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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1jnTkPQebweaELLwv7ykiBxHzARNqotbmQCryDI_NqGw/edit

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To develop and implement education and outreach programs that foster a greater understanding and appreciation for the great rivers and extend and apply knowledge gained from the research to protect and sustain the quality of river environments.

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1vjIlU5upoy-pPn7w3C2BeKk9u7xk797qk8_TH3UdE9M/edit

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1) What are all of the different ways in which St Louis is affected by water quality?

2) How is the quality of a river affected by a flood?

3) What devices or machinery are used to help a river ecosystem?

4) What types of ecosystems are evident in the Mississippi River?

5) How do our waterways feed into the Mississippi River?

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Summary: The Healthy Rivers, Healthy Ocean (HRHO) program contributes towards science, policy, and management solutions that recognize the links between land, freshwater, coastal, and ocean ecosystems. As water is all part of one system, including surface water, groundwater, and seawater, management of the water system needs to be holistic.

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SIWI - Leading expert in water governance

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SIWI – Leading expert in water governance

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Summary: This article explains the dangers of poor water quality. In St Louis, we get the majority of our tap water from the Mississippi River. This water then goes through 2 state of the art water treatment plants. This article speaks on the lingering concerns with our water quality in Missouri.

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Understanding the Chronic Health Effects of Polluted Water in St. Louis

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Water is the source of life, and its quality directly impacts our health. As drinking water experts, understanding the intricate relationship between water pollution and chronic diseases is pivotal in understanding how we can better support your business and your office’s drinking water needs. However, as a business owner in St. Louis, MO, it’s also

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Summary: This article talks about the Mississippi River and how it impacts St Louis. The river changes could affect St Louis' economy and other areas of the city because of issues such as the water level, which is very low.

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How the Mississippi River is impacting the economy

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“The last time in this area that we’ve seen significantly low water was approximately the 2012-2013 season,” USCG Commander Daniel Every said.

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Today at NGRREC we took a tour of their different labs and learned about the different freshwater-related tests that they do in this organization. These include microplastic effect testing, macroinvertebrate identification, water testing, and much more. These made me think about how all of these connect in some kind of way, and how one can affect the other. It made me wonder how each of these specific items can show an external factor affecting them. What can we physically see that is proving the affect of a factor?

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This is an image of the front of the building. NGRREC made it one of their goals to make their building locally sourced. The whole outside of their building and most of their inside is locally sourced limestone, and the top of their roof is a green roof. This makes their building more sustainable, and inclusive to organisms around them.

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This article talks about a study aimed at improving sustainable water management in agriculture. It speaks on how using different technologies and practices, like remote sensing, machine learning, and the "Internet of Things", can optimize water usage. By using these new inventions, the study addressed the lack of water, reduced environmental impact, and improved crop yield.

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Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Association, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Institute of Marine Sciences, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Microplastics (MPs) are regarded as a global issue due to their toxicity effects on fish and humans. Fish is a vital origin of human protein, which is necessary for body growth. Contamination of fish by MPs is a major hazard that requires special focus. After exposure to MPs alone or in combination with other pollutants, fish may experience a variety of health issues. MPs can cause tissue damage, oxidative stress, and changes in immune-related gene expression as well as antioxidant status in fish. After being exposed to MPs, fish suffer from neurotoxicity, growth retardation, and behavioral abnormalities. The consequences of MPs on human health are poorly understood. Due to the abundance of MPs in environment, exposure may occur via consumption, inhalation, and skin contact. Humans may experience oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immune system disruption, and transfer of MPs to other tissues after being exposed to them. The toxic effects of MPs in both fish and human are still unknown. This detailed review has the potential to add to existing knowledge about the ecotoxicity effects of MPs in both fish and humans, which will be useful for the forthcoming study.

Introduction

Microplastics (MPs) are a global issue because they are released all over the world ( Yu et al., 2018; Alimba and Faggio, 2019). In 2018, global plastics output increased to over 359 million tonnes (Mt), up from 348 Mt in 2017 ( PlasticsEurope, 2019). Since the 1950s, when plastic items were widely available, global plastic manufacturing has expanded substantially, from 0.5 Mt/year in 1960 to 348 Mt/year in 2017 ( PlasticsEurope, 2018). China is the leading producer of plastics, with 107.7 Mt produced in 2018, accounting for 30% of worldwide plastic production ( PlasticsEurope, 2019). Borrelle et al. (2020) projected plastic emissions to 2030 for 173 countries, estimating that plastic emissions to aquatic environment will range between 20 and 53 Mt/year by 2030. Different plastic goods have become commonplace in people's daily lives. Plastics' use has expanded 25-fold in the previous 40 years owing to minimal cost, durability, low weight, and elasticity ( Sutherland et al., 2016). Worldwide, plastics are widely utilized in food packaging, building and construction, automobile items, electrical devices, domestic sports and recreational, farming, healthcare, and plastic furnishings ( PlasticsEurope, 2019).

MPs are microscopic plastic grains that are said to be common in discarded plastic fragment goods ( Thompson et al., 2004). Primary MPs are produced small plastic granules to be used in facial-cleansers and cosmetics, air blasting technology, and vectors for drugs in medicine, while secondary nano plastics are tiny plastic remnants deteriorated from MPs debris ( Cole et al., 2011; González-Pleiter et al., 2019). The most prevalent waste materials are brought to the seas by rivers, floods, and winds that pollute the ocean and beaches ecosystem. Discarded fishing craft, plastic bags, food containers, and plastic drinks bottles (water and cold drinks) pollute the water ecosystem ( Zhou et al., 2018). Mishandling of enormous anthropogenic activities could introduce many xenobiotic pollutants to water environments around the planet, either deliberately or accidentally ( Alimba and Faggio, 2019). MPs are reported to be present at all levels of aquatic environments, posing threat to major biota ( Ma et al., 2020; Aragaw, 2021).

