 percent.

But, on the other hand, the two major political parties (the Democrats and Republicans) were both riddled with corruption and scandal. Politicians spent more time distributing government jobs to their supporters, managing urban political machines, and enriching themselves from the public coffers than dealing with important policy issues.

Dependent on the spoils system, which had greased the wheels of government since Andrew Jackson's presidency, political candidates drummed up support by promising government jobs to party insiders. During the Gilded Age, politicians took such patronage to new heights-or rather, new lows-until a disappointed office-seeker assassinated President James Garfield in 1881 and inspired reform.

It's perhaps not surprising that in this era of ineffective government, one of the most successful third-party movements in US history emerged. The People's Party, or the Populists, reached national prominence in the 1890s on a platform of policies aimed at reining in big business and helping struggling farmers.

In this article, we'll compare the platforms, constituents, and actions of the three political parties during the Gilded Age.

The Republican Party

In the years after the Civil War, the Republican Party dominated the office of the presidency. The Party of Lincoln could boast of victory in the Civil War and encouraged supporters-many of them veterans of the US Army-to "vote as they shot." The Republican coalition included white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants; rural northerners and westerners; and African American men. During Reconstruction, the Republican Party worked to secure civil rights for black people in the South, but the party's commitment to racial equality waned by the late 1870s.

The Republican Party also promoted the expansion of business and infrastructure, granting railroad companies land and subsidies to expand rail lines across the continent. Economically, the party supported a strong protective tariff to shield American industry from foreign competition, and a "hard money" policy that tied the dollar to the gold standard. These policies benefited banks and business owners.

The Democratic Party

Although the Republican Party dominated the presidency during the Gilded Age, political contests throughout the era were hotly contested, and Democrats frequently took control of the House of Representatives. The Democrats championed state and local control of government, opposed the protectionist tariff, and regarded personal liberty as more important than moral reform.

The Democratic Party appealed to white southerners and northeastern city dwellers, particularly Irish and German immigrants. Democratic state governments in the South opposed civil rights for African Americans during Reconstruction and imposed segregation and Jim Crow laws afterward.

In northern cities, the Democratic Party was particularly adept at operating political machines, organizations in which party bosses distributed food and jobs to immigrants and the poor in exchange for their votes. The most famous of these was Tammany Hall in New York City, where William "Boss" Tweed ruled with an iron fist.

The People's Party (The Populists)

The People's Party, commonly called the Populists, emerged as a major force in national politics in the 1890s. The party traced its roots from the cooperative organizations that American farmers had formed after the Civil War, including the Grange and the Farmers' Alliance.

Popular in the Midwest and the South, the Populists represented the interests of farmers, who encountered many struggles in the last half of the nineteenth century: the mechanization of agriculture drove crop prices down, the unregulated railroads charged high rates to ship crops to markets, and the protective tariff helped industry but not farmers. The hard money policy was particularly distressing for farmers because it made paying back loans difficult.

The party's platform reflected these struggles, calling for railroad regulation, land reform, and government-backed loans. The most important plank of the platform, however, was free silver: Populists wanted to coin silver in addition to gold in order to increase the money supply and promote inflation. More money in circulation would decrease its value and make repaying loans easier.

The Populists were extremely successful for a third-party movement, winning many victories in state and local elections in 1892 and over a million popular votes for their presidential candidate, James B. Weaver. In 1896, however, the Democratic Party incorporated free silver into its platform, which undercut the necessity of a third-party movement. Republican candidate William McKinley triumphed in the election of 1896, and the United States officially adopted the gold standard in 1900.

What do you think?

Was the Gilded Age a golden age of American politics or a low point? Why?

Did the Populists succeed? Why or why not?

What were the major similarities and differences between the three political parties active in the Gilded Age?

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Politics in the Gilded Age (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Objective 12: Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898. 

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Objective 12: Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898. 

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The industrial revolution of the 1800s ushered in a period of significant change across the United States. The lifestyles of the working class, which made up the bulk of the American population, were drastically altered as a result of industrialization. In an ever-changing environment, many Americans battled to maintain their occupations, especially during the Civil War and the reconstruction era. Despite the fact that there were more employment prospects, the lives of the American working class were nevertheless poorer than they had been previously. The Americans had to work in extremely harsh conditions and were only paid a pittance for their efforts. The theme of Work, Exchange, and Technology is evident because the rise in technology brought the rise in technology, which brought changes and some continuities in society with poor people being poor poorer than ever before. The historical thinking skill of contextualization is evident because industrialization occured in the midst of technological advances.

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877. 

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877. 

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The westward expansion of the United States necessitated the creation of additional slave and free states. The SGA had already built the framework for the abolitionist movement, and many in the North were opposed to slavery's extension westward. As a result, there were several discussions about whether the new states should legalize slavery. Many pro-slavery Southerners feared that if the South did not maintain a balance of slave and free states, the North would attempt to impose abolition on them. The theme of American and Regional Culture is evident because the Southerners wanted to keep a balance of slave and free states while the North opposed the expansion of slavery westward. The historical skill of contextualization can be applied here because the desire to have more slave states vs. less led to events such as the Kansas Nebraska Act.

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Causes of the Civil War

In the mid-19th century, while the United States was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country's northern and southern regions.

In the North, manufacturing and industry was well established, and agriculture was mostly limited to small-scale farms, while the South's economy was based on a system of large-scale farming that depended on the labor of Black enslaved people to grow certain crops, especially cotton and tobacco.

Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery's extension into the new western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America -and thus the backbone of their economy-was in danger.

Did you know? Confederate General Thomas Jonathan Jackson earned his famous nickname, "Stonewall," from his steadfast defensive efforts in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). At Chancellorsville, Jackson was shot by one of his own men, who mistook him for Union cavalry. His arm was amputated, and he died from pneumonia eight days later.

In 1854, the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which essentially opened all new territories to slavery by asserting the rule of popular sovereignty over congressional edict. Pro- and anti-slavery forces struggled violently in " Bleeding Kansas," while opposition to the act in the North led to the formation of the Republican Party, a new political entity based on the principle of opposing slavery's extension into the western territories. After the Supreme Court's ruling in the Dred Scott case (1857) confirmed the legality of slavery in the territories, the abolitionist John Brown's raid at Harper's Ferry in 1859 convinced more and more southerners that their northern neighbors were bent on the destruction of the "peculiar institution" that sustained them. Abraham Lincoln 's election in November 1860 was the final straw, and within three months seven southern states-South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas-had seceded from the United States.

Outbreak of the Civil War (1861)

Even as Lincoln took office in March 1861, Confederate forces threatened the federal-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. On April 12, after Lincoln ordered a fleet to resupply Sumter, Confederate artillery fired the first shots of the Civil War. Sumter's commander, Major Robert Anderson, surrendered after less than two days of bombardment, leaving the fort in the hands of Confederate forces under Pierre G.T. Beauregard. Four more southern states-Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee-joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter. Border slave states like Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland did not secede, but there was much Confederate sympathy among their citizens.

Though on the surface the Civil War may have seemed a lopsided conflict, with the 23 states of the Union enjoying an enormous advantage in population, manufacturing (including arms production) and railroad construction, the Confederates had a strong military tradition, along with some of the best soldiers and commanders in the nation. They also had a cause they believed in: preserving their long-held traditions and institutions, chief among these being slavery.

In the First Battle of Bull Run (known in the South as First Manassas) on July 21, 1861, 35,000 Confederate soldiers under the command of Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson forced a greater number of Union forces (or Federals) to retreat towards Washington, D.C., dashing any hopes of a quick Union victory and leading Lincoln to call for 500,000 more recruits. In fact, both sides' initial call for troops had to be widened after it became clear that the war would not be a limited or short conflict.

The Civil War in Virginia (1862)

George B. McClellan-who replaced the aging General Winfield Scott as supreme commander of the Union Army after the first months of the war-was beloved by his troops, but his reluctance to advance frustrated Lincoln. In the spring of 1862, McClellan finally led his Army of the Potomac up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, capturing Yorktown on May 4. The combined forces of Robert E. Lee and Jackson successfully drove back McClellan's army in the Seven Days' Battles (June 25-July 1), and a cautious McClellan called for yet more reinforcements in order to move against Richmond. Lincoln refused, and instead withdrew the Army of the Potomac to Washington. By mid-1862, McClellan had been replaced as Union general-in-chief by Henry W. Halleck, though he remained in command of the Army of the Potomac.

Lee then moved his troops northwards and split his men, sending Jackson to meet Pope's forces near Manassas, while Lee himself moved separately with the second half of the army. On August 29, Union troops led by John Pope struck Jackson's forces in the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas). The next day, Lee hit the Federal left flank with a massive assault, driving Pope's men back towards Washington. On the heels of his victory at Manassas, Lee began the first Confederate invasion of the North. Despite contradictory orders from Lincoln and Halleck, McClellan was able to reorganize his army and strike at Lee on September 14 in Maryland, driving the Confederates back to a defensive position along Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg.

On September 17, the Army of the Potomac hit Lee's forces (reinforced by Jackson's) in what became the war's bloodiest single day of fighting. Total casualties at the Battle of Antietam (also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg) numbered 12,410 of some 69,000 troops on the Union side, and 13,724 of around 52,000 for the Confederates. The Union victory at Antietam would prove decisive, as it halted the Confederate advance in Maryland and forced Lee to retreat into Virginia. Still, McClellan's failure to pursue his advantage earned him the scorn of Lincoln and Halleck, who removed him from command in favor of Ambrose E. Burnside. Burnside's assault on Lee's troops near Fredericksburg on December 13 ended in heavy Union casualties and a Confederate victory; he was promptly replaced by Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker, and both armies settled into winter quarters across the Rappahannock River from each other.

After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863-4)

Lincoln had used the occasion of the Union victory at Antietam to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which freed all enslaved people in the rebellious states after January 1, 1863. He justified his decision as a wartime measure, and did not go so far as to free the enslaved people in the border states loyal to the Union. Still, the Emancipation Proclamation deprived the Confederacy of the bulk of its labor forces and put international public opinion strongly on the Union side. Some 186,000 Black Civil War soldiers would join the Union Army by the time the war ended in 1865, and 38,000 lost their lives.

In the spring of 1863, Hooker's plans for a Union offensive were thwarted by a surprise attack by the bulk of Lee's forces on May 1, whereupon Hooker pulled his men back to Chancellorsville. The Confederates gained a costly victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville, suffering 13,000 casualties (around 22 percent of their troops); the Union lost 17,000 men (15 percent). Lee launched another invasion of the North in June, attacking Union forces commanded by General George Meade on July 1 near Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania. Over three days of fierce fighting, the Confederates were unable to push through the Union center, and suffered casualties of close to 60 percent.

Meade failed to counterattack, however, and Lee's remaining forces were able to escape into Virginia, ending the last Confederate invasion of the North. Also in July 1863, Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant took Vicksburg (Mississippi) in the Siege of Vicksburg, a victory that would prove to be the turning point of the war in the western theater. After a Confederate victory at Chickamauga Creek, Georgia, just south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in September, Lincoln expanded Grant's command, and he led a reinforced Federal army (including two corps from the Army of the Potomac) to victory in the Battle of Chattanooga in late November.

Toward a Union Victory (1864-65)

In March 1864, Lincoln put Grant in supreme command of the Union armies, replacing Halleck. Leaving William Tecumseh Sherman in control in the West, Grant headed to Washington, where he led the Army of the Potomac towards Lee's troops in northern Virginia. Despite heavy Union casualties in the Battle of the Wilderness and at Spotsylvania (both May 1864), at Cold Harbor (early June) and the key rail center of Petersburg (June), Grant pursued a strategy of attrition, putting Petersburg under siege for the next nine months.

Sherman outmaneuvered Confederate forces to take Atlanta by September, after which he and some 60,000 Union troops began the famous "March to the Sea," devastating Georgia on the way to capturing Savannah on December 21. Columbia and Charleston, South Carolina, fell to Sherman's men by mid-February, and Jefferson Davis belatedly handed over the supreme command to Lee, with the Confederate war effort on its last legs. Sherman pressed on through North Carolina, capturing Fayetteville, Bentonville, Goldsboro and Raleigh by mid-April.

Meanwhile, exhausted by the Union siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Lee's forces made a last attempt at resistance, attacking and captured the Federal-controlled Fort Stedman on March 25. An immediate counterattack reversed the victory, however, and on the night of April 2-3 Lee's forces evacuated Richmond. For most of the next week, Grant and Meade pursued the Confederates along the Appomattox River, finally exhausting their possibilities for escape. Grant accepted Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9. On the eve of victory, the Union lost its great leader: The actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington on April 14. Sherman received Johnston's surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina on April 26, effectively ending the Civil War.

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Civil War - Causes, Dates & Battles | HISTORY

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The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between northern and southern states over slavery, states' rights and westward expansion. Eleven southern states seceded from the Union to form the Confederacy. Ultimately more than 620,000 Americans' lives were lost in the four-year war that ended in a Confederate defeat.

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877. 

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877. 

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Following the Louisiana acquisition, the United States gained access to enormous swathes of territory that were uninhabited (save for Indians) and which it sought to claim. The War of 1812 bolstered nationalism in the United States, leading many to feel that the west was theirs to seize, and that it was only proper for America to acquire the area in order to civilize and disseminate their values. Manifest Destiny sparked disputes with America's neighbors, as well as domestic discussions as the country grappled with the resurgent slavery problem. New states became embroiled in conflicts over whether they should be free or slave states, escalating tensions. The theme of migration and settlement is evident because American settlers continued to expand westward in desire for more land. The historical skill of development and processes can be applied here because the historical development of the migration westward was inspired by beliefs like the Manifest Destiny.

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–American War. 

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Objective 3: Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–American War. 

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Manifest Destiny was mainly to blame for the Mexican-American conflict. The United States felt that Mexico's thinly inhabited areas should be incorporated into the United States and colonized by freedom-loving Americans. James Polk, who was elected in 1844, promoted the concept that America should expand democracy as much as feasible. His election symbolized the United States' manifest destiny, and he worked tirelessly to extend the country westward. Mexico's rejection of peaceful American overtures to buy California, on the other hand, heightened tensions and finally led to war. The theme of America in the World is evident because America sought to expand through ideals in the manifest destiny and demonstrate their power over their neighbors like Mexico. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because due to a desire to expand, the U.S. entered Mexican areas like California and went to war, where they ultimately won a lot of land.

