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Teacher Workshop Women in Uniform and War 14 July 2025 Bell

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Question Formulation Technique (QFT) Slides

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Question Formulation Technique (QFT) Slides

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Developed by the Right Question Institute, the Question Formulation Technique, or QFT, is a structured method for generating and improving questions. It distills sophisticated forms of divergent, convergent, and metacognitive thinking into a deceptively simple, accessible, and reproducible technique.

The QFT builds the skill of asking questions, an essential - yet often overlooked - lifelong learning skill that allows people to think critically, feel greater power and self-efficacy, and become more confident and ready to participate in civic life.

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What is the QFT? - Right Question Institute

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The Question Formulation Technique (QFT) is a simple but rigorous step-by-step process designed to help […]

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The process of fine-tuning questions and engaging in discovery improves students' critical thinking skills.

Before grade school, kids ask more than 300 questions a day on average, according to research conducted by OnePoll on behalf of a British retailer. As parents, we remember the preschool years with the endless curiosity and questions. But what happens to the number of questions when kids start elementary school? How many questions do you think a kindergartener asks compared with a fourth grader or an eighth grader?

So how do we make the shift from teacher-driven questioning to learner-driven questioning? Using a simple and effective tool like the Question Formulation Technique, we can empower learners to develop high-quality questions, think critically, and spark inquiry that goes beyond the surface to deeper learning.
Courtesy of Evolving Learner
Developed and championed by the Right Question Institute (RQI) the process uses strategically placed constraints to encourage learners to stay in the question, delving deeper into a concept, visual, or phrase until previously unrealized dimensions are revealed. It also de-emphasizes the rush-to-answer dynamic.

The Process

Teacher prep: Begin by choosing a question focus (QFocus) as a prompt. This could be a snippet of text, an image, a graph, a physical object, a piece of audio, or something else entirely. Whatever the QFocus is, it should be clear, should not be a question, and should stimulate new lines of thinking without introducing bias. It could be whimsical, serious, or creative, but it must be presented without context or explanation. Several free resources and templates are available for grades K-12 and beyond for no cost (with a free account) at RQI's Teaching and Learning Resources page.

Ask as many questions as you can.

Do not stop to discuss, judge, or answer any questions.

Write down every question exactly as it is stated.

Change any statement into a question.

Step 1. Introduce the rules: RQI suggests giving students the following rules:

Be clear about the time limit. For example, "Ask as many questions as you can in 4 minutes."

Ask participants to number each question as it comes to them. In the "reflect" step we can analyze which number questions ended up being priority questions. "Was our first question our best question?"

Stress the importance of not judging questions, especially if learners are collaboratively brainstorming questions. Naturally, we worry that something negative will slow or halt questions, but compliments also create a problem. A simple "What a great question!" could be interpreted as "The best question has already been asked, and there is nothing more to contribute." All judgment, good or bad, risks shutting the process down.
Cindy Tang/ Unsplash
Step 2. Learners produce questions: Reveal the QFocus, and students respond to it by brainstorming as many questions as they can for the set amount of time. If they slow down in their questioning, encourage learners to shift perspective multiple times to uncover new questions.

Step 3. Learners improve questions: Students review the questions and distinguish the open (often why, what, or how) questions from the closed (yes/no) questions with an eye toward maximizing the open questions.

Embrace variability. Not everyone knows the difference between closed-ended and open-ended questions. A mini-lesson creating an anchor chart will probably be helpful for all.

Challenge learners to switch closed-ended questions to open-ended and vice versa. It is important to note that while we may have a preference for open-ended questions for deeper discussions, both types of questions serve a purpose. This is a great opportunity to discuss the pros and cons of both as well as discuss the uncomfortable gray area when a question isn't easily categorized as open or closed.

Which questions interest us most?

What do we want/need to answer first?

What questions will best help us design our research project, experiment, etc.?

What questions will best help us solve a problem?

Step 4. Learners prioritize questions: Groups will collaborate to determine which questions are the most interesting and essential to unlock more dimensions of the QFocus. Provide learners guiding questions based on your learning goals and how far you plan to take this line of inquiry:

It's fascinating to see the questions generated and how they are prioritized. We can also use this data as a formative assessment that drives our instruction.

How will we address or answer our priority questions?

Where will we start?

How will we address the remaining questions?

Step 5. Determine next steps: Ideally, the next steps are co-constructed or learner-constructed, but it may take time to get to that release of responsibility. Here are some basic prompts that learners can use to discuss next steps:

Step 6. Reflect: This wraps the process up, allowing for metacognition and final team discussion. Facilitate the reflection with questions like "How did the process change your discussion about the QFocus? Your thinking?" This is actually the time for teachers to ask questions.

Give learners adequate time to reflect. They can do this individually and then share out, or they can record the group's thoughts together.