MPs have been found in edible fish, according to various research, and as a result of biomagnifications, MPs penetrate human systems ( Alfaro-Núñez et al., 2021; Goswami et al., 2020; James et al., 2020). MP-induced impairments in species ranged from minimal biological systems disturbance to substantial unfavorable consequences that resulted in mortality ( Mallik et al., 2021). Physiological harm as a result of MPs accumulating within the digestive system; disruption of organisms' energy flow as a result of MPs expelling as pseudofeces; and inner body tissue exposed to MPs after transfer within the body were all designated as harmful by Ma et al. (2020). They also serve as a pathway for organic contaminants and trace metals to reach aquatic habitats ( Gholizadeh and Patimar, 2018). MPs can affect predatory behavior in fish and cause misunderstanding between MPs and genuine prey ( de Sá et al., 2015), leading to malnutrition and MP storage in key organs such the gills, gut, and stomach ( Lu K. et al., 2018; Güven et al., 2017; Greven et al., 2016). MPs were also found in fish muscle/meat, which is mainly consumed by humans ( Thiele et al., 2021; Barboza et al., 2020a, b; Akhbarizadeh et al., 2018; Abbasi et al., 2018). Growth retardation, hormone disruption, metabolic perturbation, oxidative stress, immunological and neurotoxicity malfunction, and genotoxicity behavioural alterations are all caused by a buildup of MPs ( Güven et al., 2017; Choi et al., 2018).

As fish is a major source of protein for humans, the prevalence and ecotoxicological effects of MPs in fish may influence aquatic food security ( Wright and Kelly, 2017; Barboza et al., 2018a). The harmful effects of MPs in fish and humans have been studied in a small number of researches. The goals of this review are to: 1) assess the potentially toxic effects of MPs on fish; 2) determine the impact of MPs on human health, and 3) identify existing knowledge gaps and suggest potential solutions to minimize MPs contamination.

Materials and Methods for the Data Collection and Analyses

Online Study Sites

Data have been collected from many countries around the world. Results from the publications of various scientists and researchers are presented.

Data Collection

The first phase involved the identification of related studies. In order to conduct a systematic literature search, the following specifications were created for the database:

Searching Database

* Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Dimension

Searching Conditions

* Journal articles written in English

* Impact of MPs on fish and human-related journals, book chapters, conference proceedings

* Accessible over the internet (No time limitation)

Searching Strings

The data were tagged with the keywords " Impacts of microplastics on fish" " Effects of microplastics on fish" " Toxicity of microplastics on fish" or " Adverse impacts of microplastics on fish" or " Biomagnification of microplastics on fish" or " Impacts of microplastics on human" or " Effects of microplastics on human" or " Toxicity of microplastics on human" or " Adverse impacts of microplastics on human", etc. A search for " Impacts of microplastics on fish and human" in the Dimension database ( https://app.dimensions.ai/discover/publication) revealed numerous research papers ( Figures 1A,B). To gather information on the effects of microplastics in fish and humans, a total of 800 relevant papers were screened. Following the collection of data, two distinct tables were created from these studies.

FIGURE 1. (A) Number of publications on MPs effects in fish (B) MPs effect related research trends on human.

Research Trends About Effects of MPs in Fish and on Human

MPs pollution is a new environmental concern that poses a risk to fish and human health ( Garrido Gamarro et al., 2020; Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020; Huang W. et al., 2021; Aragaw and Mekonnen, 2021). Fish is being contaminated with MPs worldwide and it finds its way to human body through food ( Sequeira et al., 2020). Many scientists have recently focused on the effects of MPs in fish and on human health ( Chae and An, 2018). Despite the fact that the number of publications is growing, the possible consequences are still largely unknown ( Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020). Figures 1A,B depicted research patterns, demonstrating how the effect of MPs studies is growing.

Bioavailability of MPs to Fish

MPs are found in practically most of aquatic settings which are the similar size as sediments as well as few planktonic species, subjected them accessible to a variety of aquatic creatures, particularly fish ( Pazos et al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2018; Sequeira et al., 2020). The bioavailability of MPs to fish is influenced by a variety of circumstances. Filters and deposit-eating fishes are thought to be more vulnerable to MPs ingestion than predator fishes due to their non-selective feeding behavior ( Wesch et al., 2016; Lusher et al., 2020). Mizraji et al. (2017) examined the relationships among tidal fish-eating patterns and the possibility of MPs ingestion and discovered that omnivore fish ingested more MPs than plant-eating and carnivore fish.

MPs particles that resemble natural prey objects seem to be more likely to be ingested by types of fish that are visual eaters. White MPs were ingested more selectively by Pomatoschistus microps than black and red particles ( de Sa et al., 2015). A suitable form or size could improve the likelihood of MPs being consumed by fish ( Auta et al., 2017). Boerger et al. (2010) discovered that the most prevalent size class of MPs swallowed by the Myctophidae in the North Pacific Central Gyre was 1-2.79 mm, which is close to the size category of plankton species, that are the principal food supply for all of these fishes.

MPs' vertically positioning in the water column is mostly determined by their volume, which may affect the probability of fish encountering MPs in various fish regions ( de Sá et al., 2018). Pelagic fishes, for example, seem to be more likely to come across low-density plastics, whereas demersal fish may be more prone to high MPs ( Lusher et al., 2013). Moreover, there are many unknowns concerning the fundamental factors that regulate fish choice eating patterns for MPs. The interaction method involving MPs and fish still has to be studied extensively.