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What Caused the Mexican-American War of 1846-48?

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Objective 4: Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–American War. 

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Objective 4: Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–American War. 

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Different regions responded differently to the Mexican-American war. The South was the most enthusiastic supporter of the war, seeing it as a chance to increase the number of slave states and their Senate dominance. Meanwhile, the North saw little need to attack a neighbor for huge swathes of mostly desert, and was at best uninterested in the conflict. Following the war, a huge discussion about how the states should be split and whether or not to legalize slavery erupted, once again dividing the country along North-South lines. The theme of American and Regional culture is evident with the debate over slavery making it so that the federal government was trying to compromise with both sides. The historical skill of Argumentation can be applied here because in the video, the narrator argues that federal bills like the California Compromise attempted to appease both sides and cites evidence from the bill explaining what was in it for both the North and South.

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The Mexican-American War - Explained in 16 minutes

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Objective 5: Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877. 

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Objective 5: Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877. 

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Millions of Europeans and Chinese laborers arrived in the United States, transforming the culture of many of the country's destinations. The largest groups of immigrants, the Irish and Germans, were frequently Catholics in a Protestant country, worked for low wages, and lived in ethnic bubbles. They were influential on the political scene and affected politics in cities through political machinery. Chinese immigrants arrived in large numbers on the west coast. They were used as cheap labor, but owing to their color and culture, they were harshly discriminated against. New nativist movements, such as the Know Nothing Party, arose as a result of the severe reaction to immigration. These movements advocated for immigration limitations and acted as a check on immigrants' political influence. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because immigrants started to become apart of America's identity and an important value of the country. The historical skill of claims and evidences in sources can be applied here because the author claims that Chinese immigrants started coming to America and provides evidence citing how they played a important part in the construction of railroads.

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Group of Immigrants Cabinet of American Illustration

In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution, and nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England - the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. Even so, a relatively large group of Chinese immigrated to the United States between the start of the California gold rush in 1849 and 1882, when federal law stopped their immigration.

With the onset of hard economic times in the 1870s, European immigrants and Americans began to compete for the jobs traditionally reserved for the Chinese. With economic competition came dislike and even racial suspicion and hatred. Such feelings were accompanied by anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California, for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. The result of this pressure was the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by Congress in 1882. This Act virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century.

Immigrants entered the United States through several ports. Those from Europe generally came through East Coast facilities, while those from Asia generally entered through West Coast centers. More than 70 percent of all immigrants, however, entered through New York City, which came to be known as the "Golden Door." Throughout the late 1800s, most immigrants arriving in New York entered at the Castle Garden depot near the tip of Manhattan. In 1892, the federal government opened a new immigration processing center on Ellis Island in New York harbor.

Although immigrants often settled near ports of entry, a large number did find their way inland. Many states, especially those with sparse populations, actively sought to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming. Many immigrants wanted to move to communities established by previous settlers from their homelands.

Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. Men were generally paid less than other workers, and women less than men. Social tensions were also part of the immigrant experience. Often stereotyped and discriminated against, many immigrants suffered verbal and physical abuse because they were "different." While large-scale immigration created many social tensions, it also produced a new vitality in the cities and states in which the immigrants settled. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

To find other documents in Loc.gov relating to this topic, use such key words as immigration or immigrants, or include the names of specific immigrant or ethnic groups, such as German, Irish, Scandinavian, Swedish, Norwegian, or Chinese.

Documents

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Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States.

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Objective 6: Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War. 

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Objective 6: Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War. 

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Many individuals in the country were alive throughout the British abuse of former colonial peoples, and they were still harmed by the effects of how powerful foreign powers exploited them just because they were weak. After winning the Revolutionary War, Americans were ecstatic with themselves and their achievements in defeating one of the world's most formidable armies. They were passionate about Americanism (nationalism) and resentful of European immigration. The theme of Work, Exchange, and Technology is evident because the South had used slaves as a system of labor but Northerners started to oppose this morally, leading to regional differences. The historical skill of sourcing and situation can be applied here because this source's purpose was to inform and educate about the regional differences in the South vs North as khan academy is an educational source.

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Sectional conflict: Regional differences | Period 5: 1844-1877 | AP US History | Khan Academy

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Objective 7: Explain the political causes of the Civil War. 

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Objective 7: Explain the political causes of the Civil War. 

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There were several causes for the Civil War, all of which were linked to slavery. Both the North and the South were supported by rebellions, protests, fake news, propaganda, and other means. On both sides of the country, individuals were extremely diverse, yet they were equally enthusiastic about their beliefs. They weren't failing in their attempts to get their message out to their fellow citizens. The fundamental issue at hand was slavery's morality, and more importantly, its legality. The North continued to claim that slavery was harmful to society because of the abuse of African-Americans and the inequitable conditions in which they had to live. The theme of Politics and Power can be applied here because politicians in the North started to realize it would be favorable to be anti-slavery, which is part of the reason this belief grew. The historical skill of contextualization can be applied here because the second great awakening was a development in the early 1800s which made people feel as though slavery was a moral wrong, which was one of the causes of the civil war.

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Objective 8: Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election. 

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Objective 8: Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election. 

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The South regarded peace and compromise as hopeless after Lincoln's election, and began to plan to separate. By the time Lincoln was sworn in, secession had already begun, and war was looming. Although many of the Upper South did not want to separate, the outbreak of violence and Lincoln's deployment of federal troops forced them to do so. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because the idea of a national identity was not looking very good after Lincoln's election with South Carolina and eventually other states seceding from the union. The historical skill of causation is evident because Lincoln's election led to the fall of the union

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The Campaign and Election of 1860:

Going into the presidential election of 1860, the issue of slavery had heated the nation to the boiling point. How were the political parties going to maintain unity in the midst of such intense sectional conflict?

Winning Republican Support

After Abraham Lincoln's defeat in the race for the U.S. Senate, he spent the next sixteen months speaking and traveling all over the North making campaign speeches for numerous Republican candidates. His style avoided the wordy moral rhetoric of the abolitionists in favor of clear and simple logic. Lincoln was successful in laying the groundwork for his candidacy, since by the spring of 1860, many politicians were indebted to Lincoln for his support. Furthermore, because he was out of office and new to national prominence, he had offended no one in particular within the party. Most importantly, Lincoln had established a solid group of campaign managers and supporters who came to the Republican convention prepared to deal, maneuver, and line up votes for Lincoln. His chief opponent, and the man who was sure that he had the nomination in his pocket, was William H. Seward of New York. However, his front-runner status proved to be his greatest obstacle in that it opened him to political criticism even before the convention delegates had met.

The most powerful and prominent former Whig in the Republican Party, Seward-former New York governor and sitting U.S. senator-was known to be an uncompromising foe of slavery. Seward had voiced his opposition to the Compromise of 1850 and his hatred of slavery by saying, "there is a higher law than the Constitution" which should guide American actions regarding slavery. Eight years later, he coined the term "irrepressible conflict" in describing the state of relations between the North and the South as long as slavery remained alive in the nation. His close friendship with New York political boss Thurlow Weed alienated many midwestern Republicans, who feared political corruption. Additionally, Seward's long-established support for Irish immigrants, the basis of his New York City constituency, turned away former members of the anti-immigrant American Party, whose votes were needed to carry Pennsylvania and other states in the lower North.

When the Republican delegates gathered in Chicago at the Wigwam (a huge boxlike building) on May 16, they knew that the election of 1860 was theirs to lose. Almost immediately, a stop Seward movement emerged, based upon the argument that he would never carry Indiana or Pennsylvania. Seward led Lincoln on the first ballot 173 1/2 to 102. "I authorize no bargains and will be bound by none," Lincoln telegraphed his campaign managers, but they ignored him to line up delegate support. They won over Indiana and Pennsylvania by offering cabinet posts to those states. Lincoln then gained seventy-nine votes on the second ballot. With the momentum swinging his way, Lincoln won the third ballot.

The delegates then nominated the former Democrat from Maine, Senator Hannibal Hamlin, as Lincoln's vice presidential running mate. Holding true to its antislavery but moderate core, the party platform opposed the extension of slavery westward and denounced John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry. The platform also considered other key constituents by endorsing a protective tariff, a transcontinental railroad, and a Homestead Act that promised to give free land to settlers. This new Republican Party offered to bind the nation together as a free-labor society modeled on Northern capitalism, free wage-labor, and the ultimate extinction of slavery.

Democratic Disunity

After the historic debates with Lincoln, Stephen Douglas found himself vilified by Southern Democrats. He tried unsuccessfully to argue that his middle way would enable the nation to pass over the momentary issue of slavery in the territories and thus preserve the Union. But Southern radicals would have none of it. When the Democratic convention met in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 23, both Northern and Southern delegates were ready for a showdown. The traditional rule that a two-thirds majority was required for a candidate to win nomination enabled Southern Democrats to veto the nomination if they voted as a bloc. The first test came when the Southern delegates insisted on a plank favoring a federal slave code for the territories. Douglas, knowing that he would lose every Northern state if he agreed, refused to endorse the plank. When the delegates defeated the plank by a small majority, fifty Southern delegates, led by Alabama "fire-eater" William L. Yancey, walked out of the convention. Even with these radicals gone, Douglas could not win a two-thirds majority. Neither could anyone else, and after fifty-seven ballots, the convention adjourned to meet in Baltimore in six weeks to try again.

When the badly shattered Democratic Party reconvened in June, there was no hope for unity. A raucous floor fight broke out over which delegates from the Charleston convention should be recognized. When the Douglas forces finally established dominance in this matter, the Southern delegates pushed the slave code plank once again. For a second time, the Douglas forces beat it back and managed to nominate Douglas on a second ballot over John C. Breckinridge, the incumbent vice president. Herschel V. Johnson, a former governor of Georgia who supported both states' rights and unionism, was named to the second spot on the ticket. (He would later become a Confederate senator.) The party platform excluded reference to a slave code in the territories and supported the power of federal authority over the territories. It also affirmed its support for a transcontinental railroad to the Pacific and the acquisition of Cuba.

Furious Southern delegates, including many who had boycotted the convention, then reconvened at Maryland Institute Hall to nominate John C. Breckinridge as the candidate of the Southern Democratic Party for the presidency. To run with him, the convention selected Senator Joseph Lane of Oregon. The party platform supported a federal slave code in the territories, the acquisition of Cuba, and the construction of a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.

Constitutional Union Party

As the Republicans prepared to meet in Chicago, and after the debacle of the Democratic Party meeting in April, a third group of political leaders met in Baltimore on May 9 to form the Constitutional Union Party. Twenty-one states were represented by men who had been members of the old Whig Party and felt uncomfortable about the new Republican Party's radical leanings. They were also Southern Whigs who feared sectional division over slavery as a threat to property and domestic tranquility; some of these Whigs were former members of the American Party who were dissatisfied with either of the existing political groups. The Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell of Tennessee, Speaker of the House in 1836, war secretary under Presidents Harrison and Tyler, and a long-time U.S. senator. He was a Southerner who supported slavery but opposed its extension into the territories. Bell's running mate, former U.S. senator from Massachusetts and one-time president of Harvard University, Edward Everett, believed principally in the need to compromise on slavery in order to preserve the Union. Unlike the Republicans and Democrats, this new party refused to issue a platform statement other than to recognize "no political principle other than the Constitution" and the preservation of the Union.

White-Hot Campaign Trail

The campaign that followed witnessed none of the candidates except Douglas on the public stump. Breckinridge gave only one speech, Bell said nothing, and Lincoln, in keeping with campaign traditions, stayed at home in Springfield receiving delegations who came to pay their respect. Douglas, on the other hand, broke with tradition and campaigned all over the nation. He traveled from New England to the Deep South, shaking hands and giving speeches. Most of his appearances, to his dismay, were peppered with questions about what would happen should Lincoln be elected. In answering, he always affirmed the President's duty to enforce the laws. By October, concluding that the election was lost to Lincoln, Douglas began urging people to reject secession and work within the system.

Although the other three candidates did little or no active campaigning, each party sent hundreds of activists out on the trail. Southern firebrand William Yancey aroused Northern crowds by his incendiary warnings of secession should Lincoln be elected. Bell supporters handed out bells and rang them loudly at their rallies. None outdid the Republicans, however, as thousands of young men turned out in "Wide Awake" torchlight parades in support of Lincoln. Barbecues, picnics, rallies, rail-splitter battalions, and marches composed of six-foot-four Lincoln supporters listened to party celebrities extolling the honesty of Old Abe, the "Woodchopper of the West." Sympathetic voters were urged to "Vote Yourself a Farm" by voting for Lincoln and his Homestead Act platform.

His opponents countered by making fun of Lincoln's limited experience as a statesman and his "slang-whanging stump speaker" style, which they said reflected a limited intellect that would be an embarrassment to the nation should he be elected President. The Charleston Mercury ridiculed his looks, depicting him as a "horrid looking wretch . . ." unfit for office. Cartoons showed Lincoln dancing with black women and championing "amalgamation" and "miscegenation" (mixing of the races). One widely distributed picture showed Lincoln steering a ship with a thick-lipped black man embracing a young white girl sitting at his feet on deck. Other pictures were much cruder and even more blatantly racist, of a type never before so prevalent in a national election. One secessionist in Georgia warned that Lincoln planned to force the inter-marriage of black and white children, and that within "ten years or less our children will be the slaves of Negroes."

Impact of 1860 Election

The election of 1860 positioned the nation on the brink of fundamental change. A Republican win would end the South's political dominance of the Union. Southerners had been President of the U.S. for two-thirds of the time since 1789, and none of the Northern Presidents had ever won reelection. Up to that point in American history, Southerners had also controlled the speakership of the House, the presidents pro tem of the Senate, and the majority of Supreme Court justices for most of the time. A Lincoln victory needed only the addition of Pennsylvania, plus either Indiana or Illinois, to the Republican list of states won by Frémont in 1856.

When the votes were tallied, Lincoln, who was not on the ballot in any Southern state, carried all of the North but one state in the popular vote. With respect to popular support, Douglas came in second, followed by Breckinridge and Bell. The Electoral College results, however, placed the candidates in a different ranking. Most Southerners voted for Breckinridge, who carried eleven slave states of fifteen. Bell won in the more conservative upper South states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Despite his popular support, Douglas carried only Missouri. In the final Electoral College count, Lincoln beat Breckinridge 180 votes to 72. Bell polled 39 and Douglas came in last with 12 votes.