The Power of Questioning

An example of a successful outcome of not rushing to the answer is a group of Welsh scientists studying a specific type of killer T cells' effect on bacteria. Instead of receiving their expected result, they discovered that their T cells had an unanticipated effect on cancer cells. Rather than dismiss these results from their research, they stayed in the question and may have stumbled upon a possible cure for many types of cancer.

Questioning is an essential life skill, and as educators, we can leverage the Question Formulation Technique to flip the script, guiding our learners through productive struggle that empowers all, keeps us focused, and deepens the learning.

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The process of fine-tuning questions and engaging in discovery improves students' critical thinking skills. Before grade school, kids ask more than 300 questions a day on average, according to research conducted by OnePoll on behalf of a British retailer. As parents, we remember the preschool years with the endless curiosity and questions.

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Grades 5-8

Use with Real World Science: Yesterday, Today + Tomorrow Teacher Guide

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Science and Engineering Practices | NSTA

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The eight science and engineering practices reflect the work of scientists and engineers for students to establish, extend, and refine their science knowledge. View the Science and Engineering Practices

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The Wharf on Bienvenue explores the Louisiana wetlands, where conservation meets education. The Wharf stives to protect the coast, create jobs, foster economic growth, and promote sustainability. Check out their incredible website and this video of the Parish Marina Experience before we go!

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Come party on the bayou! Only 20 minutes from downtown New Orleans where we have food, drinks, and a dance party on the water!

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Story Time from Space- Notable Notebooks

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Story Time From Space | T2 Science & Math Education Consultants

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The Eclipse series page features all three videos from the International Space Station along with the free Totality App, information on where to find ISO approved glasses, and other resources to enhance your learning experience.

Written by Deborah Lee Rose

Read by JAXA Astronaut Koichi Wakata on the International Space Station

From the Publisher: From A to Z, "you are there" NASA photos capture real women and men astronauts on the International Space Station doing all kinds of work―and having fun! Diverse astronauts from around the world include NASA'S first all-woman spacewalk team and the first African American astronaut on a 6-month mission to the space station. With STEM-rich text and action words, ASTRONAUTS ZOOM! gives kids a space-eye view from the time astronauts awake till they're zipped in for the night. Kids will also discover how astronauts practice on Earth, getting dressed in spacesuits and "spacewalking" in NASA's training pool. Lots of hands-on STEAM ideas are included―like exploring science and engineering activities, making videos "from space," even throwing a space pizza party! 20 YEARS OF ASTRONAUTS ON THE SPACE STATION!

Read by Shannon Walker, NASA Astronaut

Una dreams of a life in Space. Life on Earth is just so so-so. But how will she get there? And will she complete her mission to discover life in Space? And did she remember to feed Neil the goldfish?

On May 19th 2021, Give Me Some Space! was read to over 1.98 million children across Australia and New Zealand simultaneously by NASA astronaut Shannon Walker - from the International Space Station!

National Simultaneous Storytime is held annually, thanks to the Australian Library and Information Association ( ALIA). Each year, one book is selected to be read simultaneously in libraries, schools, pre-schools, childcare centers, family homes, bookshops and many other places around Australia and New Zealand.

Be sure to watch the "Science Time From Space" companion video: Sun, Earth, and Space

Written and Illustrated by: Markus Motum

Maybe you remember when a little robotic spacecraft landed on a far-off planet. On August 6, 2012, the rover Curiosity touched down on the rocky surface of Mars - and now she's ready to guide you through her journey firsthand. From idea to creation and beyond, this fact-filled, stylish book introduces readers to Curiosity and her mission: to discover more about the red planet and search for evidence of life. How did Curiosity get her name? What tools does she use to carry out her tasks? In her own voice, the popular NASA rover tells how and why she traveled more than 350,000,000 miles to explore a planet no human has ever visited . . . and what she's been doing there. In his debut picture book, Markus Motum brings Curiosity 's story to life in vivid color: the deep blues of space set off the warm, rusted hues of Mars's dusty red surface, marking this lovable rover and her mission as something special - truly a world apart.

Re-watch our very first LIVE Story Time From Space reading from the International Space Station! Read along with astronaut Shannon Walker as we follow the extreme adventures of Willow the Water Bear.

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The Eclipse series page features all three videos from the International Space Station along with the free Totality App, information on where to find ISO approved glasses, and other resources to enhance your learning experience. From the Publisher: From A to Z, "you are there" NASA photos capture real women and men astronauts on the International Space Station doing all kinds of work―and having fun!

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The education team at The National WWII Museum is working to update this program. Operation Footlocker reservations will open again for the Fall 2023 semester. Check back then for more information!
Traveling Artifact Trunks

The National WWII Museum has launched Operation Footlocker, providing schools across the country with unique hands-on opportunities to explore the history and lessons of World War II by analyzing WWII artifacts. These traveling trunks are designed to supplement WWII education in the classroom.