Biomagnifications and Trophic Transfer

Biomagnification has been observed in a variety of fish and other species higher up the food chain ( Figure 2). MPs were found in planktivorous fish, according to Boerger et al. (2010), that biomagnified to bigger predatory feeding on the fish. Biomagnifications have been observed in bluefin tuna, albacore tuna, and swordfish in the Mediterranean Sea ( Romeo et al., 2015). MPs were found to be transferred tropically from Scombrus scombrus to Halichoerus grypus, reported by Nelms et al. (2019). Low density MPs can be expelled as pseudofeces by fish though most of the MPs remain in gastrointestinal tract of fish ( Capone et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021a; Prata et al., 2022). Biomagnifications from marine species to humans could occur in the same way. Although biomagnification research has been explored, there are few of them. The big facts of biomagnifications and trophic transmission cannot be fully appreciated with these limited investigations. As a result, more research in this area is required.

How Do Fish React to the Toxicity of Microplastics?

Many researchers have studied the negative consequences of microplastics on species, which can vary from interruption of biological functions to death. MPs poisoning is categorized as follows depending on the nature of MPs after intake:

1) build-up in the gastrointestinal tract, producing physical harm such as blockage and damage;

2) release as pseudofeces, disrupting organisms' energy transfer;

3) transfer inside the body, exposing inner organs and tissues to MPs.

MPs-caused detrimental effects on species were outlined to provide a solid research foundation for sustainable MPs toxicological investigations and to evaluate the potential for huge ecological disruption.

Impacts of MPs, in Fish

MPs exposure has been studied in respect of particular physical or biological reactions. So far, most investigations on the effects of MPs on fish have been undertaken in the laboratory ( Supplementary Table S1). The fish used in the MPs exposure tests came from a variety of environments, with the bulk coming from the sea. MPs may build up in the gastrointestinal system of fish after consumption, producing obstructions across the digestive tract and limiting feeding owing to appetite ( Lusher et al., 2013; Wright et al., 2013). Intake of MPs could also induce anatomical and functional changes in the digestive tracts, causing dietary and development issues in fish ( Huang et al., 2022; Jabeen et al., 2018; Borrelle et al., 2017; Peda et al., 2016). Many pieces of research have been carried to demonstrate that MPs pose a threat to fish, with mortality occurring frequently before they reach maturity owing to MPs intake ( Figure 3). Most of the studies were conducted on Danio rerio. Oxidative stress, decreased mobility, gene expression disruption and damage of reproductive organs are the most common effects of MPs in Danio rerio ( Mu et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022).

Oryzias melastigma was second most studied fish that subjected to physical impairment due to MPs ingestion ( Xia et al., 2022). Growth inhibition, dysbiosis of fish gut, reduction of weight, disturbance of anti-oxidative condition of the liver, damaging reproductive organs and growth retardation are visible effects in Oryzias melastigma ( Wang et al., 2022; Zhang X. et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Le Bihanic et al., 2020) ( Supplementary Table S1). Sparus aurata is another important consumable fish that affected by MPs ingestion. This fish faced stress, oxidative damage, survival, Behavior changes and damage of immune system's key functions ( Espinosa et al., 2017; Pannetier et al., 2020; Jacob et al., 2021; Rios-Fuster et al., 2021; Solomando et al., 2021) ( Supplementary Table S1).

Microplastics in humans

The presence of MPs in seafood poses a major hazard to human health. Seafood is an essential part of the human diet. MPs contamination of the intestinal system poses a serious risk of spreading to other regions of the body. Endocytosis and persorption are two of the most common methods for MPs to enter the human body ( Figure 4). Toxicological impacts may reduce fish performance, which is of considerable consideration of humans who eat fish as a major part of their meal, and may have severe impacts on catching fish ( Naji et al., 2017; Kor et al., 2020; Kor and Mehdinia, 2020). More examination into these concerns is required, taking into account realistic MP and pollutant levels in the ecosystem ( Neves et al., 2015).

FIGURE 4. Different process of MPs uptake from gastrointestinal tract (GIT) after exposure (Modified from Galloway, 2015 and Wright and Kelly, 2017).

Toxicological Effects in Human Health

Swelling and blockage are caused due to the buildup of MPs and nano plastics in tissues ( Wang et al., 2016; Wright et al., 2013). In vitro tests revealed that MPs concentrate in the gills, stomachs, and metabolic systems of crabs and cause unfavorable cellular alterations in fish ( Karbalaei et al., 2018; Brennecke et al., 2015). Microorganisms and pollutants have also been shown to be transported by them ( Manzoor et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2016). Such negative consequences were mostly determined by the individual's level of exposure and sensitivity ( Prata et al., 2020). Exposure to MPs has also been linked to oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, and transfer to other tissues ( Figure 5) ( Galloway, 2015; Schirinzi et al., 2017; Wright and Kelly, 2017; Anbumani and Kakkar, 2018).

MPs are long-lasting in the ecosystem and biological organisms. As a result, the animals are exposed to MPs for an extended period, potentially leading to chronic discomfort, swelling, cell growth, and death, as well as immune cell impairment ( Smith et al., 2018). Inflammatory bowel disease was significantly higher in patients with MPs than the healthy people ( Yan et al., 2021). PS MPs decreased the growth of Caco-2 cells over time ( Wu et al., 2020). The mitochondrial membrane potential was disturbed by PS MPs, according to Wu et al. (2019). MPs may also serve as vectors for a variety of microbes ( Kirstein et al., 2016). They can eject compounds from their matrixes or absorb substances from the surrounding ( Crawford and Quinn, 2017).

Oxidative Stress and Cytotoxicity

Oxidative stress, consequent inflammatory, and cytotoxic impacts were thought to be the main effects for MPs toxicity in inhalation exposure experiments ( Table 1). MPs can induce oxidative stress by producing oxidizing substances adsorbing to their surface, as well as reactive oxygen radicals created by the host during the inflammation ( Kelly and Fussel, 2012; Valavanidis et al., 2013). Forte et al. (2016) used nanoparticles to stimulate pro-inflammatory replies in A549 lung cells and human gastric cancer cells. Green et al. (1998) found that larger polyethylene particles (0.3-10 m) promote the development of cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1b, and TNF-a, some of which are inflammatory agents.