Clearly, the extreme positions identified with Lincoln and Breckinridge appealed to the majority of voters. On the other hand, the combined vote for Bell and Douglas was nearly one hundred thousand more than that for Lincoln. Taken together, those two candidates beat Breckinridge in large parts of Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky as well as in substantial portions of Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Had the Democratic Party stayed united, it would have carried the popular vote but still lost in the Electoral College due to Lincoln's win in the North. Thus, the 1860 election revealed the importance of the heavily populated Northern states in achieving victory in the Electoral College.

The Campaign and Election of 1864

The amazing fact about the election of 1864 is that it occurred in the first place. In the middle of a devastating civil war, the United States held its presidential election almost without discussion about any alternatives. No other democratic nation had ever conducted a national election during times of war. And while there was some talk of postponing the election, it was never given serious consideration, even when Lincoln thought that he would lose.

The second noteworthy fact about the election is that Lincoln won with a huge Electoral College victory and a substantial popular vote of 55 percent. Up to the very eve of the election, Lincoln was doubtful about his chances, and most of his key advisers had been warning him through the summer of 1864 to expect the worst. Part of the problem stemmed from the growing dissatisfaction within his own party by Radical Republicans, who doubted Lincoln's commitment to ensuring political equality for the formerly enslaved once the war had ended. They also opposed Lincoln's mild approach to Reconstruction that he had applied to Louisiana. The President's strategy allowed for the reorganization of the state's government if only 10 percent of its white males swore loyalty to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery. Radical Republicans contended that if such a plan were applied broadly to all the defeated Confederate states, the former rebels might return to power with little protection for the former slaves. To counter Lincoln's plan, Radical Republicans in Congress passed the Wade-Davis bill, which established a more severe Reconstruction model-50 percent of the voters had to swear loyalty to the Union-to be administered by Congress. When Lincoln pocket vetoed the bill and invited Southerners to rejoin the Union under his 10 percent plan or else the Wade-Davis plan, his opponents within the party publicly attacked him-and this was just months before the election of 1864.

Although Lincoln won nomination for a second term on the first ballot when the Republicans met in Baltimore in June, a dissident convention of Radical Republicans had met earlier in Cleveland on May 31. They chose the name Radical Democracy for their party, and they nominated John C. Frémont as their presidential candidate. This move for Frémont never got off the ground, however, and most Radicals swung back to Lincoln by summer's end. The initial break indicated, however, the uncertainty in the political support for Lincoln within his own party.

More serious than the division among Republicans was the threat posed by the Democratic Party, which met in Chicago in August. The Democrats boldly proclaimed the Civil War a failure, demanded the immediate ending of hostilities, and called for the convening of a national convention to restore the Union by negotiation with the Confederate government. The Democrats nominated General George B. McClellan, former commander of Union forces whom Lincoln had fired because of his failure to pursue Confederate General Robert E. Lee's army after the battle at Antietam in 1862.

Vicious Campaign

The ensuing campaign attacked Lincoln, and the Republicans gave equal measure in return. In its September 24, 1864, issue, Harper's magazine listed all the abusive terms that had been applied to Lincoln in the previous months: Filthy Story-Teller, Despot, Liar, Thief, Braggart, Buffoon, Usurper, Fiend, and Butcher. The Democrats confidently believed that the nation had grown weary of the war and of the way Lincoln had conducted it. Thousands of Americans disliked the draft, and at one point Lincoln had been forced to send troops to quell draft riots in New York City. Then too there was the hue and cry raised by the Democrats over Lincoln's abuse of power as President in censoring the press, extending military rule over areas adequately served by civilian government, and arresting and detaining war critics without benefit of a trial. The Democratic platform attacked Lincoln's use of presidential powers and claimed he had acted unconstitutionally.

Most importantly, Democrats believed that Lincoln had doomed his chances for reelection by turning the war from a conflict to preserve the Union into a battle to abolish slavery. Evidence of the President's shift in purpose was found in Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which was announced in September 1862 and officially proclaimed in January of 1863. Additionally, his decision to arm blacks and to allow them to serve in the U.S. Army was also perceived as having changed the war into a crusade to end slavery, which most Northerners-so the Democrats believed-only weakly supported.

Political Realities

In reality, however, Lincoln's chances were better than anyone (including he) guessed at the time. His campaign slogan of "not changing horses in mid-stream" made sense to most Americans. Moreover, large numbers of Northern Democrats supported Lincoln as the best hope of preserving the Union. When Vice President Hannibal Hamlin was replaced by Andrew Johnson, the Union Democrat from Tennessee who was Lincoln's military governor of occupied Tennessee, thousands of moderate Democrats in the border states moved into the Lincoln column. Additionally, the anti-Lincoln Democrats were in great disarray. Although the Democratic platform condemned the Union war effort as a failure and called for the immediate halt to the fighting and a negotiated settlement, McClellan denounced the platform and came out strongly for the preservation of the Union "at all hazards."Equally important, the Republican platform took a firm stand on the war and its aftermath, appeasing Lincoln's Radical opponents within the party. It vowed to crush the Confederacy and punish rebel leaders, supported a constitutional amendment to end slavery, offered aid to Union veterans, and demanded unconditional surrender. It seems, too, that most Northerners accepted the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of black soldiers as a military necessity that would cause anarchy within Confederate lines and weaken the South's will to continue fighting. The fact that the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to border slave states still in the Union and parts of secessionist states that had remained Unionist greatly reassured many Democrats that it was a reasonable tool of war, one that tried to protect the property of loyal slaveowners.

Most importantly, the vast majority of U.S. soldiers and their families supported Lincoln and wanted to end the war with victory rather than a negotiated stalemate. On election day, General Grant insured that the soldiers could and would vote by absentee ballot; and for those who came from states where no absentee provisions existed, he furloughed them by the thousands so that they could go home and vote for Lincoln. This vote by the soldier-citizens of the war-who overwhelmingly supported Lincoln-when combined with the military victories won by Admiral Farragut in seizing Mobile Bay and General William Tecumseh Sherman at Atlanta in the late summer of 1864, united the Republican Party behind Lincoln and won him the election. In this landslide victory, the President won the electoral votes of twenty-two states, losing only Delaware, Kentucky, and New Jersey to McClellan.

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Abraham Lincoln: Campaigns and Elections | Miller Center

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The Campaign and Election of 1860: Going into the presidential election of 1860, the issue of slavery had heated the nation to the boiling point. How were the political parties going to maintain unity in the midst of such intense sectional conflict? Winning Republican Support After Abraham Lincoln's defeat in the race for the U.S.

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Objective 9: Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War. 

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Objective 9: Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War. 

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During the American Civil War, the Union held a significant material and personnel edge over the South. The South, which mostly focused on agriculture, was unable to create as many weapons to arm its troops. In comparison to the North, their losses were also considerably more difficult to replace due to their smaller population. Furthermore, the US was able to blockade Southern ports and suffocate their export-oriented economy by cutting them off from the sea. The theme of Social Structures is evident because Black Americans helped the Union win the civil war despite them being on the bottom of the social hierarchy. The historical skill of Development and Processes can be applied because the historical development of America winning the civil war was that the union remained together.

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Why did the Union win the American Civil War?

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Objective 10: Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war. 

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Objective 10: Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war. 

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Lincoln and most Union supporters started the Civil War to keep the Union together, but his decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation transformed the conflict's emphasis and prevented the Confederacy from receiving full diplomatic backing from European nations. Many African Americans left southern plantations and joined the Union Army, helping to bring down the Confederacy. In speeches like the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln strove to reunify the country by depicting the battle against slavery as a fulfillment of America's essential democratic beliefs. The theme of American and National Identity because Lincoln kept the values of patriotism and the idea of a union together. The historical skill of argumentation is evident because the author argues that Lincoln helped keep the country together and cites speeches like the Gettysburg Address to defend his position.

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Abraham Lincoln's Childhood and Early Life

Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, to Nancy and Thomas Lincoln in a one-room log cabin in Hardin County, Kentucky. His family moved to southern Indiana in 1816. Lincoln's formal schooling was limited to three brief periods in local schools, as he had to work constantly to support his family.

In 1830, his family moved to Macon County in southern Illinois, and Lincoln got a job working on a river flatboat hauling freight down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. After settling in the town of New Salem, Illinois, where he worked as a shopkeeper and a postmaster, Lincoln became involved in local politics as a supporter of the Whig Party, winning election to the Illinois state legislature in 1834.

Like his Whig heroes Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, Lincoln opposed the spread of slavery to the territories, and had a grand vision of the expanding United States, with a focus on commerce and cities rather than agriculture.

Did you know? The war years were difficult for Abraham Lincoln and his family. After his young son Willie died of typhoid fever in 1862, the emotionally fragile Mary Lincoln, widely unpopular for her frivolity and spendthrift ways, held seances in the White House in the hopes of communicating with him, earning her even more derision.

Lincoln taught himself law, passing the bar examination in 1836. The following year, he moved to the newly named state capital of Springfield. For the next few years, he worked there as a lawyer and served clients ranging from individual residents of small towns to national railroad lines.

He met Mary Todd, a well-to-do Kentucky belle with many suitors (including Lincoln's future political rival, Stephen Douglas), and they married in 1842. The Lincolns went on to have four children together, though only one would live into adulthood: Robert Todd Lincoln (1843-1926), Edward Baker Lincoln (1846-1850), William Wallace Lincoln (1850-1862) and Thomas "Tad" Lincoln (1853-1871).

Abraham Lincoln Enters Politics

Lincoln won election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1846 and began serving his term the following year. As a congressman, Lincoln was unpopular with many Illinois voters for his strong stance against the Mexican-American War. Promising not to seek reelection, he returned to Springfield in 1849.

Events conspired to push him back into national politics, however: Douglas, a leading Democrat in Congress, had pushed through the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which declared that the voters of each territory, rather than the federal government, had the right to decide whether the territory should be slave or free.

On October 16, 1854, Lincoln went before a large crowd in Peoria to debate the merits of the Kansas-Nebraska Act with Douglas, denouncing slavery and its extension and calling the institution a violation of the most basic tenets of the Declaration of Independence.

With the Whig Party in ruins, Lincoln joined the new Republican Party-formed largely in opposition to slavery's extension into the territories-in 1856 and ran for the Senate again that year (he had campaigned unsuccessfully for the seat in 1855 as well). In June, Lincoln delivered his now-famous "house divided" speech, in which he quoted from the Gospels to illustrate his belief that "this government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free."

Lincoln then squared off against Douglas in a series of famous debates; though he lost the Senate election, Lincoln's performance made his reputation nationally.

Abraham Lincoln's 1860 Presidential Campaign

Lincoln's profile rose even higher in early 1860 after he delivered another rousing speech at New York City's Cooper Union. That May, Republicans chose Lincoln as their candidate for president, passing over Senator William H. Seward of New York and other powerful contenders in favor of the rangy Illinois lawyer with only one undistinguished congressional term under his belt.

In the general election, Lincoln again faced Douglas, who represented the northern Democrats; southern Democrats had nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, while John Bell ran for the brand new Constitutional Union Party. With Breckenridge and Bell splitting the vote in the South, Lincoln won most of the North and carried the Electoral College to win the White House.

He built an exceptionally strong cabinet composed of many of his political rivals, including Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates and Edwin M. Stanton.

Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War

After years of sectional tensions, the election of an antislavery northerner as the 16th president of the United States drove many southerners over the brink. By the time Lincoln was inaugurated as 16th U.S. president in March 1861, seven southern states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.

Lincoln ordered a fleet of Union ships to supply the federal Fort Sumter in South Carolina in April. The Confederates fired on both the fort and the Union fleet, beginning the Civil War. Hopes for a quick Union victory were dashed by defeat in the Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), and Lincoln called for 500,000 more troops as both sides prepared for a long conflict.

While the Confederate leader Jefferson Davis was a West Point graduate, Mexican War hero and former secretary of war, Lincoln had only a brief and undistinguished period of service in the Black Hawk War (1832) to his credit. He surprised many when he proved to be a capable wartime leader, learning quickly about strategy and tactics in the early years of the Civil War, and about choosing the ablest commanders.

General George McClellan, though beloved by his troops, continually frustrated Lincoln with his reluctance to advance, and when McClellan failed to pursue Robert E. Lee's retreating Confederate Army in the aftermath of the Union victory at Antietam in September 1862, Lincoln removed him from command.

During the war, Lincoln drew criticism for suspending some civil liberties, including the right of habeas corpus, but he considered such measures necessary to win the war.

Emancipation Proclamation and Gettysburg Address

Shortly after the Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg), Lincoln issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, and freed all of the enslaved people in the rebellious states not under federal control, but left those in the border states (loyal to the Union) in bondage.

Though Lincoln once maintained that his "paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy slavery," he nonetheless came to regard emancipation as one of his greatest achievements and would argue for the passage of a constitutional amendment outlawing slavery (eventually passed as the 13th Amendment after his death in 1865).

Two important Union victories in July 1863-at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania-finally turned the tide of the war. General George Meade missed the opportunity to deliver a final blow against Lee's army at Gettysburg, and Lincoln would turn by early 1864 to the victor at Vicksburg, Ulysses S. Grant, as supreme commander of the Union forces.

In November 1863, Lincoln delivered a brief speech (just 272 words) at the dedication ceremony for the new national cemetery at Gettysburg. Published widely, the Gettysburg Address eloquently expressed the war's purpose, harking back to the Founding Fathers, the Declaration of Independence and the pursuit of human equality. It became the most famous speech of Lincoln's presidency, and one of the most widely quoted speeches in history.

Abraham Lincoln Wins 1864 Presidential Election

In 1864, Lincoln faced a tough reelection battle against the Democratic nominee, the former Union General George McClellan, but Union victories in battle (especially General William T. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September) swung many votes the president's way. In his second inaugural address, delivered on March 4, 1865, Lincoln addressed the need to reconstruct the South and rebuild the Union: "With malice toward none; with charity for all."

As Sherman marched triumphantly northward through the Carolinas after staging his March to the Sea from Atlanta, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9. Union victory was near, and Lincoln gave a speech on the White House lawn on April 11, urging his audience to welcome the southern states back into the fold. Tragically, Lincoln would not live to help carry out his vision of Reconstruction.

Abraham Lincoln's Assassination

On the night of April 14, 1865, the actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth slipped into the president's box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., and shot him point-blank in the back of the head. Lincoln was carried to a boardinghouse across the street from the theater, but he never regained consciousness, and died in the early morning hours of April 15, 1865.

Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr. On April 21, 1865, a train carrying his coffin left Washington, D.C. on its way to Springfield, Illinois, where he would be buried on May 4. Abraham Lincoln's funeral train traveled through 180 cities and seven states so mourners could pay homage to the fallen president.

Today, Lincoln's birthday-alongside the birthday of George Washington-is honored on President's Day, which falls on the third Monday of February.

Abraham Lincoln Quotes

"Nothing valuable can be lost by taking time."

"I want it said of me by those who knew me best, that I always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower would grow."

"I am rather inclined to silence, and whether that be wise or not, it is at least more unusual nowadays to find a man who can hold his tongue than to find one who cannot."

"I am exceedingly anxious that this Union, the Constitution, and the liberties of the people shall be perpetuated in accordance with the original idea for which that struggle was made, and I shall be most happy indeed if I shall be a humble instrument in the hands of the Almighty, and of this, his almost chosen people, for perpetuating the object of that great struggle."

"This is essentially a People's contest. On the side of the Union, it is a struggle for maintaining in the world, that form, and substance of government, whose leading object is, to elevate the condition of men-to lift artificial weights from all shoulders-to clear the paths of laudable pursuit for all-to afford all, an unfettered start, and a fair chance, in the race of life."

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."

"This nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom-and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

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Abraham Lincoln: Facts, Birthday & Assassination | HISTORY

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Abraham Lincoln, a self-taught lawyer, legislator and vocal opponent of slavery, was elected 16th president of the United States in November 1860, shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. He led the nation through the bloody conflict and declared all enslaved people free under the Emancipation Proclamation.

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Objective 11: Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877. 

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Objective 11: Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877. 

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Reconstruction changed state-federal relations and spurred debates regarding new definitions of citizenship, particularly in regard to African Americans', women's, and other minorities' rights. The 13th Amendment ended slavery, while the 14th and 15th Amendments guaranteed African Americans citizenship, equal protection under the law, and voting rights. The Constitution's 14th and 15th amendments both strengthened and divided the women's rights movement. Attempts by radical and moderate Republicans to reform racial relations in the defeated South and change the power balance between Congress and the president yielded some short-term victories. As a consequence of Reconstruction, former slaves were granted political and other leadership responsibilities, however it eventually failed owing to both vigorous Southern resistance and the North's waning determination. The theme of Social Structure is evident because the Reconstruction era helped rise African Americans status in society. The historical skill of continuity and change can be applied because African Americans continued to lack land ownership but had more rights, such as voting now.

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Objective 12: Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American. 

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Objective 12: Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American. 

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Plantation owners in the South continued to hold the bulk of the land in the region even after Reconstruction. Former slaves aspired to acquire property, but were unable to do so because to the South's exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system, which limited land access for both blacks and impoverished whites. Segregation, violence, Supreme Court rulings, and local political practices all weakened African American liberty over time, but the 14th and 15th amendments laid the groundwork for civil rights court decisions in the twentieth century. The theme of Politics and Power is evident because radical republicans helped pass bills through congress which increased rights for African Americans. The historical skill of continuity and change can be applied because in the South especially African Americans continued to be viewed as subordinate and not worthy of rights whereas in the North they received more rights and were somewhat deemed important members in society.

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Objective 13: Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values. 

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Objective 13: Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values. 

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One of the most significant repercussions of the Civil War on America was that it unified the country and helped Americans identify with their federal government rather than their state governments. The inability of the South to secede increased the federal government's strength, and sentiments about the federal government shifted indefinitely. Other developments include the extension of rights, which resulted in a shift in American national identity to embrace African Americans to some extent. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because the civil war created a unified country and helped create an American identity centered around patriotism. The historical skill of comparison can be applied because values before and after in America changed resulting in a more unified country.

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Comparing the effects of the Civil War on American national identity | US history | Khan Academy

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached the chapter 11 notes for this objective. This set of notes explain how political parties had emerged with differing ideologies with the primary conflict being over strong vs weak national governments. Eventually, the federalist party weakens until it dissolves. The constitution in general didn't solve all problems, such as slavery. Instead, it merely brushed past them. Finally, the population of America was increasing and changing. The theme of American and National Identity can be applied here because there was a rise in patriotism during this time with America eager to make their own culture and distance themselves from Europe. The historical thinking skill of contextualization can be applied here because the desire to distance from Europe came about from the context of America's conflict with Europe in the past and the spread of enlightenment beliefs.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic. 

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic. 

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I attached the chapter 11 notes for this objective as well. This set of notes explains how some of the causes of policy debates were jefferson and madison reduce taxing and tariffs but expanding federal power in the long run through the embargo act and louisiana purchase. In terms of the debate over the power of the Supreme Court, a weak Scotus and john marshall being appointed as chief justice ultimately led to the SCOTUS having more power and the federal government also expanding their power through cases like Gibbons v. Ogden. The theme of Politics and Power is evident because Jefferson and Madison had some contracting actions during their administration which caused policy debates. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because Jefferson and Madison's policies or lack of policies as it pertains to the Supreme Court giving the federal government and federalists more power led to many policy debates.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes

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Objective 3: Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic. 

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Objective 3: Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic. 

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I attached this article from Khan Academy for this objective. This article explains how different regional interests led to the South and Midwest wanted a rather limited role of the federal government while the North wanted a stronger federal government. For example, because the South wanted more slave states, they wanted new states to decide whether they would be slave or free through voting without interference or dictation from the federal government. A temporary solution between the slavery problem was the Missouri Compromise, which essentially made Missouri a slave state and entered Maine as a free state. The theme of American and Regional culture is evident here because the South and north differ in terms of their believes on topics such as slavery and hence differ on their opinion on the role of the federal government. The historical skill of sourcing and situation can be applied here because khan academy is an educational source that is providing factual information without really making an argument. Hence, we know that the information is factual and reliable.

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Politics and regional interests (article) | Khan Academy

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Objective 4: Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time. 

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Objective 4: Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time. 

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I attached the chapter 12 cornell notes for this assignment. This set of notes explains how the while America originally started out being isolationist, America slowly being invested into foreign affairs, such as the War of 1812, the Louisiana purchase, and the monroe doctrine essentially declaring that anyone who tried to meddle into Latin American affairs would be faced with American aggression. The theme of America in the World is evident because America began to think of itself as more powerful in the world, as displayed through the Monroe Doctrine. The historical skill of development and processes because as American patriotism increased, America started to become more confident in it's world standing, hence getting involved in foreign affairs.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time. 

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Objective 5: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time. 

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I attached this article from apprend.io for this objective. This article explains some of the causes for the rise in innovations was the inventions of the cotton gin, textile mill, interchangeable parts as well as better transportation systems and the expansion of slavery and immigrants. The effects was that there was growing sectionalism between the north and south but a more interconnected economy in that cotton was transported to the north and fabric to the south. The theme of work, exchange, and technology can be applied here because goods were exchanged between the north and south due to better transportation which led to a better and more interconnected economy. The historical skill of claims and evidence in sources can be applied here because the source provides evidence as to how interactions between the north and south increases, demonstrating a more interconnected economy.

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The Market Revolution for APUSH About the Author: Johnny Roy has been an Advanced Placement US History teacher for the past 8 years at Cuyahoga Heights High School just outside of Cleveland, Ohio. He has been actively involved with the AP

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Objective 6: Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time. 

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Objective 6: Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time. 

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I attached the same article from apprend.io for this objective as well. The article explains how these innovations led to poor working conditions for many ordinary Americans, particularly immigrants and a growing gap between the wealthy and the poor. The irish were immigrating to America because of a potato famine and finding work in terrible factories in the North. The germans were immigrating in search of political freedom. In general, the growth of factories led to a decrease in subsistence farming. The theme of Migration and Settlement can be applied here because the rise in innovations in these categories led to more of a need for labor in factories which was supplied by irish and german immigrants. The historical skill of argumentation can be applied here because the author argues that irish and german immigrants were migrating to fulfill the need for labor and backs this up citing the reasons they were leaving their respective countries.

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The Market Revolution for APUSH About the Author: Johnny Roy has been an Advanced Placement US History teacher for the past 8 years at Cuyahoga Heights High School just outside of Cleveland, Ohio. He has been actively involved with the AP

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Objective 7: Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.

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Objective 7: Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.

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I attached the chapter 13 cornell notes for this assignment. This set of notes explains how how the removal of the land requirement for voting and the jacksonian era led to an expansion of participatory democracy with more ordinary white men being able to vote. The effects of this was the spoils system amd popular campaigning to the ordinary people as well as a new party system consisting of the republicans vs whigs. The theme of social structures is evident because the common man was rising up the ranks of the social ladder and having a voice in voting now primarily thanks to the jacksonian era. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because a cause of Andrew Jackson presidency and popularity was that the ordinary man felt represented and now had more of a voice thanks to his policy to remove the land requirement for voting.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (1)

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Objective 8: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.

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Objective 8: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.

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I attached the chapter 14 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explain how the causes of policy debates about the federal government was the rising tariffs and Henry's clay proposal for federal internal improvements. Also, american settlers pushing west, leading to the natives being unhappy and attacking back played a part in the passing of the Indian Removal Act. The national bank was vetoed by Jackson, which leads to an economic depression. The theme of Politics and Power is evident because Jackson used his power to pass things like the Indian Removal Act, which despite a lot of debate and discouragement from the Supreme Court, went through anyway. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because the Whigs Party formation was primarily because of contrasting viewpoints and debates with Jackson and his supporters over the rule of the federal government.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (2)

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Objective 9: Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 9: Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached the chapter 15 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explain that a national culture developed in America primarily due to a rise in education, transcendentalism and the emergence of american art based around nature and liberation. Also, men began to work in the outside world, while women do the domestic work in the house. The theme of American and National Identity is evident here because an identity based on education, men working and women handling the house, and patriotism was developing. The historical skill of argumentation can be applied here because the textbook states that there was a rise in the importance of education and backs this up by stating how the american dictionary by daniel webster was developed during this time.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (3)

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Objective 10: Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening. 

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Objective 10: Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening. 

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I attached the chapter 14 cornell notes for this objective as well. This set of notes explains how the causes of the Second Great Awakening included the churches being seen as insufficient, the market revolution transforming people's lives, resulting in coming back to religion and the fighting for the common man and religious rights. Also, women were feeling rejected and useless and hence, were given use through the Second Great Awakening. The theme of America and Regional Culture can be applied here because a cultural shift occurred in America with their being a religious revival due to the churches not doing enough for people and the need for reform in society with the rising gap between the social classes. The historical skill of contextualization is evident because the Second Great Awakening occurred in the midst of the desire for reform in society.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (3)

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Objective 11: Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 11: Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached the chapter 16 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explain how the abolition movement expanded during this time with the second great awakening demonstrating to people that slavery was morally wrong. The women's suffrage movement also developed, with women beginning to fight for the right to vote. Orphanages, asylums and workhouses for poor were created with helping wanting to help those in need because of the second great awakening. The theme of America and Regional Culture is evident here because a cultural shift caused the second great awakening, which led to many reform movements. The historical skill of development and processes can be applied here because the historical development of the second great awakening caused people to look at the moral wrongs in society, hence the rise in the abolition movement and creation of orphanages and workhouses for poor.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (4)

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Objective 12: Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 12: Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached the chapter 16 cornell notes for this objective as well. This set of notes explains how in terms of continuities, African Americans were still enslaved in south, discriminated against in the North, virtually had no right, and couldn't vote. In terms of changes, there was emancipation in the North, the abolition movement was spreading thanks to books like Uncle Tom's Cabin and former slaves were showing resistance. The theme of Social Structures is evident here because slaves continued to remain on the bottom of the social hierarchy although the abolition movement was attempting to free them and move them slightly above. The historical skill of comparison can be applied here because despite some more support, African Americans still had no rights and were enslaved in the South while seeing limited freedoms in the North.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (4)

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Objective 13: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 13: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached the chapter 17 cornell notes for this assignment. This set of notes explain that the South had great land for farming, specifically growing crops like tobacco and cotton. Hence, slavery was used to provide free labor on these massive plantations that were dominated by huge planters. The South was known as the cotton king because of their huge exports of cotton to the North. The theme of geography and the environment is evident because due to the hot and dry climate and good terrain for farming, slavery was used to provide labor on these big plantations. The historical skill of development and processes because the historical concept of slavery in the South can be attributed to their terrain which supported farming as opposed to the North, which had land and conditions not as good for farming.

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Paras Takkar - [Template] [Template] Unit 4 APUSH Cornell Notes (5)

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Objective 14: Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848. 

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Objective 14: Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848. 

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I attached this article from Smarthistory for this objective. In terms of foreign policy, a American identity as developed through asserted power globally through the monroe doctrine and the indian removal act as well as the War of 1812. Economically speaking, a sectional but more interconnected economy developed between the South and North. In politics, the Jacksonian era led to the common white man having more power, an important part of this period's identity. The theme of American and National Identity is evident here because a unique American identify developed in this time based on power, the ordinary men and an interconnected and trade based economy. The historical skill of argumentation can be applied here because the monroe doctrine, cotton and fabric trade between the South and North, and the Jacksonian era provide evidence for this aspects of America's identity that developed during this period.

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Americans looked to define the nation’s identity, independence, and their ideals in the nineteenth century.

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which Americans gained independence and developed a sense of national identity

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Objective 1: Explain the context in which Americans gained independence and developed a sense of national identity

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I attached the chapter 6 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes goes over how the era of salutary neglect led to the colonists feeling as though they were independent and led to a national identity developing with their being political and religious differences in the colonies. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because a national identity developed as a result of the period of salutary neglect. The historical thinking skill of contextualization can be applied here because salutary neglect was an important period in American History which influenced the desire for independence.

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Paras Takkar - Chapter 6 Cornell Notes (1)

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War)

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Objective 2: Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War)

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I attached the French and Indian War DBQ Practice for this objective. While doing the DBQ practice, I learned about how  the main cause for this war was the British/French conflict over western lands. Some of the effects were the end of salutary neglect with the British not believing in the colonists ability to defend the land for themselves. Also, the proclamation of 1763 was passed. The theme of America in the World can be applied here because the French and Indian war delegitimized the colonists independent power with the British strictly enforcing their rule over the colonies after the war. The historical thinking skill of argumentation is evident because for this assignment, we had to make an argument as to how the French and Indian war effected relations between the British and the American colonies. I argued that the French and Indian War led to more direct rule being imposed by the British on its American colonies, such as increasing taxes on the colonists. This caused the colonists' ideology to shift from toleration to resentment towards the British.