Each footlocker comes loaded with about 15 actual artifacts from World War II (not reproductions!). Of course, no weapons or ammunition are included. But there are ration books, V-mail letters, dog tags, sand from the beaches of Normandy and Iwo Jima, wartime magazines, a high school yearbook from the early 1940s, and many other artifacts, both commonplace and surprising. Footlockers come complete with white cotton gloves for handling the artifacts and a teacher's manual that describes each object and contains directions for conducting artifact "reading" sessions.

Because of the fragile nature of some artifacts, we recommend the program for grades 5-12 and beyond. Turn your students into history detectives as they ponder the origins and uses of these real pieces of WWII history!

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Operation Footlocker | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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The National WWII Museum has launched Operation Footlocker, providing schools across the country with unique hands-on opportunities to explore the history and lessons of World War II by analyzing WWII artifacts

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Notable Notebooks on the ISS

Notable Notebooks was selected for the Story Time from Space program in 2017. A copy of the book was sent to the International Space Station where it was read aloud by astronaut Joseph Acaba.

Order Now!

Preorder personalized and signed copies of Nature's Rule Breakers: Creatures That Don't Fit In (Lerner/Millbrook) from my local independent bookstore, Cover to Cover Books for Young Readers. Book releases October 3, 2023!

Recent Posts

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Jessica Fries-Gaither is a science educator and an author of books for children and teachers.

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The resting site of the U-505, "Nemo"

A MUST SEE!

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Experience the real U-505, the only German submarine in the United States.

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Camp Ruston, LA

POW camp for the surviving crewmen of the U-505, "Nemo"

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Louisiana Trust for Historic Preservation

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2021 Most Endangered Places: Camp Ruston POW Buildings

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Louisiana's Most Endangered

Camp Ruston POW Buildings (Ruston, Lincoln Parish) –

Local farm land was acquired by the federal government to establish this internment camp for WWII Prisoners of War. It was activated on Christmas Day 1942 and reached its peak population in October 1943 with 4,315 prisoners. The site went on to become a tuberculosis hospital and later turned over to Grambling State University. Remaining Camp Ruston buildings survive today in poor condition and may need to be moved to be restored.

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For Immediate Release

Baton Rouge, LA- Louisiana is known for its rich history and cultural diversity. Louisiana's historic sites represent the past, but often these sites become neglected, abandoned, or ultimately demolished. The Louisiana Trust for Historic Preservation works statewide to help identify and advocate for our state's historic places and has announced the 2021 Louisiana Most Endangered Places. 11 new nominations have been selected. Since 1999, LTHP has maintained this growing list. Many sites have been saved will others stand stagnant. LTHP encourages creative approaches and valuable tools such as the National Register of Historic Places or state and federal tax credits to help save these endangered places.

This year's list represents a mix of sites ranging from enslaved burial grounds to World War II era buildings. Listing these places acknowledges their importance to the local community but also our statewide identity and economy.

The list is generated from nominations made by the public and aims to attract creative approaches and resources to see the sites saved and rehabilitated for future generations.  "These historic places are the backbone of our communities and it requires creative approaches to preserve and protect them for future generations," says Brian Davis, Executive Director of the Louisiana Trust.  "Strategic partnerships, tax credits and programs like LTHP's Revolving Fund program can save buildings many people may consider too far gone."

Selections to Louisiana's Most Endangered Places List are based on their historic significance; the critical nature of their threat; and the likelihood to bring about a positive resolution to their situation or to those of similar sites.  More information about the program, including nomination form, and a complete list of sites may be found at https://www.lthp.org/endangered-properties/.

2021 Additions to Louisiana's Most Endangered Places List:

Buena Vista & Acadia Plantation Cemeteries (St. James, St. James Parish) - While many plantations have been lost along River Road, historic remnants are hidden among sugarcane fields. Descendants of the enslaved at these burial sites have researched their ancestry back to 1852. The land is now the site of a proposed plastics complex. Construction was delayed after opposition by the Corps of Engineers. United Nations have raised concerns of continued environmental racism increasing regional health issues.

Camp Ruston POW Buildings (Ruston, Lincoln Parish) - Local farm land was acquired by the federal government to establish this internment camp for WWII Prisoners of War. It was activated on Christmas Day 1942 and reached its peak population in October 1943 with 4,315 prisoners. The site went on to become a tuberculosis hospital and later turned over to Grambling State University. Remaining Camp Ruston buildings survive today in poor condition and may need to be moved to be restored.

Columbia Free Methodist Church (Columbia, Caldwell Parish) - Located just outside Columbia's Main Street community, this simple concrete block structure once served as a house of worship, later an educational center. The building has lost its entrance steps and has been vacant for over two decades. Situated on main road, it is highly visible and could be a great adaptive reuse property as a new business opportunity or community center.