Due to the polymerization and processing, MPs include reactive oxygen species. Nevertheless, reactions with UV radiation or the existence of reactive metals may cause such free radicals to be greatly amplified. MPs aging also resulted in the formation of free radicals, which oxidized the target tissues ( Gewert et al., 2015). Polystyrene nanoparticles link with the surface of the intestinal epithelial, according to Inkielewicz-Stepniak et al. (2018). Nanoplastics caused epithelial cells to oxidize, according to the research ( Inkielewicz-Stepniak et al., 2018). Acute toxins and free radicals have been observed to be released by limbs and joint prostheses incorporating MPs in humans because of severe inflammatory reaction. Those oxidants were shown to cause hydrolysis, which led to polymer degradation, breaking, and leaking. This free radical manufacturing process may cause the prosthesis to be rejected by the human organs ( Sternschuss et al., 2012).

MPs were found to be cytotoxic as an effect of oxidative damage and inflammation ( Table 1). MPs can be absorbed by certain cells, such as macrophages, as revealed in animal research and in vitro tests ( Geiser et al., 2005; Yacobi et al., 2008). MPs interacted easily with intracellular organelles since they were not membrane-bound, posing a risk of damage ( Geiser et al., 2005). In vitro studies by Furukuma and Fujii, 2016) revealed that MPs particles are cytotoxic. Schirinzi et al. (2017) found that MPs at levels of 0.05-10 mg/L produced reactive oxygen species to high levels, contributing to cytotoxicity in the human brain and epithelial cells in in vitro research. Furthermore, in vitro contact of macrophages and lung epithelial cells to nano plastics enhanced reactive oxygen radicals, causing unfolded proteins particle agglomeration in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytolysis ( Chiu et al., 2015). Thubagere and Reinhard (2010) found that polystyrene particles were cytotoxic to adenomatous cells of the tiny intestine. As a result, individuals exposed to MPs may cause cytotoxicity and oxidative damage. Moreover, no strong cytotoxic effects were found in multiple in vitro investigations even at high levels ( Magri et al., 2018; Stock et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019).

Changing the Body's Metabolism and Energy Flow

MPs can either directly influence metabolism by altering metabolic enzymes or circuitously by upsetting the energy equilibrium. By boosting or lowering energy consumption, decreasing nutritional intake, and regulating metabolic enzymes, MPs exhibit metabolic impacts ( Table 1). Humans, on the other hand, have higher energy requirements and more sophisticated metabolic processes than the creatures studied, which could affect the metabolic impacts ( Table 1).

Immune System Dysfunction

MPs were reported to cause systemic or local immune responses after exposure, based on their dispersion and human reaction. Environmental exposure to MPs, on the other hand, was enough to impair immune systems in biologically vulnerable individuals, resulting in autoimmune disorders or immunosuppression ( Table 1) ( Prata, 2018; Prata et al., 2020). According to Farhat et al. (2011), chronic damage in cells, the production of immune modulators, and the incorrect stimulation of immune cells may all contribute to MP-induced autoimmune disorders. Antibodies against self-antigens would be produced as an outcome of this chain of events ( Farhat et al., 2011). In addition, exposure to MPs has been linked to autoimmune rheumatic illness and systemic lupus erythematosus ( Fernandes et al., 2015; Bernatsky et al., 2016). MPs have the potential to alter human immunological function, albeit this has yet to be proven. As a result, more research into the impacts on human immune systems is required.

Translocation of Cells to Other Tissues

MPs may transfer to distal tissues via the circulatory system after exposure. Internalization of MPs in the cardiovascular system instigated an inflammatory reaction, blood cell cytotoxicity, vascular swelling, obstructions, and respiratory high blood pressure ( Table 1) ( Wright and Kelly, 2017; Campanale et al., 2020). In vitro tests revealed that nanoparticles exposure can cause red blood cell coagulation and endothelium wall adherence ( Barshtein et al., 2016). MPs accelerated hemolysis and contributed to the production of histamine, a pro-inflammatory molecule, according to Hwang et al. (2019). The most significant method of MP transfer is enhanced porosity of the epithelial membrane as a result of inflammation ( Prata et al., 2020). Wick et al. (2010) revealed that 240 nm nanoparticles may easily pass the placental barrier in a perfusion model of the human placenta. Polystyrene particles were taken up by an ex vivo human placental perfusion model, which then penetrated the placental barrier without affecting the stability of the explant. Particles were transferred through intracellular and extracellular transporter proteins, as well as diffusion. The results from this study point to the possibility of nanoparticles being transported across the placenta ( Wick et al., 2010). Grafmueller et al. (2015) used an ex vivo human placental perfusion model to show that polystyrene nanoparticles have a similar capability to breach the placenta barrier.

In vitro tests revealed that when subjected to nano plastics (44 nm), human renal cortical epithelial cells ingested them without cleaning, even after 90 min ( Monti et al., 2015). The buildup of particles, on the other hand, caused considerable impairments in renal active operation (Monti et al., 2015). MPs may cause persistent inflammation, impaired organ function, and a higher risk of neoplasia when transferred to distal tissues ( Prata et al., 2020). MPs may promote bone loss by stimulating osteoclasts after they reach the bone ( Liu et al., 2015; Ormsby et al., 2016). Inconsistencies with the data have been discovered by Braeuning (2019), such as mass disparity of MP tissue burden vs. actual ingestion and the failure to account for MPs' existence in other bodily tissues. As a result, toxicokinetic features of MPs must be considered when evaluating their absorption, dispersion, and effects ( Böhmert et al., 2019).