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Objective 3: Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War

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Objective 3: Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War

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I attached the chapter 7 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explains Britain's policies that led to the revolutionary war. For instance, Britain passed the sugar act, the stamp act, and the townshend acts. These acts caused a lot of resentment amongst the colonists because they were forced to pay more taxes and had less freedoms. The theme of Politics and Power is evident because the British parliament used their political power to enforce laws that restricted the freedoms of the colonists. The historical thinking skill of continuity and change can be applied here because this new policy of the British was a change from the old era of salutary neglect.

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Objective 4: Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution

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Objective 4: Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution

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I attached this article from harvard.edu to answer this objective. This article talks about how the Enlightenment philosophies were a big reason for shift in colonial attitudes about government and the individual with colonists believing in Jock Locke and theory of a social contract with the govt as well as the common sense pamphlet by Thomas Paine. The theme of American and Regional Culture could be applied here because there was a shift in cultural beliefs as to the power of the individual vs government. The historical skill of Development and Processes is evident because the Enlightenment is the historical development which led to colonial attitudes shifting toward power of the people over government.

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Objective 5: Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution

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Objective 5: Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution

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I attached this article from digitalhistory.edu to answer this objective. This article argues that America was able to win the revolution due to the help of French and because of guerilla war tactics from the colonists. A theme that is evident is geography and the environment because America's geographical knowledge of their terrain gave them an advantage and allowed them to win the war. The historical skill of claims and evidence in sources can be applied here because the author backs up the point about help from French stating evidence that America was losing the war before the French came along and got involved directly.

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Printable Version In 1778, the royal army consisted of nearly 50,000 regular troops combined with over 30,000 German (Hessian) mercenaries. George Washington, in contrast, never had more than 20,000 troops under his command at any one time. Most of these American soldiers were young (ranging in age from their early teens to their mid-20s), landless, unskilled, and poor. Others were indentured servants and slaves who were serving as substitutes for their masters and had been promised freedom at the war's end. Also in the Continental army were many women who cared for the sick and wounded, cooked, mended clothes, buried the dead, and sometimes served in combat.

What made American victory possible?

For one thing, conquering the colonies was an almost impossible task. The sheer geographical size of the colonies made it impossible for British forces to occupy the countryside. Because of their inability to control the countryside, the British found it difficult to protect Loyalists from the fury of patriots, who sometimes tarred and feathered and even murdered those who remained loyal to the Crown. The colonies also lacked a single national capital, which, if captured, might end the conflict.

A major British mistake was failing to take sufficient advantage of Loyalists. Before the Revolutionary War began, some 50,000 Loyalists formed nearly 70 regiments to help the British maintain control the colonies. But British commanders did not trust the loyalists or respect their fighting ability. As a result, the British alienated many potential supporters.

The guerrilla tactics that Americans had learned during Indian wars proved very effective in fighting the British army. Militia men struck quickly, often from behind trees or fences, then disappeared into the forests. Because many Americans wore ordinary clothing, it was difficult for the British to distinguish rebels and loyalists.

Washington's strategy of avoiding large-scale confrontations with the royal army made it impossible for the British to deliver a knock-out blow. Only once during the Revolution (at Charleston, S.C. in 1780) did an American army surrender to British forces.

The intervention of France, Spain, and the Netherlands in the conflict made a crucial difference in the Revolution's outcome. It is highly improbable that the United States could have won its independence without the assistance of France, Spain, and Holland. Fearful of losing its sugar colonies in the West Indies, Britain was unable to concentrate its military forces in the American colonies.

All slave societies are highly vulnerable during wartime, and the British recognized that slaves might help them suppress the Revolution. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, Virginia's royal governor, issued an emancipation proclamation, freeing any slaves or indentured servants willing to serve in the royal army. At least 800 slaves joined Lord Dunmore's forces. But the threat of slave emancipation led many southern slaveholders to support the patriot cause.

Perhaps the single most important reason for the patriot victory was the breadth of popular support for the Revolution. The Revolution would have failed miserably without the participation of thousands of ordinary farmers, artisans, and laborers who put themselves into the line of fire. The Revolution's support cut across region, religion, and social rank. Common farmers, artisans, shopkeepers, petty merchants were major actors during the Revolution. Ex-servants, uneducated farmers, immigrants, and slaves emerged into prominence in the Continental Army.

The growth of popular participation in politics began even before the Revolution. In the years preceding the war, thousands of ordinary Americans began to participate in politics--in non-importation and non-exportation campaigns, in anti-Tory mobs, and in committees of correspondence linking inland villages and seaports. Many men joined groups like the Sons of Liberty to protest British encroachments on American liberties. Many women took the lead in boycotts of British goods; they also took up the spinning wheel to produce homespun clothes. During the Revolution itself, some 400,000 Americans, including at least 5,000 African Americans, served in the fighting for at least some time.

How was the war paid for?

Congress was reluctant to levy taxes. Instead, it borrowed money by issuing bonds. It also printed money, resulting in terrible inflation. The worthlessness of Continental currency inspired the phrase, "not worth a Continental." It became more difficult to get people to lend money. By 1779 and 1780, Washington's army had to confiscate supplies in order to feed and clothe itself.

Copyright 2021 Digital History

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Objective 6: Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society

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Objective 6: Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society

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I attached an article from lumen learning to answer this objective. This article explains how the American affected society in that it resulted in increased participation in politics and governance, the legal institutionalization of religious toleration, and the growth and diffusion of the population. The theme of Social Structures can be applied here because the American revolution resulted in the common man rising up the social ranks and having more of a voice now in government than before. The historical skill of sourcing and situation because this source's purpose is to educate people and not really make a claim, hence the language is neutral and factual.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777. The Revolution also unleashed powerful political, social, and economic forces that would transform the post-Revolution politics and society, including increased participation in politics and governance, the legal institutionalization of religious toleration, and the growth and diffusion of the population. The Revolution also had significant short-term effects on the lives of women in the new United States of America. In the long-term, the Revolution would also have significant effects on the lives of slaves and free blacks as well as the institution of slavery itself. It also affected Native Americans by opening up western settlement and creating governments hostile to their territorial claims. Even more broadly, the Revolution ended the mercantilist economy, opening new opportunities in trade and manufacturing.

The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. Most created weak governors and strong legislatures with regular elections and moderately increased the size of the electorate. A number of states followed the example of Virginia, which included a declaration or "bill" of rights in their constitution designed to protect the rights of individuals and circumscribe the prerogative of the government. Pennsylvania's first state constitution was the most radical and democratic. They created a unicameral legislature and an Executive Council but no genuine executive. All free men could vote, including those who did not own property. Massachusetts' constitution, passed in 1780, was less democratic but underwent a more popular process of ratification. In the fall of 1779, each town sent delegates--312 in all--to a constitutional convention in Cambridge. Town meetings debated the constitution draft and offered suggestions. Anticipating the later federal constitution, Massachusetts established a three-branch government based on checks and balances between the branches. Unlike some other states, it also offered the executive veto power over legislation. 1776 was the year of independence, but it was also the beginning of an unprecedented period of constitution-making and state building.

The Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1781. The Articles allowed each state one vote in the Continental Congress. But the Articles are perhaps most notable for what they did not allow. Congress was given no power to levy or collect taxes, regulate foreign or interstate commerce, or establish a federal judiciary. These shortcomings rendered the post-war Congress rather impotent.

Political and social life changed drastically after independence. Political participation grew as more people gained the right to vote. In addition, more common citizens (or "new men") played increasingly important roles in local and state governance. Hierarchy within the states underwent significant changes. Locke's ideas of "natural law" had been central to the Declaration of Independence and the state constitutions. Society became less deferential and more egalitarian, less aristocratic and more meritocratic.

The Revolution's most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans' victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufacturers, no longer content to reply on those in Britain.

Despite these important changes, the American Revolution had its limits. Following their unprecedented expansion into political affairs during the imperial resistance, women also served the patriot cause during the war. However, the Revolution did not result in civic equality for women. Instead, during the immediate post-war period, women became incorporated into the polity to some degree as "republican mothers." These new republican societies required virtuous citizens and it became mothers' responsibility to raise and educate future citizens. This opened opportunity for women regarding education, but they still remained largely on the peripheries of the new American polity.

Slaves and free blacks also impacted (and were impacted by) the Revolution. The British were the first to recruit black (or "Ethiopian") regiments, as early as Dunmore's Proclamation of 1775 in Virginia, which promised freedom to any slaves who would escape their masters and join the British cause. At first, Washington, a slaveholder himself, resisted allowing free blacks and former slaves to join the Continental Army, but he eventually relented. In 1775, Peter Salem's master freed him to fight with the militia. Salem faced British Regulars in the battles at Lexington and Bunker Hill, where he fought valiantly with around three-dozen other black Americans. Salem not only contributed to the cause, but he earned the ability to determine his own life after his enlistment ended. Salem was not alone, but many more slaves seized upon the tumult of war to run away and secure their own freedom directly.

Between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves deserted their masters during the war. In 1783, thousands of Loyalist former slaves fled with the British army. They hoped that the British government would uphold the promise of freedom and help them establish new homes elsewhere in the Empire. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, demanded that British troops leave runaway slaves behind, but the British military commanders upheld earlier promises and evacuated thousands of freedmen, transporting them to Canada, the Caribbean, or Great Britain. But black loyalists continued to face social and economic marginalization, including restrictions on land ownership. In 1792, Black loyalist and Baptist preacher David George resisted discrimination, joining a colonization project that led nearly 1,200 former black Americans from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, in Africa.

The fight for liberty led some Americans to manumit their slaves, and most of the new northern states soon passed gradual emancipation laws. Manumission also occurred in the Upper South, but in the Lower South, some masters revoked their offers of freedom for service, and other freedmen were forced back into bondage. The Revolution's rhetoric of equality created a "revolutionary generation" of slaves and free blacks that would eventually encourage the antislavery movement. Slave revolts began to incorporate claims for freedom based on revolutionary ideals. In the long-term, the Revolution failed to reconcile slavery with these new egalitarian republican societies, a tension that eventually boiled over in the 1830s and 1840s and effectively tore the nation in two in the 1850s and 1860s.

Native Americans, too, participated in and were affected by the Revolution. Many Native American tribes and confederacies, such as the Shawnee, Creek, Cherokee, and Iroquois, sided with the British. They had hoped for a British victory that would continue to restrain the land-hungry colonial settlers from moving west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Unfortunately, the Americans' victory and Native Americans' support for the British created a pretense for justifying the rapid, and often brutal expansion into the western territories. Native American tribes would continue to be displaced and pushed further west throughout the nineteenth century. Ultimately, American independence marked the beginning of the end of what had remained of Native American independence.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777.

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Objective 7: Describe the global impact of the American Revolution

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Objective 7: Describe the global impact of the American Revolution

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I attached the chapter 9 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explained how the American Revolution inspired future independence movements in France, such as the French Revolution, in Haiti, and Latin America with Simon Bolivar leading the way. A theme that can be applied here is Work, Exchange and Technology because the ideas of the American revolution were exchanged and spread across the globe, inspiring revolutions. The historical skill of causation can be applied here because the American revolution inspired the other revolutions across the globe.

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Paras Takkar - Chapter 9 Cornell Notes (1)

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Objective 8: Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period

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Objective 8: Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period

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I attached the chapter 9 cornell notes for this objective again. This set of notes explains how the Articles of Confederation were passed as a result of the Revolutionary period, resulted in a weak alliance of states, fearful of a new powerful government replacing Britain. Also, state constitutions had checks and balances and set the model for the three branches of government. The theme of America and National Identity because it became a part of America's identity to check the government's power and preserve democracy. The historical skill of contextualization can be applied here because the articles of confederation were passed after the victory, with enlightenment ideals being very strong in America.

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Paras Takkar - Chapter 9 Cornell Notes (1)

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Objective 9: Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government

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Objective 9: Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government

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I attached the chapter 10 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explains how the constitutional convention of 1787 had people from all over with many different views on the function of the federal government. Also, there was a debate over the ratification of the constitution between the Federalists, who were more more strict governmental control vs Anti-Federalists, who were more in favor of the AOC. A compromise was reached with the Bill of Rights. A theme that is evident is American and Regional Culture as there was different governmental views in different regions of America with the North being more in favor of the Federalists while the rural South and Midwest were more so anti-federalists. The historical skill of argumentation can be applied here because both sides had made arguments at the constitutional convention with compromises ultimately being made.

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Objective 10: Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution

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Objective 10: Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution

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I attached the chapter 10 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explains how the ratification of the constitution led to a somewhat similar government forming with 3 branches, checks and balances and federalism. However, there was power given to the executive branch with the ability to tax and regulate trade. The theme of Politics and Power can be applied here because the political beliefs of America had slowly changed somewhat with the failures of AOC highlighting the need for at least a decently strong federal government. The historical thinking skill of continuity and change can be applied here because there was continuities with the constitution and AOC in that a system of checks and balances was in place but the executive branch of government was much stronger now.

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Objective 11: Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800

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Objective 11: Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800

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I attached this article from smarthistory to answer this objective. This article explains how conflicts with Native Americans persisted during this time period and there were many French trade disruptions and the XYZ affair which almost resulted in war with France. The theme of America in the World is evident because America was involved in affairs despite George Washington's neutrality policy, primarily with France. The historical skill of development and processes can be applied here because the conflict with France had developed and resulted in the XYZ affair.

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Essay by Dr. Bryan Zygmont

Great Britain wins and loses

In 1759 when the North American component of the French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War) concluded, Britain's control of the continent was all but assured and the balance of power in North America officially rested with Great Britain. As a result, France relinquished its territorial holdings in Canada and all its possessions east of the Mississippi River to their great rival.

The year 1760 not only saw the de facto conclusion of the French and Indian War, it also saw the ascension of George III to the British throne. The Seven Years' War-a conflict Britain waged in Europe, Asia, and North America-had emptied Britain's coffers to such an extent that the country had borrowed-from private investors and banks-more than £150 million pounds to finance the war. To put this into current terms, this sum amounts to tens of trillions-yes, trillions!-of dollars today.

If you are King George III and you need to raise money - tax the colonies

As a result, Britain had two herculean obstacles at the end of the Seven Years' War. In addition to being practically bankrupt, the rolls of the British army and had swelled to a size far greater than was necessary in peacetime. That payroll, combined with the already existing debt, required an immediate influx of money.