Frank Young House (Franklin, St. Mary Parish) - Frank Young was an active member of the African American community advocating for educational opportunities in the early 20th century. He deeply influenced his grandson, Andrew Young. A. Young visited his grandfather often and went on to become a leader of the Civil Rights Movement in Louisiana and beyond. The property was to be donated and used for the Boys and Girls Club in the late 1900s but remains vacant.

Franklin Lodge No. 57 F&AM (Franklin, St. Mary Parish) - Masons charted in 1848 and later built this prominent building as their headquarters on Main Street in 1895. Leaders have completed architectural plans to work towards restoration. Some masonry work was completed in recent years, but additional work includes returning second-story windows and balcony as well as updated storefronts. Long-time tenants have recently moved out. Community leaders are working to raise funds to restore the facade and encourage new activity.

Gueydan Museum & Cultural Arts Society (Gueydan, Vermillion Parish) - Originally built as a bank in 1902, it features ornate details such as the recessed Romanesque arched entry. It was listed on the National Register in 1990 and opened as a museum that same year. In the fall of 2020, the building was impacted by hurricane damage. Repairs include repairing or replacing all windows, a new roof, and other updates. The museum is actively fundraising but needs additional support to keep their space open and safe.

Holy Cross School (New Orleans, Orleans Parish) - This long-time school has sat vacant since Hurricane Katrina. Plans and proposals by Perez Architects have been made but no movement or site improvements have been made. The building continues to deteriorate, and the grounds are overgrown with weeds and no proper security. Lower 9th Ward neighbors are advocating for emergency repairs to keep the 1895 building up as well as appropriate reuses to fit the surrounding local and National Register historic district.

Husser School & Community Center (Husser, Tangipahoa Parish) - 100 years ago this school house was built by local citizens in the nearby farming communities. It features three classroom spaces made with local pine timber and includes a small wood bell tower. The school closed at the end of the 1942 school year but went on to serve as a community center. Events continued here until the 1980s. Efforts to restore the school are taking shape, but additional funding is necessary.

Mary & J.W. Thomas House (Natchitoches, Natchitoches Parish) - Originally from Baton Rouge, JW Thomas moved to Natchitoches in the early 1900s to educate black youths. In 1912, he opened the Lincoln Institute where he served as teacher and administrator. By 1925, a seven-room school house was dedicated as the Natchitoches Parish Training School. His home remained occupied until 2009. Repairs are needed to stabilize and update the traditional cottage.

Kerner House (Gretna, Jefferson Parish) - Individually listed on the National Register, the Kerner House is representative of the Greek Revival & Italianate styles. The property has become a site of overgrown vegetation and rot. It is also located within a local historic district. Community leaders hope to work together to clean up and restore the property as a showcase to their neighborhood's history.

St. Mary's Chapel (Union, St. James Parish) - This sacred space was designed and built by Louis Chauvin II, a local sugar maker, architect, and Civil War veteran in 1875. It was constructed from top to bottom in local cypress highlighting the Gothic Revival style. Additions of the transepts and sacristy were added in 1900. The frame structure suffers from neglect and incoming water damage. Community members are working to establish a new non-profit to establish renovation plans and fundraisers.

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Announcing the 2021 Most Endangered Places - Louisiana Trust for Historic Preservation

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For Immediate Release Baton Rouge, LA- Louisiana is known for its rich history and cultural diversity. Louisiana's historic sites represent the past, but often these sites become neglected, abandoned, or ultimately demolished. The Louisiana Trust for Historic Preservation works statewide to help identify and advocate for our state's historic places and has announced the 2021 Louisiana Most Endangered Places.

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Article:

Louisiana Spotlight: U-505 and Camp Ruston

The crew of a German U-Boat became prisoners in a North Louisiana prisoner of war camp, held in secret to protect Allied intelligence.

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Louisiana Spotlight: U-505 and Camp Ruston

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The crew of a German U-Boat became prisoners in a North Louisiana prisoner of war camp, held in secret to protect Allied intelligence.

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Wesley Harris (b. Ruston, LA) has written extensively on police procedures during a law enforcement career spanning four decades. Now his writing focuses on fiction and topics of personal interest in American history. He earned his B.S. and M.A. at Louisiana Tech University and pursued additional graduate work at Grambling State University.

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Fish Out of Water: Nazi Submariners as Prisoners in North Louisiana During World War II

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Fish Out of Water: Nazi Submariners as Prisoners in North Louisiana During World War II [Harris, Wesley] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Fish Out of Water: Nazi Submariners as Prisoners in North Louisiana During World War II

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Headed for baseball stardom with the Brooklyn Dodgers, Gene’s destiny was interrupted by Pearl Harbor. After playing ball for the Navy in the Azores and North Africa, Gene and his team were sent to the States for a special—and top secret—mission: guarding German sailors captured from U-505. Unable to field a team, Gene convinced his commander to allow him to teach the enemy how to play baseball while he and his teammates waited for the war to end so they could be called up into the Major Leagues. But Gene’s future changed irrevocably in Louisiana. His life . . . and maybe our national pastime . . . was forever altered.