Neurotoxicity

In vivo neurotoxicity has been documented following persistent exposure to particulate matter, particularly MPs, perhaps due to immune cell activation and oxidative stress in the brain ( Table 1). These events could be the result of direct interaction with teleported particles or the effects of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines that result in long-term neuronal injury ( MohanKumar et al., 2008). MPs have been shown to have an effect on neuronal function and behaviour in vivo. Exposure to MPs elevated AChE activity in the brain and altered serum neurotransmitters, according to Deng et al. (2017). Nanoplastics were capable of creating toxicity and impairing metabolic activity in brain cell types in an in vitro investigation due to the high level of bioactive chemicals.

Carcinogenicity

For generations, human contact with plastic items has been associated with malignancies. Nevertheless, no conclusive proof has been established until now. According to Prata (2018), prolonged inflammation and irritation caused by MPs consumption may induce cancer by causing DNA damage ( Table 1). According to Chang (2010), oxidative stress and persistent irritation generated by nano plastics revealed evidence of pro-inflammatory agents, which stimulated vasculature, that led to the creation and development of cancers.

Combine Effects (MPs With Other Pollutants)

Since MPs inclusion in the manufacturing process, they were observed to include a variety of exogenous chemical additions and colors. MPs were frequently detected with persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenone, triclosan, organotin, and brominated flame retardants. During the production process of the items, these POPs are applied as additives to plastics ( Galloway 2015; EFSA, 2016; Prata et al., 2020). Emollients such as phthalates, for example, are used to soften plastics by lowering the attraction of molecular chains inside the synthetic polymer matrix. BPA is a component monomer in polycarbonate that is used in catering packaging ( Cole et al., 2011).

POPs, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), as well as heavy metals like lead, nickel, cadmium, and zinc, were found in MPs retrieved from various environments ( Crawford and Quinn, 2017; Wright and Kelly, 2017). Such chemicals are prone to leaching since no chemical linkages between them and the matrix of MPs ( Wright and Kelly, 2017). Structural substances on the surface of MPs were said to travel along the concentration gradient at a consistent rate when they were broken. When MPs come into touch with bodily surfaces and are transported to the deeper tissues, contaminants like these may be produced ( Browne et al., 2011). Those chemicals showed the capacity to interact with endogenous hormones even at low doses ( Cole et al., 2011).

MPs worked as vectors, delivering germs to target tissues, protecting them from the immune structure, causing pro-inflammatory replies, and potentially facilitating infections ( Kirsten et al., 2016). When MPs came into touch with bacteria and chemicals, their large surface area made them vulnerable to becoming vectors ( Prata et al., 2020). When compared to the daily consumption of food and dust, MPs may have a minor impact on harmful chemical exposure ( Bakir et al., 2014). Numerous MP exposures, on the other hand, could significantly increase their amounts. Monomers, additives, and degradation products carried by MPs, according to Rodrigues et al. (2019), could offer significant human health concerns if transmitted.

Vibrio sp., among the most aggressive bacteria, could populate the surface of MPs, according to Kirsten et al., 2016). MPs, on the other hand, were discovered to affect the variety and activity of the gut microbiome reported by Zhu et al. (2018). Once humans are exposed to a large number of MPs through consumption, such impacts could have serious consequences. According to West-Eberhard (2019), exposure to MPs can affect the gut microbiota, resulting in the rapid growth of opportunistic species, an upsurge in pro-inflammatory responses, and endotoxemia ( Table 1). The harmful effects of chemicals or microbes adsorbed onto MPs, on the other hand, are greatly reliant on the types and concentrations of swallowed particle, vector particle transportation, release profile, and pollutant lethality in human body cells ( Campanale et al., 2020; Prata et al., 2020).

BPA is utilized as an antioxidant and a stabilizer that has the potential to damage the endocrine system ( Yamamoto et al., 2001; Halden, 2010). It can move out of polycarbonates and adhere to consumable food, allowing it to be consumed by humans ( Calafat et al., 2008). BPA poisoning has been found in tuna fish, pork, and tap water, demonstrating how this toxin can enter highly eaten foods ( Colin et al., 2014). BPA levels in the urine of 167 men were shown to be negatively proportionate to serum levels of inhibin B and the estradiol: testosterone ratio, indicating a detrimental effect on hormone levels, according to Meeker et al. (2010). BPA may potentially have a role in the development of overweight by disrupting alpha and beta receptors in fat tissues, changing fat tissue hormone levels, and interacting with the action of lipoprotein lipase, aromatase, and lipogenesis regulators ( Vom Saal et al., 2012; Michalowicz, 2014). It has the potential to cause breast and prostate cancer in mammalian species, as well as cancer in humans ( Michalowicz, 2014). Many chemical substances found in plastics or firmly attached to MPs, such as leftover low molecular weight styrenes, PAHs, PVC monomer, PCBs, PBDEs, OCPs, and pharmaceutical drugs, which include their metabolites, are toxic to humans, genotoxicity, and hormonal disruptors after being ingested, according to study.

Future Perspectives/Knowledge Gaps

→ The majority of research is done in laboratories, although wild fish must be used in some experiments. The conditions in the lab are very different from those in the real world. Experiment with wild fish to see if there is a difference in the results. A significant future scientific goal should be to increase the number of comparative laboratory-field experiments with parallel exposure in order to evaluate and strengthen our understanding of the real-world impact of MPs.

→ Non-destructive sampling should be maintained. Destructive sampling damages tissue and genetic components in the specimens collected. Destructive sampling makes species-level identification of fish nearly impossible in most circumstances, rendering this methodology inappropriate.