There are only so many ways in which governments can raise money. The most common way to do so is in the levying of taxes, and in the decade following the conclusion of this conflict, Britain specifically taxed their colonial subjects to such an extent that it was one of the primary causes for the rally for independence from the mother country.

The Sugar Act of 1764 was a continuation of the recently expired Molasses Act of 1733, and although the tax per gallon of molasses-crucial to the creation of rum-was decreased by half, the enforcement of the tax collection was greatly increased. The Stamp Act of 1765 taxed almost any product with paper, including legal documents and contracts, newspapers, and even playing cards. The failure of the Stamp Act brought about the Townshend Acts (1767-78) in which the crown attempted to tax everything from paper and tea to paint and lead.

Intolerable Acts

The spark that may have ignited the powder keg for independence, however, was the 1773 Tea Act. Finally, "no taxation without representation!" - made famous by James Otis in 1765-became a rallying cry for those who wanted to formally break with Great Britain. The Tea Act was passed on 10 May.

The Boston Tea Party-more a political act of resistance and defiance than anything else-took place late in the evening of 16 December 1773, a little more than seven months later.

Soon after, the British Parliament passed the first of the so-called Intolerable Acts, which were intended to punish the colonists and assert British control. The Boston Port Act, for example, provided the British navy the authority to prohibit all ships from either entering or leaving Boston harbor. Another, the Quartering Act of 1774, gave the royally appointed governor the authority to house British soldiers in private citizens homes.

The colonialists viewed these Intolerable Acts as nothing short of punitive acts of war. The Battles of Concord and Lexington, fought between the colonies and Britain, commenced the American Revolutionary War less than a year later.

The next fifteen years-that is, from 1775 until 1790-were tumultuous times in North America. If the war began on 19 April, 1775 at Concord and Lexington, it was the surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the Battle of Yorktown (17 October, 1781) that brought the fighting to an end. British and American delegates signed the Treaty of Paris on 2 September 1783, and this formalized the American colonies' break with Great Britain. Those fifteen years also witnessed the writing of two of the most famous legal documents in the history of the United States.

The Declaration of Independence

Indeed, the Declaration of Independence ("We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness") and the Constitution of the United States ("We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity...") contain some of the most eloquent passages in regards to human governance that have been written.

But these two documents-the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution-had differing purposes. The first was to unite the colonial cause in opposition to tyranny, and the second was to create a working system of governance. Not surprisingly, the first of these-getting people to unite against despotism-is comparatively easier than the second.

The debates over the United States Constitution occupied large parts of the new nation from the moment it was presented in September 1787 until it was finally ratified by Rhode Island-the last of the 13 colonies-on 29 May, 1790. In the more than two and half years between those dates, something profound (yet not surprising) happened: two distinct groups-the Federalists and the Antifederalists-were formed because of vastly different views as to what the Constitution should be.

The two-party system

This was the beginning of the two-party system in American politics. The Federalists-led by the writers of the Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison-advocated for a strong centralized federal government, while the Antifederalists-Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, and Samuel Adams among others-believed that the United States was best served by having stronger states' rights and a less prominent federal government.

The fact that Hamilton, Jay, and Madison needed to write the 85 essays that comprise what is collected as the Federalist Papers suggests the discord and disagreement that existed in the newly formed country in regards to what the United States was to become. This discord, however, was to continue through the end of the century with the creation of the two-party system that is part of American politics to this day.

Even though the American electoral landscape was somewhat united under the (comparatively) apolitical George Washington through the end of his second term as president in 1797, the voting for his successor in the election of 1796 was hotly contested and acrimonious, even within the political parties themselves. John Adams, Washington's vice president, defeated Thomas Jefferson by a relatively narrow electoral count of 71 to 68. This election was indicative of the political divide that would continue to this day.

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Essay by Dr. Bryan Zygmont In 1759 when the North American component of the French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War) concluded, Britain's control of the continent was all but assured and the balance of power in North America officially rested with Great Britain.

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Objective 12: Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic

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Objective 12: Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic

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I attached an article from history haven for this objective. This article explains how the idea of taxes and more strict governmental control developed with Hamilton's Financial Plan. At the same time, Jefferson and his supporters supported anti-tax, anti-tariff, and anti-bank laws with strong-state governments. Washington's Farewell address advocated for neutrality and the opposition of political parties, although it was clear a sense of division was forming. The theme of Politics and Power is evident here with growing division developing in the new republic. The historical skill of contextualization because this growing division in the new republic make despite calls of Washington for unity and no political parties.

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In 1750 only and the Netherlands had constitutional monarchies, governments that limited the powers of the king or ruler. All the other kingdoms of , as well as the Muslim Empires and , practiced absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from the tendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 because it extended the power they had over their subjects. Most of the rulers reinforced their powers by claiming special authority for the supernatural, whether it be the mandate of heaven as practiced in , or divine right as European kings declared. Between 1750 and 1914, absolute rulers almost everywhere lost power, and the rule of law became a much more important political principle.

One of the most important political concepts to arise from the era was the "nation-state," a union often characterized by a common language, shared historical experiences and institutions, and similar cultural traditions, including religion at both the elite and popular levels. As a result, political loyalties were no longer so determined by one's attitudes toward a particular king or noble but by a more abstract attachment to a "nation."
FORCES FOR POLITICAL CHANGE
As the Industrial Revolution began in , the economic changes were accompanied by demands for political changes that spread to many other areas of the world by the end of the 19th century. Two important forces behind the change were:

The influence of the Enlightenment - The 1700s are sometimes referred to as the "Age of Enlightenment," because philosophical and political ideas were begun to seriously question the assumptions of absolute governments. The Enlightenment began in Europe, and was a part of the changes associated with the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Protestant Reformation, all taking place between 1450 and 1750. The Enlightenment invited people to use their "reason" using the same humanistic approach of Renaissance times. People can figure things out, and they can come up with better governments and societies. In the 1600s John Locke wrote that a ruler's authority is based on the will of the people. He also spoke of a social contract that gave subjects the right to overthrow the ruler if he ruled badly. French philosophes, such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau spread the new ideas to , where they began uproar in a land that epitomized absolutism.

New wealth of the bourgeoisie - Ongoing commercialization of the economy meant that the middle class grew in size and wealth, but not necessarily in political power. These self-made men questioned the idea that aristocrats alone should hold the highest political offices. Most could read and write, and found Enlightenment philosophy appealing in its questioning of absolute power. They sought political power to match the economic power that they had gained.

REVOLUTIONS
A combination of economic, intellectual, and social changes started a wave of revolutions in the late 1700s that continued into the first half of the 19th century. The started in North America and , and spread into other parts of Europe and to Latin America.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Ironically, the first revolution inspired by the new political thought that originated in began in the North American colonies and was directed at . It began when American colonists resisted 's attempt to impose new taxes and trade controls on the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in 1763. Many also resented 's attempts to control the movement west. "Taxation without representation" turned British political theory on its ear, but it became a major theme as the rebellion spread from Massachusetts throughout the rest of the colonies. Colonial leaders set up a new government and issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The British sent forces to put the rebellion down, but the fighting continued for several years until the newly createdUnited States eventually won. The United States Constitution that followed was based on enlightenment principles, with three branches of government that check and balance one another. Although initially only a few had the right to vote and slavery was not abolished, the government became a model for revolutions to come.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
A very different situation existed in . No established nobility existed in the United States, so when independence was achieved, the new nation had no old social and political structure to throw off. In contrast, the Revolution in was a civil war, a rising against the Ancien Regime, or the old kingdom that had risen over centuries. The king, of course, had absolute power, but the nobility and clergy had many privileges that no one else had. Social classes were divided into three estates: first was the clergy, second the nobility, and the Third Estate was everyone else. On the eve of the Revolution in 1789, about 97% of the population of was thrown into the Third Estate, although they held only about 5% of the land. They also paid 100% of the taxes.

Part of the problem was that the growing class of the bourgeoisie had no political privileges. They read Enlightenment philosophes, they saw what happened in the American Revolution, and they resented paying all the taxes. Many saw the old political and social structure as out of date and the nobles as silly and vain, undeserving of the privileges they had.

The French Revolution began with King Louis XVI called the Estates-General, or the old parliamentary structure, together for the first time in 160 years. He did so only because the country was in financial crisis brought on by too many wars for power and an extravagant court life at . Many problems converged to create the Revolution: the nobles' refusal to pay taxes, bourgeoisie resentment of the king, Louis Vic's incompetence, and a series of bad harvests for the peasants. The bourgeoisie seized control of the proceedings and declared the creation of the National Assembly, a legislative body that still exists in today. They wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeled after the American Declaration of Independence, and they set about to write a Constitution for .

The years after the revolution began were turbulent ones that saw the king beheaded and the government taken over by the Jacobins, a radical group that sought equality through executing those that disagreed with the government. The Reign of Terror lasted for about two years, with thousands of people guillotined and thousands more fleeing the country. The Jacobin leaders themselves were eventually guillotined; the country teetered for several years in disarray, and finally was swept up by Napoleon Bonaparte as he claimed French glory in battle. Democracy did not come easily in .
CONSERVATIVE REACTION TO REVOLUTION
Napoleon Bonaparte, of minor nobility from the , rose through the ranks of the French military during a time of chaos. He seized the French Government at a time when no one else could control it. He promised stability and conquest, and by 1812 the French Empire dominated Europe to the borders of . His invasion of was unsuccessful, done in by cold winters, long supply lines, and Tsar Alexander It's burn and retreat method that left French armies without food. Finally, an alliance of European countries led by defeated Napoleon in 1815 at in modern day . Although Napoleon was defeated and exiled, other countries were horrified by what had happened in : a revolution, the beheading of a king, a terrorizing egalitarian government, and finally a demagogue who attacked all of Europe. To conservative Europe, was a problem that had to be contained before their ideas and actions spread to the rest of the continent.

The allies that had defeated Napoleon met at in 1815 to reach a peace settlement that would make further revolutions impossible. The Congress of Vienna was controlled by the representatives of three nations: , , and . Each country wanted something different. The British wanted to destroy the French war machine, wanted to establish an alliance based on Christianity, and wanted a return to absolutism. They reached an agreement based on restoring the balance of power in Europe, or the principle that no one country should ever dominate the others. Rather, the power should be balanced among all the major countries. actually came out rather well in the proceedings, due in large part to the talents of their representative, Tallyrand. However, the Congress restricted with these major decisions:

Monarchies - including the monarchy in - were restored in countries that Napoleon had conquered

was "ringed" with strong countries by its borders to keep its military in check.

The Concert of Europe was formed, an organization of European states meant to maintain the balance of power.

No matter how the Congress of Vienna tried to stem the tide of revolution, it did not work in the long run. was to wobble back and forth between monarchy and republican government for thirty more years, and then was ruled by Napoleon III (Bonaparte's nephew) until 1871, when finally a parliamentary government emerged. And other countries in Europe, as well as colonies in Latin America, had heard "the shot heard round the world," and the true impact of the revolutionary political ideas began to be felt.

From North America and , revolutionary enthusiasm spread throughout the Caribbean and Spanish and Portuguese America. In contrast to the leaders of the War forIndependence for theUnited States, most of the early revolutions in Latin America began with subordinated Amerindians and blacks. Even before the French Revolution, Andean Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, besieged the ancient capital of and nearly conquered the Spanish army. The Creole elite responded by breaking the ties to and , but establishing governments under their control. Freedom, then, was interpreted to mean liberty for the property-owning classes. Only in the French colony of Saint Domingue () did slaves carry out a successful insurrection.

The rebellion in 1791 led to several years of civil war in , even though French abolished slavery in 1793. When Napoleon came to power, he sent an army to tame the forces led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former slave. However, Napoleon's army was decimated by guerrilla fighters and yellow fever, and even though Toussaint died in a French jail, declared its independence in 1804.

Other revolutions in Latin America were led by political and social elites, although some of them had important populist elements.

- 's royal family fled to when Napoleon's troops stormed the Iberian Peninsula. The presence of the royal family dampened revolutionary fervor, especially since the king instituted reforms in administration, agriculture, and manufacturing. He also established schools, hospitals, and a library. The king returned to in 1821, after Napoleon's threat was over, leaving in the hands of his son Pedro. Under pressure from Brazilian elites, Pedro declared 's independence, and he signed a charter establishing a constitutional monarchy that lasted until the late 19th century when Pedro II was overthrown by republicans.

- Father Miguel Hidalgo led 's rebellion that eventually led to independence in 1821. He was a Catholic priest who sympathized with the plight of the Amerindian peasants and was executed for leading a rebellion against the colonial government. The Creole elite then took up the drive for independence that was won under the leadership of Agustin de Iturbide, a conservative military commander. However, Father 's cause greatly influenced 's political atmosphere, as his populist ideas were taken up by others who led the people in revolt against the Creoles. Two famous populist leaders were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, who like Father were executed by the government. was not to work out this tension between elite and peasants until well into the 20th century.

Spanish South America - Colonial elite - landholders, merchants, and military - also led Spanish colonies inSouth America in rebellion against . The term "junta" came to be used for these local governments who wanted to overthrow colonial powers. Two junta centers inSouth America were:

1. - At first, laborers and slaves did not support this Creole-led junta. However, they were convinced to join the independence movement by Simon de Bolivar, a charismatic military leader with a vision of forging "Gran Columbia," an independent, giant empire in the northern part of South America. He defeated the Spanish, but did not achieve his dream of empire. Instead, regional differences caused the newly independent lands to split into several countries.

2. - Another charismatic military leaders - Jose de San Martin - led armies for independence from the southern part of the continent. His combined Chilean/Argentine forces joined with Bolivar in , where they helped the northern areas to defeat the Spanish. Martin's areas, like those led by Bolivar, also split along regional differences.

All in all, constitutional experiments in North America were more successful than those in South America. Though South Americans gained independence from colonial governments during the 19th century, their governments remained authoritarian and no effective legislatures were created to share the power with political leaders. Why this difference?

The differences in political backgrounds of the two continents led to some very different consequences. For the United States (and eventually Canada), it meant that relatively democratic governments left entrepreneurs open to the Industrial Revolution, which, after all, started in their mother country. For Latin America, it meant that their governments were less supportive and/or more removed from the economic transformations of the Industrial Revolutions, and stable democratic governments and economic prosperity would be a long time in coming.
IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF REVOLUTIONS
The Enlightenment philosophy that inspired revolutions in the United States, France, and Latin America brought about lasting changes in western political ideology, with some people reacting against the chaos that revolutions brought, and others inspired by the values of democracy, liberty, equality, and justice. Three contrasting ideologies may be seen by the early 1800s:

Conservatism - People who supported this philosophy at first advocated return to absolute monarchy, but came to accept constitutional monarchy by the mid-1800s. Generally, conservatives disapproved of the revolutions of the era, particularly the French Revolution with all the violence and chaos that it brought.