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Playing with the Enemy: A Baseball Prodigy, a World at War, and a Field of Broken Dreams

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Playing with the Enemy: A Baseball Prodigy, a World at War, and a Field of Broken Dreams [Moore, Gary W.] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Playing with the Enemy: A Baseball Prodigy, a World at War, and a Field of Broken Dreams

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STEM Innovations 2025 (NOLA Vibes)

Feel free to add more that you like!

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Share your videos with friends, family, and the world

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Little Engineers Grades K-4

Sundials and Loyal Forces

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Reed- LITTLE ENGINEERS July 2025- Day 1 AM Session

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U-505 and the incredible story of the POWs that would end up in Camp Ruston, LA during WWII

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World War II ended for the 58 survivors aboard German submarine U-505 on June 4, 1944, about 150 miles from Rio de Oro, Western Sahara. The first enemy vessel seized at sea by the United States Navy since the War of 1812, the assault on the sub by Captain Daniel V. Gallery's Task Group 22.3, the capture of the crew (they were subsequently transferred to Camp Ruston in northern Louisiana), and the work by a boarding party from escort carrier USS Guadalcanal ensuring it did not sink have been so ably described by my colleague Kali Martin that they need no further elaboration here.

Since 1954, the Type IX C U-boat has been an exhibit, now indoors and some 35,000 square feet, at Chicago's wonderful Museum of Science and Industry on the South Side of the city. In June 1996, I visited the Museum and toured U-505. That was unforgettable. Never have I felt so claustrophobic in my life. That tour and watching filmmaker Wolfgang Petersen's 1981 motion picture Das Boot (The Boat), about a WWII German submarine in the Atlantic, disabused me of any stereotypes about undersea life.

Over the years, I have wondered about U-505 and its path to the fateful confrontation with Captain Gallery's force. Here, I just want to document the initial part of that path up to and including the U-boat's second mission and entry into the Battle of the Atlantic.

Americans often lose sight of the fact that, on December 8, 1941, Adolf Hitler ordered Grand Admiral Erich Raeder's Kriegsmarine (Navy) to target United States ships, as well as the vessels of Central and South American countries who expressed support for the US after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. This was three days before Nazi Germany's actual declaration of war on December 11.

Since the Third Reich had a very limited surface fleet-and as the sinking of the battleship Bismarck by the Royal Navy the previous May demonstrated-and ran tremendous risks undertaking long-range voyages, the task of taking the war to American shipping fell to the submarine force. A new phase in the Battle of the Atlantic was about to begin.

Warfare by U-boat was the purview of Admiral Karl Dönitz, commander of Germany's U-boat arm, who had served as a submarine captain during World War I. Prior to US entry into the conflict, he already faced the none too easy mission of strangling Britain's ability to wage war through submarine blockade. In fact, Dönitz had expanded the offensive perimeter against the United Kingdom in April 1941 by sending his vessels deep into the central Atlantic.

Now, eight months later, he faced the awesome challenge of devastating American shipping as well. Initially, Dönitz's submarine fleet scored triumph after triumph. The year 1942 would prove to be a time of tremendous peril for the Allied war effort when the German Navy appeared to be the arm of Hitler's armed forces which might swing the balance in favor of the Axis Powers.

Dönitz could draw on recently completed subs like U-505. Commissioned in late August 1941, it was built by workers employed by the Hamburg-based Deutsche Werft, a firm which in peacetime constructed merchant ships. Weighing over 1,100 tons, about 250 feet long, 22 feet in width, and able to dive several hundred feet, it was one of the technological terrors of the first half of the twentieth century.

Two saltwater-cooled diesel engines, each with 2170 horsepower, propelled the craft. As a Type IX C, U-505 had a range of almost 17,000 miles, meaning it could show up in the most unexpected places for merchant vessels. Patrols could actually last 100 days or more. While it could make 18 knots on the surface, the best that could be achieved below the surface was 8 knots. Submerged, it was extremely vulnerable to faster pursuers.

When it settled on a target, the submarine could bring to bear its six 21-inch torpedo tubes (four in the bow, two in the stern). Onboard were 22 of these ship-killers. U-505 also had a 4.1 inch deck gun and two anti-aircraft guns (a 20mm and a 37mm).

Conditions for the crew hardly generate envy among students of World War II. While the Type IX C was larger than earlier types and could transport some 60 men, lack of space always dogged crewmembers. Only one sailor could stand in the tiny kitchen at a time. Bunk-rotating could not be avoided, because the Kriegsmarine provided a mere 35 bunks. Materials created by the Museum of Science and Industry detail just how onerous things became over time on lengthy patrols.