→ MPs' harmful impact on aquatic organisms at various phases of development. Most of the research was carried out in the juvenile stage. Research should be conducted in other stages (e.g., larval, adult stage). MPs exposure must be compared throughout life stages and sexes in order to draw appropriate conclusions about a species' sensitivity. At the moment, findings from a small number of researches imply that younger people and women have a higher inclination to consume more MPs and are more vulnerable to MPs pollution.

→ Proof of the negative effects of MP on individuals, groups, and ecosystems. There are very few negative consequences available. More research is needed to confirm MPs' deleterious impacts. Journals, newspapers, magazines, and different websites are not interested to publish findings if the experiments have no effects on fish and humans. That's why some researchers always try to show negative effects instead of actual findings.

→ Ingestion of MP, internalization and transport potential should be identified. Ingestion routes in the body and how they connect to the gut wall, as well as MPs trophic transfer.

→ MPs' role as vectors for sorbed persistent organic pollutants and metals exposure and bioaccumulation. Many pathogens and contaminants are transported by MPs. It is necessary to define the role of MPs as carriers to identify the ecotoxicological effects of MPs in fish.

→ The influence of related additional compounds on the effects of MPs on aquatic creatures. MPs, in combination with other pollutants, have severe negative effects on organisms, which MPs alone cannot always achieve. It is necessary to determine how much the presence of MPs contributes to fish exposure to these hazardous compounds. Given the importance of fish as a significant source of protein for humans, ongoing research is essential to demonstrate the ecotoxicological effects of MPs on fish at all stages, from individual to community, to experimentally assess the general risks of these emerging pollutants to fish.

→ MPs' specific forms of harmful activity and how they compare to 'typical' oceanic contaminants. Identify the severity of conventional oceanic pollutants and MPs. The toxicity level of MPs in fish is quite necessary to know the extent of MPs' effects in humans.

→ Testing for MP should not be restricted to the gastrointestinal system, but should be done across different tissues and organs as well. The research of tissues of animals used for human sustenance (e.g., fish muscle) is one idea for examining the accumulation of MPs, given their possible role in human healthcare.

Conclusion

Plastic is a valuable, useful, and useful material that is used to make up the bulk of the items in daily life; however, in today's world, mismanagement, improper handling, and abuse of plastics have resulted in MPs pollution in every edge of the aquatic environment, from the highest-ranked pelagic layer to seafloor sedimentary rocks. Because MPs are abundant in aquatic ecosystems, fish species have easy access to them. A growing body of research demonstrates that MPs are toxic to a wide range of fish. MPs can collect in the gastrointestinal system of fish after intake and then disperse to other body tissues. MPs can cause a variety of health concerns in fish. Toxic substances and dangerous germs may potentially be transmitted to fish through MPs. Humans eat plastic-tainted fish and are exposed to plastic particles. As a consequence, several chronic illness outbreaks occur, and people suffer the effects. As a result, reducing MPs contamination is critical. Implementing efficient waste management methods, enhancing the shelf life of plastic items, and increasing awareness can substantially limit the input of litter into environments, allowing the aquatic ecosystem to be recovered.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

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Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.827289/full#supplementary-material

References

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Frontiers | Effects of Microplastics on Fish and in Human Health

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Microplastics (MPs) are regarded as a global issue due to their toxicity effects on fish and humans. Fish is a vital origin of human protein, which is necess...

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Related Article 5: National Park Service

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Related Article 5: National Park Service

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The article speaks on water quality issues in the Mississippi River, such as mercury, bacteria, PCBs, and nutrients, which impair the river for activities like fishing and swimming. The National Park Service and the Great Lakes Inventory Network help to monitor these problems. The River Report highlights 13 key signs of river health, along with efforts by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency to make the river swimmable and fishable.

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NPS/Gordon Dietzman

Current Status and Research

Stretches of the Mississippi River within the park corridor exceed water quality standards for mercury, bacteria, sediment, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl), and nutrients. Unfortunately, these "impairments" can make the water unsuitable for fishing, swimming, and drinking.

The Great Lakes Inventory and Monitoring Network

The national parks protect more than just outstanding waters. The parks are also a place to track wildlife and plant populations, changes in the landscape, and the effects of pollution on the environment. Great Lakes Network scientists use the parks for science and our science is used to help the parks. Learn more about the research and monitoring projects at the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area.

State of the River Report

How is the health of the Mississippi River? Can I safely swim in it? Is water pollution improving? Can I eat the fish I catch? What can we do about invasive carp? Do I need to be concerned about bacteria in the river? How are bald eagles faring?

The National Park Service has partnered with the Friends of the Mississippi River to answer these questions in the State of the River Report. The State of the River Report provides a concise snapshot of the health of the Mississippi River. Based upon a broad range of water quality and other river data, the report zooms in on the status and trends of 13 key indicators of river health, highlighting the swimming, fishing, aquatic life and emerging contamination issues facing the river--as well as priority solutions for each.

The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency

The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) is working with a number of partners to get the water to "fishable" and "swimmable" conditions. (Thanks to the great work of public utilities, treated drinking water from the Mississippi is safe and delicious!) The National Park Service is participating in the process to identify sources of bacterial contamination in the river and develop a plan to reduce that contamination.

The pollution that has led to these conditions cannot be cleaned up overnight-it will take years and widespread coordination to develop and implement effective pollution-reduction plans, and possibly many more years until they are successful.

As work to make the river "fishable" and "swimmable" advances, so will our website. The goal is to offer up-to-date information regarding the status of the river, while providing features and information that can be employed in your daily life.

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Water Quality in the Mississippi River - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)

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Stretches of the Mississippi River within the park corridor exceed water quality standards for mercury, bacteria, sediment, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl), and nutrients. Unfortunately, these "impairments" can make the water unsuitable for fishing, swimming, and drinking. The national parks protect more than just outstanding waters.