Liberalism - Liberals supported a republican democracy, or a government with an elected legislature who represented the people in political decision-making. These representatives were generally from the elite, but were selected (usually by vote) from a popular base of citizens. Emphasis was generally on liberty or freedom from oppression, rather than on equality.

Radicalism - Radicals advocated drastic changes in government and emphasized equality more than liberty. Their philosophies varied, but they were most concerned with narrowing the gap between elites and the general population. The Jacobins during the French Revolution, and Marxism that appeared in the mid 19th century were variations of this ideological family.

REFORM MOVEMENTS
The political values supported by revolutions were embraced by some who saw them as applying to all people, including women and former slaves. Values of liberty, equality, and democracy had profound implications for change within societies that had always accepted hierarchical social classes and gender roles. Reform movements sprouted up as different people put different interpretations on what these new political and social values actually meant.

Women's Rights

Advocates of women's rights were particularly active in , , and North America. Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer, was one of the first to argue that women possessed all the rights that Locke had granted to men, including education and participation in political life. Many French women assumed that they would be granted equal rights after the revolution. However, it did not bring the right to vote or play major roles in public affairs. Since gender roles did not change in the immediate aftermath of revolution, social reformers pressed for women's rights in North America and Europe. Americans like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in theUnited States decided to concentrate their efforts on suffrage, or the right to vote. A resolution passed at , in 1848, emphasized women's rights to suffrage, as well as to education, professional occupations, and political office. Their movement did not receive popular support, however, until the 20th century, but their activism laid a foundation for large-scale social change later.

The Limits of the Abolitionist Movement

Although slavery was abolished in Europe and North America by the late 19th century, blacks did not realize equality within the time period. Although former slaves were guaranteed the right to vote in the late 1860s in theUnited States, they were effectively barred from political participation by state and local legislation called Jim Crow laws. Blacks all over the tended to have the least desirable jobs, limited educational opportunities, and lower social status than whites.

Conservative Reactions to Reform

During the late 1800s two systems of related political thought emerged among conservatives to justify inequalities:

Scientific racism - This idea system became popular among conservative thinkers in industrialized societies. It used scientific reasoning and evidence to prove its premise that blacks are physiologically and mentally inferior to whites. The theory generally constructed three main "races" in the world - Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Negroid, and built its arguments that basic differences existed among them that made Negroids inherently inferior to Caucasians. Scientific racism, then, justified the inferior positions that blacks had in the society and the economy.

Social Darwinism - This philosophy justified not racial differences, but differences between the rich and the poor. It used 's theory of natural selection (living things that are better adapted to the environment survive, others don't) to explain why some get rich and others remain poor. In the competition for favored positions and bigger shares of wealth, the strong, intelligent, and motivated naturally defeat the weak, less intelligent, and the lazy. So, people who get to the top deserve it, as do the people who remain at the bottom

Marxism

Another reaction to the revolution in political thought was Marxism, The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be Karl Marx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and vision for the future in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He saw capitalism, or the free market, as an economic system that exploited workers and increased the gap between the rich and the poor. He believed that conditions in capitalist countries would eventually become so bad that workers would join together in a Revolution of the Proletariat (workers), and overcome the bourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx envisioned a new world after the revolution, one in which social class would disappear because ownership of private property would be banned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality and cooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife, governments would be unnecessary. His theories took root in Europe, but never became the philosophy behind European governments, but it eventually took new forms in early 20th century and .
NATIONALISM
In older forms of political organizations, the glue of political unity came from the ruler, whether it is a king, emperor, sultan, or caliph. Political power generally was built on military might, and a ruler controlled the land that he conquered as long as he controlled it. Power was often passed down within one family that based the legitimacy of their rule on principles that held sway over their populations, often some kind of special contact with the spiritual world. The era 1750 to 1914 saw the creation of a new type of political organization - the nation - that survived even if the rulers failed. Whereas nations' political boundaries were still often decided by military victory, the political entity was much broader than control by one person or family. Nations were built on nationalism - the feeling of identity within a common group of people. Of course, these feelings were not new in the history of the world. However, the force of common identity became a basic building block for nations, political forms that still dominate world politics today. Nationalism could be based on common geographical locations, language, religion, or customs, but it is much more complex than that. The main idea is that people see themselves as "Americans" or "Italians" or "Japanese," despite the fact that significant cultural variations may exist within the nation.

Napoleon contributed a great deal to the development of strong nationalism in 19th century Europe. His conquests were done in the name of "," even though the French monarchy had been deposed. The more he conquered, the more pride people had in being "French." He also stirred up feelings of nationalism within a people that he conquered: "Germans" that could not abide being taken over by the French. In Napoleon's day did not exist as a country yet, but people still thought of themselves as being German. Instead Germans lived in a political entity known as "The Holy Roman Empire." However, the nationalism that Napoleon invoked became the basis for further revolutions, in which people around the world sought to determine their own sovereignty, a principle that Woodrow Wilson called self-determination.

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In 1750 only and the Netherlands had constitutional monarchies, governments that limited the powers of the king or ruler. All the other kingdoms of , as well as the Muslim Empires and , practiced absolutism. Absolutist rulers benefited from the tendency for governments to centralize between 1450 and 1750 because it extended the power they had over their subjects.

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Objective 13: Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800

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Objective 13: Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800

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I attached this article from sutori for this objective. This article explains how new forms of national culture developed in the United States alongside continued regional variations. Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture. The theme of American and Regional culture because more defined distinct regional cultures developed and had contrasting beliefs on issues like taxation and states rights. The historical skill of continuity and change can be applied here because division is something that was a continuity in American culture although there was a rise in national identity something new.

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Period 3 (1754-1800) Ideas Beliefs and Culture

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The time between 1754 and 1800 marks vast changes in the ideas beliefs and culture within and surrounding the United States of America, which was established during this time. The colonists underwent an escape from the monarchy in England, gained independence from England, and experienced a surging…

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Objective 14: Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time

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Objective 14: Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time

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I attached this article from boundless regarding migration in America during the American Revolution. This article explains how movement west causes tensions between Native Americans and American colonists. The US was expanding into the Trans-Appalachian West, which also angered other European powers like the French, which led to the French and Indian war. The theme of migration and settlement is evident because migration into the West within North America caused a lot of problems with natives and european powers for the British and the colonists. The historical thinking skill of development and processes because the historical process of westward process led to greater conflict between Natives and the Conflicts as well as the French and Colonists, leading to the French and Indian War.

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The first U.S. Census in 1790 reported a total population of around 3.9 million in the new nation. Nearly the entire enumerated population was composed of either immigrants or their descendants (most Native Americans were not counted). Combining from different sources, a rough estimate of the total number of immigrants from Europe and Africa during the colonial era (between 1500 and 1790) totals about 950,000.

As with most large-scale conflict, population shifts accompanied the upheavals of the American Revolution. By the end of the war, around 50,000 British loyalists had migrated to Canada, while 12,000 others had moved to other British colonies.

The war brought tens of thousands of temporary migrants in the form of foreign-born soldiers. British troops were aided by around 30,000 German Hessian mercenaries. On the American side, several thousand French troops aided the Continental Army at Newport, Rhode Island and Savannah, Georgia, and several prominent foreign-born officers served under George Washington, including the Germans Baron Von Steuben and Baron Johann de Kalb, the Polish-born Casimir Pulaski and Tadeusz Kosciuszko, and the French Marquis de Lafayette.

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Immigration during the American Revolution

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The first U.S. Census in 1790 reported a total population of around 3.9 million in the new nation. Nearly the entire enumerated population was composed of either immigrants or their descendants (most Native Americans were not counted).

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Objective 15: Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800

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Objective 15: Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800

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I attached this article from ushistory,org for this objective. This article explains how northern states were gradually emancipating slaves in the years after the American Revolution. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 banned slavery in the Old Northwest. However, the Southern states expanded slavery into the Southwest as the region gradually transitioned from tobacco to cotton. The theme of America and Regional Culture is evident as the North had developed anti-slavery beliefs slowly but in the South slavery was still rampant and crucial to the economy and one of the customs over there. The historical skill of Claims and Evidence in Sources can be applied here as the author mentions that the North was becoming anti-slavery and uses the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 as evidence for his belief.

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Born into slavery in 1760, Richard Allen purchased his own freedom for $2000 at the age of 20. He became a devoted Methodist preacher and founded the Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1794.

The American Revolution, as an anti-tax movement, centered on Americans' right to control their own property. In the 18th century "property" included other human beings.

In many ways, the Revolution reinforced American commitment to slavery. On the other hand, the Revolution also hinged on radical new ideas about "liberty" and "equality," which challenged slavery's long tradition of extreme human inequality. The changes to slavery in the Revolutionary Era revealed both the potential for radical change and its failure more clearly than any other issue.

Slavery was a central institution in American society during the late-18th century, and was accepted as normal and applauded as a positive thing by many white Americans. However, this broad acceptance of slavery (which was never agreed to by black Americans) began to be challenged in the Revolutionary Era. The challenge came from several sources, partly from Revolutionary ideals, partly from a new evangelical religious commitment that stressed the equality of all Christians, and partly from a decline in the profitability of tobacco in the most significant slave region of Virginia and adjoining states.

The decline of slavery in the period was most noticeable in the states north of Delaware, all of which passed laws outlawing slavery quite soon after the end of the war. However, these gradual emancipation laws were very slow to take effect - many of them only freed the children of current slaves, and even then, only when the children turned 25 years old. Although laws prohibited slavery in the North, the "peculiar institution" persisted well into the 19th century.

James Forten was a noted Philadelphia businessman and abolitionist.

Even in the South, there was a significant movement toward freeing some slaves. In states where tobacco production no longer demanded large numbers of slaves, the free black population grew rapidly. By 1810 one third of the African American population in Maryland was free, and in Delaware free blacks outnumbered enslaved African Americans by three to one. Even in the powerful slave state of Virginia, the free black population grew more rapidly than ever before in the 1780s and 1790s. This major new free black population created a range of public institutions for themselves that usually used the word "African" to announce their distinctive pride and insistence on equality.

Richard Allen founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church.

The most famous of these new institutions was Richard Allen's African Methodist Episcopal church founded in Philadelphia.

Although the rise of the free black population is one of the most notable achievements of the Revolutionary Era, it is crucial to note that the overall impact of the Revolution on slavery also had negative consequences. In rice-growing regions of South Carolina and Georgia, the Patriot victory confirmed the power of the master class. Doubts about slavery and legal modifications that occurred in the North and Upper South, never took serious hold among whites in the Lower South. Even in Virginia, the move toward freeing some slaves was made more difficult by new legal restrictions in 1792. In the North, where slavery was on its way out, racism still persisted, as in a Massachusetts law of 1786 that prohibited whites from legally marrying African Americans, Indians, or people of mixed race. The Revolution clearly had a mixed impact on slavery and contradictory meanings for African Americans.

The Loving Decision
The 1786 Massachusetts law prohibiting mixed marriages was just one of many statutes resulting in increased division between American citizens. Over time, other states added similar laws. It wasn't until the Loving vs. Virginia decision of 1967 that the U.S. Supreme Court nullified mixed marriage laws still in effect in 16 states.

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It always appeared a most iniquitous scheme to me to fight ourselves for what we are daily robbing and plundering from those who have as good a right to freedom as we have. -Abigail Adams, in a letter to her husband
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Despite America's efforts to return them to slavery after the War, over 3,000 African-Americans who had fought for the British, won passage to Nova Scotia, Jamaica and Britain.
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revolutionary changes and limitations: slavery

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Born into slavery in 1760, Richard Allen purchased his own freedom for $2000 at the age of 20. He became a devoted Methodist preacher and founded the Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1794. The American Revolution, as an anti-tax movement, centered on Americans' right to control their own property.

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Objective 16: Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800

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Objective 16: Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800

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I attached this article from lumen learning again to answer this objective. This article explains how in terms of society, the independence movement led to slavery ending in North, continuing in South. Also, enlightenment beliefs developed with calls for democracy and a government for the people. In terms of foreign affairs, the American independence movement inspired the French Revolution and resulted in the continual destruction of Native American culture. The theme of American and National Identity as America become somewhat united, inspired by values of democracy and rights of the people. The historical skills of causation can be applied here because the American independence movement caused the French revolution as well as conflicts with the French such as the XYZ affair and the further destruction of Native American culture with the British no longer somewhat protecting them.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777. The Revolution also unleashed powerful political, social, and economic forces that would transform the post-Revolution politics and society, including increased participation in politics and governance, the legal institutionalization of religious toleration, and the growth and diffusion of the population. The Revolution also had significant short-term effects on the lives of women in the new United States of America. In the long-term, the Revolution would also have significant effects on the lives of slaves and free blacks as well as the institution of slavery itself. It also affected Native Americans by opening up western settlement and creating governments hostile to their territorial claims. Even more broadly, the Revolution ended the mercantilist economy, opening new opportunities in trade and manufacturing.

The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. Most created weak governors and strong legislatures with regular elections and moderately increased the size of the electorate. A number of states followed the example of Virginia, which included a declaration or "bill" of rights in their constitution designed to protect the rights of individuals and circumscribe the prerogative of the government. Pennsylvania's first state constitution was the most radical and democratic. They created a unicameral legislature and an Executive Council but no genuine executive. All free men could vote, including those who did not own property. Massachusetts' constitution, passed in 1780, was less democratic but underwent a more popular process of ratification. In the fall of 1779, each town sent delegates--312 in all--to a constitutional convention in Cambridge. Town meetings debated the constitution draft and offered suggestions. Anticipating the later federal constitution, Massachusetts established a three-branch government based on checks and balances between the branches. Unlike some other states, it also offered the executive veto power over legislation. 1776 was the year of independence, but it was also the beginning of an unprecedented period of constitution-making and state building.

The Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1781. The Articles allowed each state one vote in the Continental Congress. But the Articles are perhaps most notable for what they did not allow. Congress was given no power to levy or collect taxes, regulate foreign or interstate commerce, or establish a federal judiciary. These shortcomings rendered the post-war Congress rather impotent.