All provisions (eggs, cheese, rice, noodles, dried potatoes, canned and preserved meats, coffee, and beer) eventually tasted like the diesel fuel that fed the engines. To call life aboard unsanitary would be a massive understatement, as the smells associated with inadequate body hygiene commingled with diesel fumes. Moreover, it was a seemingly endless time to go without seeing daylight or breathing fresh air.

Once completed, U-505 was not rushed into combat. From late August 1941 until well into January 1942, intensive training with the 4th U-boat Flotilla claimed the time of the crew. Absolute mastery of all instruments aboard, division of responsibilities, diving, the techniques of assault on surface ships, drills for torpedo failure, how to avoid detection, and what to do if attacked and damaged comprised central goals-life-or-death goals-of the instruction.

Then, shortly after the start of the new year, in mid-January U-505, under the command of Axel Löwe set out on its first mission-circumnavigating the British Isles and arriving in France. This it did. The sub's new home was now Lorient, in Brittany. There was little time to waste, however. Mission Two awaited.

On February 11, 1942, Löwe and U-505 embarked on their second mission. Its destination was the waters off the coast of West Africa. This U-boat had finally joined the Battle of the Atlantic.

This patrol of 86 days was quite "successful." U-505 sank four ships (one American, one British, one Norwegian, and one Dutch). The US craft, the cargo ship West Irmo, was struck by one of the U-boat's 21-inch torpedoes on April 3, 1942, about 300 miles southwest of Sekondi-Takoradi, in Ghana.

These victims of U-505 were among the more than 1,100 Allied ships brought down by Dönitz's submarine arm in 1942. If it was a "happy time" for Dönitz's men and their Führer, 1942 was a year of incredible danger for US and British leaders.

Through gigantic technological and organizational innovations, though, the Allies turned the proverbial "tide" in the Battle of the Atlantic in 1943. And those innovations would make Atlantic patrols an especially fraught venture for the crew of U-505 well before the capture of the sub in June 1944.

Learn More

Jason Dawsey, PhD, is ASU WWII Studies Consultant in the Jenny Craig Institute for the Study of War and Democracy.

Learn More

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the jenny craig institute for the study of war and democracy

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Wolf Beneath the Waves: U-505 Joins the Battle of the Atlantic

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For Allied leaders, 1942 was a year of incredible danger and anxiety in the Battle of the Atlantic.

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Little Engineers Grades K-4

Secret Sounds

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Reed- LITTLE ENGINEERS July 2025- Day 1 PM Session

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RISE ABOVE is the CAF three-fold educational outreach program that brings the history and legacy of the Tuskegee Airmen and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) to life in communities and classrooms everywhere.

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Teacher Resource: CAF Rise Above Newsletter

Inspiring young people to RISE ABOVE adversity using lessons and stories of the Tuskegee Airmen and the WASP

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The Civil Air Patrol (CAP) Educators Info page!  If you are looking for free aerospace/STEM lesson plans, activities, textbooks, products, and programs to use in any classroom or after-school or enrichment program, we hope CAP will have something to help you! Our products and programs, below, can be used across disciplines and in both core and elective studies.

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> NOTICE: As hybrid learning experiences remain an option for various reasons, check out CAP’s Aerospace/STEM Resources for Remote Education page HERE.

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Civil Air Patrol (CAP) STEM Education Kits for Teachers

Please note: The STEM Kit application process for educator members is closed between April 1 and July 31.  Please review the available STEM Kits and plan to apply for a STEM Kit August 1st.

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Skip to main content Main Content

The CAP AE program office has identified a variety of STEM Kits offered for this program. Beginning September 1, 2019, these kits have been grouped into three core areas:
The offerings may change according to demand, and kit availability may differ during the year.
Most CAP STEM Kits are available to all AEOs and AEMs. There are a select few that will only be available to our AEOs. These include Flight Simulator, Raspberry Pi and Remote-Controlled Aircraft. If you are an AEM, and you and your students are interested in one of these three STEM Kits, visit or join your local CAP squadron to learn more.

To learn more about the STEM Kits that CAP offers, click on the specific kit in the left navigation menu or on the kit name on this page, and read a brief description of the kit including its components, age requirements and additional equipment needed for the kit. All documents and links necessary to complete each STEM Kit can be found in Learning Management Systems (LMS) on eServices at this link.

The kits come at no cost to recipients, are designed to enhance current CAP educational curriculum and programs and will be ready-made for immediate implementation. CAP Unit AE Officers (or commanders), as well as CAP members who are educators, including AFJROTC instructors, can select one kit from the options that are described below.

To apply for a STEM Kit, log into eServices using your CAPID# and password. Click on Aerospace Education and then CAP STEM Kit. When you are on the CAP STEM Kit page, click on Apply for STEM kit at the top of the page. Fill out the application completely and Submit.

After you use the kit for at least six hours and complete an online evaluation, you may apply for another kit. NOTE: Kits are designed as introductory programs with the intention that the recipients connect with subject matter experts -- as noted with each kit description, for further assistance -- instruction, and guidance.