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I heard:

1. My group mates

2. Birds chirping in the trees

3. Waves lapping against the shore

4. Wind blowing

5. A business meeting

6. A computer keyboard totaling results

I saw:

1. My group mates

2. algae inside of water

3. plankton inside of water

4. A microscope

5. A building made of limestone

I felt:

1. Bored

2. Hungry

3. Cold water

4. accomplished

I learned:

1. what do different types of algae look like vs. plankton

2. How to take water quality tests

3. How to find different organisms inside of water

I realized:

1. Collecting and deciphering data can be very time-consuming

2. There are lots of different aspects that make an aquatic ecosystem healthy.

I know:

1. What NGRREC does for aquatic ecosystems.

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Pictured is a preserved water sample that we examined for all of the organism's inside of it. It looked at the different kinds of plankton of algae inside of the water, and enabled us to understand all of the both harmless and harmful orginisms inside of the water.

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This was a harmful algae that can harm the environment of the river if it bloomed, but since we only found one of these in a large sample, it meant that it was nothing to worry about for right now. 

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Important Terms (Vocabulary):

1. Microplastics: Small plastic particles less than 5mm in size.

2. Plastic Microbeads: Tiny plastic particles used in cosmetics, now banned in the U.S.

3. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), PAHs, and Organophosphates: Harmful things that accumulate on microplastics.

Challenges:

Identifying sources of microplastics.

Understanding health and environmental impacts.

Creating effective regulations to limit microplastic pollution.

Opportunities:

Advancing technology for detecting microplastics.

Public awareness and policy advocacy.

Questions:

How do microplastics affect human health long-term?

What methods can efficiently remove microplastics from water systems?

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Microplastics in our Nations's waterways

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Microplastics are the miniscule plastic fragments (smaller than 0.04 inch) that fall off of decomposing plastic bottles and bags, and are intentionally manufactured into some toothpastes and lotions. Scientists have found microplastics nearly everywhere, particularly in lakes, rivers, and aquatic animals.

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1. I used to think

2. Then I learned

3. Now I think

I used to think that burning areas were uncontrolled and destructive. Then I learned how people can do controlled burns using different strategies to consolidate that area. Now I think that this can be beneficial because it regulates the native plants in certain prairies and controls the invasives.

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Pictured is a hillside prairie which is a very interesting ecosystem. Fire is a major aspect to keeping these areas healthy and regulated and to keep invasive species such as honeysuckle out of this area. This is an area on the side of a bluff which was 60-100 ft up above the river level. 

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Related Article 7: US Fish and Wildlife Service

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Related Article 7: US Fish and Wildlife Service

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Important Terms (Vocabulary):

Prescribed Fire: Controlled burn conducted to manage ecosystems.

Excess Fuels: Accumulation of combustible materials like dead plants.

Invasive Species: Non-native plants or animals that threaten local ecosystems.

Carbon Cycle: Natural process of carbon being absorbed and released by plants.

Challenges:

Ballence fire management with ecological conservation.

Prevent fires from spreading beyond controlled areas.

Opportunities:

Restoring ecosystems.

Reducing wildfire risks.

Connections:

NGRREC uses techniques like this to try to rid areas near the river of invasive species

These tactics are used to try to keep hillside prairies native and thriving

Questions:

How are local wildlife populations affected by prescribed burns?

What are the long-term carbon sequestration impacts?

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Using Fire to Manage Grasslands | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

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The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) uses fire to manage the lands and ecosystems we care for, resist the spread of invasive species invasive species An invasive species is any plant or animal that has spread or been introduced into a new area where they are, or could, cause harm to the environment, economy, or human, animal, or plant health.

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What, So what, Now what?

Today we worked with the strike team on getting rid of invasive species such as bush honeysuckle. This was important because invasive species such as bush honeysuckle grow and create a canopy blocking other native and beneficial plants from growing. The world can continue to try to remove this invasive species by cutting it down and spraying it with herbicides. This will help forest ecosystems to thrive and become more native.

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Pictured is Shepherd removing honeysuckle with loppers and clipping it to the roots. Next to him is Hillary who used herbicide to spray the roots and kill them using the chemical Glyphosate. This is important because it allows native plants to grow without the canopy cover of invasives. 

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This is NGRREC's wet lab where they mainly focus on larger aquatic orginisms such as fish. Recently they did a test on how fish are affected by microplastics in their diet. This area enables researchers to understand more about whatever they are studying in the wet lab.

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Important Terms/Vocabulary

PFAS: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, often called "forever chemicals."

PFOS: A specific type of PFAS linked to health risks.

Challenges/Opportunities

Challenges: Higher levels of PFAS in freshwater fish threaten public health, especially for communities relying on fish for their everyday diet.

Opportunities: Potential for more harsh regulations on PFAS use and better testing methods.

Connections to NGRREC

The article’s focus on water quality and environmental health connects with NGRREC's mission of sustainable water resources and ecosystem health.

Questions

1. What specific measures can communities take to reduce PFAS exposure from freshwater fish?

2. What role does public awareness play in addressing PFAS contamination issues?

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A new study appears to find that consumption of just a single serving of freshwater fish per year could be equal to a month of drinking water laced with the "forever chemical" PFOS at high levels that may be harmful.

Researchers from Washington-based advocacy organization Environmental Working Group said they had calculated that eating one fish in a year equated to ingesting water with PFOS at 48 parts per trillion, or ppt, for one month.

The group said the study supports its long-running calls for strict regulation of PFOS and PFAS, in addition to more tests of food such as fish, since diet is thought to be a major source of PFAS exposure for people in the US.

EWG reported that the median amounts of PFAS in freshwater fish were an "astounding" 280 times greater than forever chemicals detected in some commercially caught and sold fish. The testing data, from the US Environmental Protection Agency and Food and Drug Administration, seemed to show that consuming a single meal of freshwater fish could lead to similar PFAS exposure as ingesting store-bought fish every day for a year.