Political and social life changed drastically after independence. Political participation grew as more people gained the right to vote. In addition, more common citizens (or "new men") played increasingly important roles in local and state governance. Hierarchy within the states underwent significant changes. Locke's ideas of "natural law" had been central to the Declaration of Independence and the state constitutions. Society became less deferential and more egalitarian, less aristocratic and more meritocratic.

The Revolution's most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans' victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufacturers, no longer content to reply on those in Britain.

Despite these important changes, the American Revolution had its limits. Following their unprecedented expansion into political affairs during the imperial resistance, women also served the patriot cause during the war. However, the Revolution did not result in civic equality for women. Instead, during the immediate post-war period, women became incorporated into the polity to some degree as "republican mothers." These new republican societies required virtuous citizens and it became mothers' responsibility to raise and educate future citizens. This opened opportunity for women regarding education, but they still remained largely on the peripheries of the new American polity.

Slaves and free blacks also impacted (and were impacted by) the Revolution. The British were the first to recruit black (or "Ethiopian") regiments, as early as Dunmore's Proclamation of 1775 in Virginia, which promised freedom to any slaves who would escape their masters and join the British cause. At first, Washington, a slaveholder himself, resisted allowing free blacks and former slaves to join the Continental Army, but he eventually relented. In 1775, Peter Salem's master freed him to fight with the militia. Salem faced British Regulars in the battles at Lexington and Bunker Hill, where he fought valiantly with around three-dozen other black Americans. Salem not only contributed to the cause, but he earned the ability to determine his own life after his enlistment ended. Salem was not alone, but many more slaves seized upon the tumult of war to run away and secure their own freedom directly.

Between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves deserted their masters during the war. In 1783, thousands of Loyalist former slaves fled with the British army. They hoped that the British government would uphold the promise of freedom and help them establish new homes elsewhere in the Empire. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, demanded that British troops leave runaway slaves behind, but the British military commanders upheld earlier promises and evacuated thousands of freedmen, transporting them to Canada, the Caribbean, or Great Britain. But black loyalists continued to face social and economic marginalization, including restrictions on land ownership. In 1792, Black loyalist and Baptist preacher David George resisted discrimination, joining a colonization project that led nearly 1,200 former black Americans from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, in Africa.

The fight for liberty led some Americans to manumit their slaves, and most of the new northern states soon passed gradual emancipation laws. Manumission also occurred in the Upper South, but in the Lower South, some masters revoked their offers of freedom for service, and other freedmen were forced back into bondage. The Revolution's rhetoric of equality created a "revolutionary generation" of slaves and free blacks that would eventually encourage the antislavery movement. Slave revolts began to incorporate claims for freedom based on revolutionary ideals. In the long-term, the Revolution failed to reconcile slavery with these new egalitarian republican societies, a tension that eventually boiled over in the 1830s and 1840s and effectively tore the nation in two in the 1850s and 1860s.

Native Americans, too, participated in and were affected by the Revolution. Many Native American tribes and confederacies, such as the Shawnee, Creek, Cherokee, and Iroquois, sided with the British. They had hoped for a British victory that would continue to restrain the land-hungry colonial settlers from moving west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Unfortunately, the Americans' victory and Native Americans' support for the British created a pretense for justifying the rapid, and often brutal expansion into the western territories. Native American tribes would continue to be displaced and pushed further west throughout the nineteenth century. Ultimately, American independence marked the beginning of the end of what had remained of Native American independence.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777.

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Objective 10: Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America

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Objective 10: Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America

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I attached this article from gmu.edu for this objective. This article explains how the different colonial regions were similar in that there was conflict with Natives and self-rule in the New England, Middle, and Chesapeake areas. In terms of religion, the First Great Awakening unified the colonies and many people in the New England, Middle, and South were involved in atlantic world trade but some people were subsistence farmers while others were cash crop farmers. The theme of American and Regional culture can be applied here because colonial regions developed differently according to their environment but had a lot of similarities in terms of conflicts with natives and self-rule. The historical thinking skill of comparison can be applied here because the colonial societies developed differently according to their environment.

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Students will explore the differences among the three colonial regions of New England, Mid-Atlantic / Middle, and the Southern colonies. In small groups for each region, students will observe and note details of pictures, maps, and advertisements in order to describe each region. Students will use historical reading skills to conclude how the geography and natural environment influenced the economic specialization of each region with special attention to the early colonial era. This lesson will prepare the learner for the concept of interdependence of the colonies as a result of specialization.

Historical Background

Colonial America depended on the natural environment to meet basic needs of the people and the colony. The available natural resources provided (or in essence dictated) what each region's unique specialty would be or become. Specialized economies quickly emerged as a result of human and environmental interaction.

Colonial America also had regional differences among culture or historical reason for establishment as a colony. The Southern Colonies were established as economic ventures and were seeking natural resources to provide material wealth to the mother country and themselves. In contrast, the early New England colonists were primarily religious reformers and separatists. They were seeking a new way of life to glorify God and for the greater good of their spiritual life. The Middle colonies welcomed people from various and diverse lifestyles. The social-political structure included all three varieties: villages, cities, and small farms.

Another difference is clearly noted in the human resources. New England had skilled craftsmen in the industry of shipbuilding. The Mid-Atlantic presented a diverse workforce of farmers, fisherman, and merchants. The Southern Colonies were primarily agricultural with few cities and limited schools. As these regions developed highly specialized economies, each could not supply everything that was needed or at least not as effectively as an interdependent system - they relied on each other for certain items or skills.

New England's economy at first specialized in nautical or boating equipment, while later the region developed mills and factories. The environment is ideal for water-powered machinery (mills), which allowed for finished products to be crafted, such as woven cloth and metal tools. The middles colonies had rich farmland and a moderate climate. This made it a more suitable place to grow grain and livestock than New England. Their environment was ideal for small to large farms. The coastal lowland and bays provided harbors, thus the middle colonies were able to provide trading opportunities where the three regions meet in market towns and cities. The Southern colonies had fertile farmlands which contributed to the rise of cash crops such as rice, tobacco, and indigo. Plantations developed as nearly subsistent communities. Slavery allowed wealthy aristocrats and large landowners to cultivate huge tracts of land. When strictly examining the geography of New England compared to the South, it is plausible that the vast space of the Southern region influenced the way it remained rural and still today holds that as a sense of pride or shared experience/identity.

Notable differences are found in the way social life was structured among regions. For the people of the South, life emerged as rugged and rural while people of the North are heavily connected to the Church and village community. These cultural differences remained and shaped some of the confrontations that needed to be addressed during the Civil War.

Lesson Objective

How did climate, geographic features, and other available resources distinguish the three colonial regions from each other?

How did people use the natural resources of their region to earn a living or have their basic needs met?

What are the benefits of specialization and trade?
How did political and social life evolve in each of the three regions?

Materials

Procedure

1. Hook: Have you ever thought of living in a place that is totally different from here? like an island or a farm, in a big city or perhaps in the mountains. Take a moment to pick one place that is different from here. Describe the climate and the weather. Name some natural resources in that environment. What kind of job could you/most of your neighbors have?

2. Model historical thinking skills: An image of the Boston map is projected and students are asked to list objects they see. Students answer the questions from their PSA question sheet (see student worksheet handout) by raising their hands. Teachers record student responses on the smart/white board. Teachers explain that some questions might not be appropriate for their picture, but the idea is to do the best they can and fill in as many details as they can.

3. Teachers explain that students will be split into "expert groups".

4. Each group will have 4-5 pictures from one region.

5. The students must work together to analyze which region they have and discuss the historical thinking questions.

6. Students record their observations for each source on a separate chart and label/title the chart as they go.

7. Students present their region to the class and show all of the images. A script is provided at the bottom of the student handout.

Assessment

Students will demonstrate knowledge of their assigned region by creating a rough draft of a poster or brochure that will describe life in the colonial age. Students will select a region or colony to feature in a letter to a family member urging them to join the student in the new land OR create a poster/brochure that advertises the features of the region. Students will provide details on how people interacted with their environment to produce goods and services. In order to exceed the Standard, student will need to include an example of interdependence among the regional economies. The student creation will be graded on a four-point formative rubric scale.

References

Hyde, Sir Thomas. A Plan of the town of Boston. c. 1777? Map. Washington, D.C. From Library of Congress: Geography and Map Division http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/lessons/tinker/newengland_gallery.html (accessed July 20, 2012) .

Habermann, Franz Xaver. Vue de Boston. illustration. Augsbourg: 177-. From Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print (accessed on July 20, 2012).

Image of New England fishermen from a late 19th-century history book. Shows evidence of fishing industry and ruggedness of the environment. http://ushistoryimages.com/colonial-massachusetts.shtm

Tisdale, Elkanah. Town Meeting. engraving. 1795: New York. printed by John Buel, 1795. Rare Book RR Repository: Library of Congress Rare Book Division Washington, D.C. (accessed via http://archive.org/details/poeticalworksofj01trumiala on November 24, 2012)

Carwitham, J. (John). A South East View of Great Town of BOSTON in New England in America. Etching hand colored. 1730-1760? (accessed via LOCpix.app on November 24, 2012)

Hill, John. Hudson. 1792. etching. later painted by Wall, W.G. 1821-1825. New York City. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print (accessed via LOCPix.app on November 24, 2012).

Peale, Charles Willson. The Accident in Lombard Street. 1787. Illustration. Philadelphia: From Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. Washington, D.C. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/93508047/ (accessed July 20, 2012).

Muchley, Robert. Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania : WPA Federal Art Project, between 1936 and 1941. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. (accessed on July 20, 2012).

Hall, John. William Penn's treaty with the Indians, when he founded the province of Pennsylvania in North America, 1681. painting. 1775 University of North Carolina http://www.learnnc.org/lp/multimedia/6575 Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. (accessed on August 25, 2012).

Kennerly, Samuel, Jr. M.D. Hermitage 26 Acres of Land. advertisement. Staunton Spectator: 1867. From Duke Library Emergence of Advertising in America. http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa/ (accessed on July 20, 2012).

The Old Plantation, c. 1790.
Credit: Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Museum, Colonial Williamsburg.
http://tdl.org/txlor-dspace/bitstream/handle/2249.3/679/04_southern_colonies.htm?sequence=5

Stearns, Junius Brutus. Life of George Washington-The farmer. illlustration. Lemercier, Paris: c. 1853. From Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington D.C. http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/lessons/tinker/preparation.html (accessed on July 20, 2012).

Washington, George. A plan of my farm on Little Huntg. Creek & Potomk. G. W.
1732-1799. Created/published 1766. Library of Congress American Memory Collection. (accessed from LOC.gov on Nov. 24, 2012)

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Students will explore the differences among the three colonial regions of New England, Mid-Atlantic / Middle, and the Southern colonies. In small groups for each region, students will observe and note details of pictures, maps, and advertisements in order to describe each region. Students will use…

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Objective 9: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain

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Objective 9: Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain

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I attached the chapter 5 cornell notes for this objective as well. This set of notes explains how the colonists and British leaders sometimes had altering views. In terms of economic interests, the colonists wanted the policy of salutary neglect to continue while the British wanted more strict regulatory policies, known as the Navigation Acts. Also, the colonists wanted self-rule while the British obviously wanted to keep as much control as possible. These differing views caused their relationship with Britain to change and a lot of tension to develop. The theme of America and the World can be applied here because the colonists viewed themselves as more of a independent nation whereas to the British the colonists were simply part of their empire. The historical thinking skill of development and process is evident because a set of laws such as the Navigation Acts led to tension growing between the colonists and the British.

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Objective 8: Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time

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Objective 8: Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time

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I attached the chapter 5 cornell notes for this objective. This set of notes explain how a unique, diverse American culture developed from a variety of perspectives. For example, religion varied in the early colonies, but shaped the American experience and identity. In Rhode Island, there was separation of church and state and a lot of religious freedom. However, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Puritans wanted to purify Anglicanism and were extremely religious. The theme of American and National Identity is evident because a unique diverse American culture developed based on varying perspectives but similar values. The historical thinking skill of Contextualization can be applied here because the migration of different religious groups into the Americas led to a diverse American culture forming in terms of religion.

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Objective 7: Explain how enslaved peoples responded to slavery

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Objective 7: Explain how enslaved peoples responded to slavery

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I attached the same Khan Academy article from Objective 6 for this objective. This article cites events like the Stono Rebellion of 1739 to explain overt resistance to slavery. Secretly, slaves ranaway, would work slow, and steal in order to protest slavery. Finally, a unique African American culture developed with Africans introducing their music into the Americas and adopting Christianity. The theme of American and Regional Culture can be applied here because Africans introduced elements of their own culture into America forming a new African American culture. The historical thinking skill of sourcing and situation can be applied here because the intended audience of this article is clearly students as the information is displayed in a concise and digestable way. This removes some of the more gruesome parts of the resistance to slavery.

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Slavery in the British colonies (article) | Khan Academy

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Every English colony practiced slavery, building an empire-wide system of white racial dominance and African oppression.

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions

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Objective 6: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions

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I attached an article from KhanAcademy for this objective. This article explains how one of the main causes for slavery was the failure of indentured servitude and the environment as well as racism. The effects of slavery was economic growth of the slavery because the slaves essentially provided free labor and strict racial codes, such as the Barbados Slave Code which labeled African Americans as property. The theme of Social Structures can be applied here because a social hierarchy developed in the British colonies with Africans being placed on the bottom along with Natives. The historical thinking skill of Claims and Evidence in sources can be applied here because the article cites events such as Bacon's Rebellion to explain how indentured servitude was not trusted, which led to slavery developing.

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Slavery in the British colonies (article) | Khan Academy

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Every English colony practiced slavery, building an empire-wide system of white racial dominance and African oppression.

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Objective 5: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time

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Objective 5: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time

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I attached the chapter 3 cornell notes for this set of notes. This set of notes explains how King Philip's war demonstrates how the natives and English had lots of conflicts. However, the natives resist in the Pueblo Revolt won them some accommodations from Spanish. Also, trade increased later on between the natives and European nations leading to each group adopting elements of each other's culture. For example, the Natives used guns to hunt buffalo in the Great Plains. The theme of Politics and Power is evident here because the Natives power decreased as a result of European colonization and this largely persisted in society. The historical thinking skill of continuity and change (Skill 5: Making Connections) can be applied here because while at first interactions were more violent between Indians and European nations, they gradually growed a little more peaceful.