If you are a teacher or informal educator (such as Scouts or youth groups), you may join Civil Air Patrol as an Aerospace Education Member and apply for these free kits, too. LEARN MORE.
Safety precautions should be practiced at all times with all CAP materials and programs.

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Skip to main content Main Content The CAP AE program office has identified a variety of STEM Kits offered for this program. Beginning September 1, 2019, these kits have been grouped into three core areas: The offerings may change according to demand, and kit availability may differ during the year.

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BTNEP Teacher Professional Development Workshop

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BTNEP Teacher Professional Development Workshop

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Coming Soon: July 26-27!

The Barataria-Terrebonne National Estuary Teacher Professional Development Workshop will be held July 26 and 27. This event is open to all teachers interested in incorporating new educational opportunities into their classrooms that address the environmental challenges of the Louisiana wetlands.

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Qualtrics Survey | Qualtrics Experience Management

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The most powerful, simple and trusted way to gather experience data. Start your journey to experience management and try a free account today.

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The National WWII Museum’s patrol torpedo boat, PT-305, has her new assignment—returning to her permanent home on the Museum’s campus in the John E. Kushner Restoration Pavilion.

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Session 1 of Grade Band 9 - 12!

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Session 2 of Grade Band 9 - 12!

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The SixTripleEight: No Mail, Low Morale

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On February 3, 1945, the US Army sent over 800 black women overseas to England aboard the SS Ile de France. Their mission unknown to them. Eleven days later, after dodging German U-boats, the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion "the SixTripleEight" landed in Glasgow, Scotland. Their commander, Major Charity Adams, and the rest of her command staff waited for them on the docks. "Thanks to seasickness, the salt-water spray, and the limited personal conveniences, when they arrived after twelve days at sea, the group was a very unhappy looking lot," recalled Adams in her book, One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC.
ADVOCATING FOR BLACK WOMEN
Their journey overseas started several years earlier when Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune, an adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, advocated with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to find a meaningful role for black women in the war. Her concern was that the war was coming to an end and black women would be left out of it. An educator and public leader, Bethune had traveled to colleges and universities in the United States, and she knew where the best qualified black women were. One of those women, Charity Adams, was already serving in the Women's Army Corps (WAC) at Fort Des Moines, Iowa. Other black women had also joined the WACs, and by war's end, over 6,000 were in uniform.
OVERSEAS TRAINING AT FORT OGLETHORPE
In the summer of 1944, Adams and other black WACs at Fort Des Moines had received orders to train at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, an overseas training center (TC). At the TC, Adams oversaw four companies. "Our preparation was intense," said Adams. "Gas mask drills, obstacle course, classroom training, clothes packing exercises, physical examinations, and close order drill." The women had performed well despite the ever-present specter of racism. Brigadier General (USA, Ret.) Clara Adams-Ender, the first Army Nurse to command as a General, knew several women of the SixTripleEight, and remembers this story, "they got down there, the commander of the base said, we know why you're here and I will do nothing to help you prepare to go overseas."

Indiana Hunt took the train from New York to Fort Oglethorpe. They had to change trains in Washington DC. Having some time before leaving, she and another WAC ventured out into the city, the nation's Capital. "We walked around waiting to leave, that's when we noticed all the signs 'Whites Only," said Martin in the 2019 documentary about the unit, The SixTripleEight.

Another woman, Lydia "Chino" Thornton joined the WACs in Phoenix, Arizona, after her brother was bayonetted on Guadalcanal. "She wanted to do something," said daughter Alva Stevenson, "and her something was to enlist." When she signed up, Chino was given an interesting choice to join either the Black WACs or the White WACs because of her light skin complexion. She chose the Black WACs.

By December 1944, the women were trained and going home to visit with family before sailing overseas. Adams, and her Executive Officer Captain Abbie Campbell, received orders for England to prepare for the coming troops. On the flight over, Adams opened an envelope marked "Secret." Inside were her orders to proceed to London, still no word of her mission.
17 MILLION PIECES OF MAIL
On February 14, the 'SixTripleEight' arrived at their new home at the King Edward School near downtown Birmingham. The living conditions were austere. One veteran remembers having to take cold showers outside. They put their gear on their bunks and were taken to nearby warehouses. Inside, they found bags of mail, packages, and boxes stacked to the ceiling. But before they tackled their mission, Major Adams had something more important in mind.

In January, she and her Executive Officer, Captain Abbie Campbell, flew over to France to meet with Major General John C.H. Lee, her immediate boss. He wanted to know if her women could march. Major Adams recalled in a 1990 interview "There is only one answer when a general asks you a question," said Adams, "they are the best marching women you have ever seen." Good, he replied. He told her he would come to see her battalion march three days after they arrive. On that day, they did so well that Major General Lee wrote her father a letter telling him "she was a fine, young woman." While in Paris, Adams and Campbell took the opportunity to meet a legend of the US Army, Brigadier General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., whose career began as a Buffalo Soldier in Troop I, 9th Cavalry Regiment.