"People who consume freshwater fish, especially those who catch and eat fish regularly, are at risk of alarming levels of PFAS in their bodies," said David Andrews, EWG senior scientist and one of the study's lead authors. "Growing up, I went fishing every week and ate those fish. But now when I see fish, all I think about is PFAS contamination."

The forever chemical found at greatest concentrations in freshwater fish was PFOS, formerly an ingredient in 3M's Scotchgard, averaging roughly three in four of total PFAS detections.

"These test results are breathtaking," said EWG's senior vice president for government affairs. "Eating one bass is equivalent to drinking PFOS-tainted water for a month."

Consumption of PFOS-contaminated freshwater fish can cause significant increases in peoples' blood serum levels of the forever chemical, creating potential health risks. Even infrequent consumption of freshwater fish can raise PFOS levels in the body.

"The extent that PFAS has contaminated fish is staggering", said Nadia Barbo, a graduate student at Duke University and another lead researcher on this project. "There should be a single health protective fish consumption advisory for freshwater fish across the country."

The researchers analyzed data from more than 500 samples of fish filets collected in the US from 2013 to 2015 under monitoring programs by the EPA, the National Rivers and Streams Assessment and the Great Lakes Human Health Fish Fillet Tissue Study. The median level of total PFAS in fish filets was 9,500 nanograms per kilogram, with a median level of 11,800 nanograms per kilogram in the Great Lakes.

"PFAS contaminate fish across the US, with higher levels in the Great Lakes and fish caught in urban areas," said Tasha Stoiber, an EWG senior scientist and another co-author. "PFAS do not disappear when products are thrown or flushed away. Our research shows that the most common disposal methods may end up leading to further environmental pollution."

Freshwater fish are an important source of protein for many people, and PFAS contamination threatens those who cannot afford to purchase commercial seafood. Communities that depend on fishing for sustenance and for traditional cultural practices are inordinately harmed. This makes exposure to chemical pollutants in freshwater fish a textbook case of environmental injustice.

"Identifying sources of PFAS exposure is an urgent public health priority," said Stoiber.

"Like microplastic, toxic chemicals such as PFAS are pervasive and can be found in food we eat and water we drink, and, according to new research, have reached levels in rainwater in most locations around the planet that exceed drinking water advisory levels," said Bengt Rittri, the Swedish environmental entrepreneur who founded water purification expert Bluewater.

Calling on the world's lawmakers to intensify cracking down on 'forever chemicals' use, Mr Rittri said: "We can't undo the damage that's already been done, but we can do more to avoid causing more damage by working to raise awareness among the public about the issues, encouraging more research into solutions, and lobbying lawmakers to implement the changes needed to protect people and the planet."

The problem of forever chemicals in the environment is global. In England, the Environment Agency says PFAS is "ubiquitous in the environment". Yet the UK government, like many others elsewhere, does not require testing drinking water for PFAS. According to the pfasfree.org.uk website, run by Fidra, an environmental charity working to reduce chemical and plastic pollution in seas and the wider environment, drinking water is a main source of exposure to PFAS.

The European Union is going further than many regulatory bodies around the world to address the issue. The EU Commission has outlined a comprehensive set of actions to address both the use of PFAS and the pollution they cause.

To prevent further contamination, the Commission wants in particular to see the use of PFAS phased out in the EU, unless proven essential for society.

Industrial pollution
EWG estimates there may be more than 40,000 industrial polluters of PFAS in the US. Tens of thousands of manufacturing facilities, municipal landfills and wastewater treatment plants, airports, and sites where PFAS-containing firefighting foams have been used are potential sources of PFAS discharges into surface water.

This contamination of water has spread PFAS to soil, crops and wildlife, including fish."For decades, polluters have dumped as much PFAS as they wanted into our rivers, streams, lakes and bays with impunity. We must turn off the tap of PFAS pollution from industrial discharges, which affect more and more Americans every day," said EWG's Faber.

Testing fish for PFAS
The EPA and the FDA test differently to detect PFAS in fish. The EPA uses what's known as draft Method 1633 to test for up to 40 PFAS compounds in fish tissue, as well as in wastewater, surface water, groundwater, soil, biosolids, sediment and the liquid that forms when waste breaks down in landfills.

National EPA tests show nearly all fish in U.S. rivers and streams are contaminated with PFAS in the parts-per-billion range - even greater than parts per trillion. Although the most recent test results found decreasing PFAS levels, freshwater fish are still contaminated at high levels.

The FDA improved its scientific method to test for 20 different PFAS compounds. Its approach is used to test seafood samples, as well as processed foods. In its 2022 survey of seafood, the FDA found much lower levels of PFAS in seafood from grocery stores. The median levels of total PFAS detected by the EPA were 280 times higher than levels in commercially sold fish tested by the FDA.

Health risks
PFAS are among the most persistent compounds in existence, contaminating everything from drinking water to food, food packaging and personal care products. PFAS build up in our bodies and never break down in the environment. They are found in the blood of virtually everyone, including newborn babies.

Very low doses of PFAS in drinking water have been linked to suppression of the immune system, including reduced vaccine efficacy, and an increased risk of certain cancers. PFAS are linked with increased cholesterol, reproductive and developmental problems and other health harms.

More than 200 million Americans could be drinking water contaminated with PFAS. The problem is likely worse than has already been confirmed, further underscoring the need for swift regulatory action.

"The EPA needs to move swiftly to set regulations for the industries most likely to be dumping PFAS into the environment. Downstream communities especially have suffered the consequences of unregulated PFAS discharges for far too long," added Faber.

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Eating one freshwater fish equals a month of drinking 'forever chemicals' water, says US study | Envirotec

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A new study appears to find that consumption of just a single serving of freshwater fish per year could be equal to a month of drinking water laced with the ...