Mail stacked to the ceiling in Birmingham by the Army Historical Foundation.

Over the next three months, the SixTripleEight perfected their processes by setting up three eight hour shifts, seven days a week. "Every morning, the trucks would come in loaded with mail and packages and they would sort them," said Dorothy Turner Johnson in a 2007 interview, "and I had the V's. One would think there weren't that many V's, but no, there were many, many V's in the army." At peak efficiency, they processed for delivery over 65,000 pieces of mail per shift. By war's end, it added up to 17 million pieces of mail.

When not on duty, the women ventured into the city. The citizens of Birmingham were just as curious about these black female soldiers as the SixTripleEight were about them, with one exception-the women soon realized they could go anywhere they wanted. They went dancing, bowling, and eating at local restaurants. On Sunday evenings, the women were invited into local homes for a Sunday dinner. "The food was pretty good," said Delores Ruddock. They had an 11:00 pm curfew. According to Adams, "when white American soldiers were asked by locals why the women had an early curfew, they replied 'after midnight they grew tails.'"
RACIAL ISSUES
While her troops were focused on their mission, Major Adams dealt with two significant racially motivated leadership challenges. In London, the American Red Cross wanted to provide her women with their own hotel. Adams saw through the ruse. "I promised them that as long as I'm commanding officer of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, not one member of my unit will stay at the other hotel. And to my knowledge they never did."

The second issue was more serious. A visiting general, not in her chain of command, wanted to see her soldiers' march. It seemed like every weekend her troops were marching for one general or another. On this one occasion, a general arrived, but only 300 of her women were ready for inspection. The general wanted to know where the rest of the women were. Adams explained that one-third were on duty and the other third were resting. The general did not find that answer satisfactory. "I tell you what I'm going to do, Major Adams. I'm going to send a white first lieutenant down here to show you how to run things."

Adams recalled that "there are times when the human mind must respond like a computer. That statement seemed like a scream." She did not remember which word triggered her response, but she was certain that her officers and soldiers in formation had heard the exchange. Adams realized that she might not be able to effectively lead her troops if she did not give the proper response, so she blurted out, "Over my dead body, Sir."

The general assured her that she would hear from him. As she prepared for a court-martial, her staff found a memorandum from SHAEF headquarters that cautioned commanders about using language that stressed racial segregation. The general relented. Months later, in France, she found herself in the general's command and he came out to see her. This meeting was much different.

The SixTripleEight was a self-sufficient unit; they had their own medics, dining hall, military police (who were not armed, but were trained in jiu jitsu), transportation, administrative, and support services. Army leadership estimated that it would take at least six months and closer to a year to get the backlog taken care of. The SixTripleEight did it in three months.
NEXT STOP: ROUEN, FRANCE
In May 1945, the SixTripleEight was moved to Rouen, France, not far from the port city of Le Havre. They were housed in an old mill complex, La Foudre, which had been purchased by the French government and turned into barracks just before World War II. The working conditions were the same, cold, dark, and damp with one exception. This time they had German prisoners and French civilians working with them. "The Germans were tough with the French ladies," remembers retired Air Force Major, Fannie Griffin, 100, of Tempe, Arizona. "They made the French women take off their make-up."

The SixTripleEight marching in honor of Joan of Arc in Rouen, France by the Army Historical Foundation.

On July 8, while stationed in Rouen, three of the women, Sgt. Delores Browne, Pfc. Mary Bankston, and Pfc. Mary Barlow, were killed in a Jeep accident. They were buried at Colleville-Sur-Mer Normandy American Cemetery. Of the nearly 9,400 other Americans buried there, only four are women. Three of them are from the SixTripleEight. Captain Abbie Campbell recalls their burials. "We had women who had worked in funeral parlors before," said Campbell. "They fixed up the ladies real nice."

At the end of summer, the SixTripleEight moved to Paris and the luxuries of the Hotel Etat-Unis from where they began to rotate home. "What was so interesting about our stay in France was that we were housed in barracks used by Napoleon's troops," said Turner Johnson.
SEVENTY-FIVE YEARS LATER
Seventy-five years later, the Six Triple Eight started receiving their just recognition. On November 30, 2018, a monument was dedicated in their honor at Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas. On February 20, 2019, Secretary of the Army, Dr. Mark T. Esper, awarded them the Meritorious Unit Commendation for Meritorious Service during Military Operations from February 15, 1945 to March 4, 1946.

The 6888 monument at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, by the Army Historical Foundation.

On February 28, and June 6, 2019, US Senator Jerry Moran, R-KS, and US Rep. Gwen Moore, D-Wis., respectively introduced bipartisan bills to award the SixTripleEight the Congressional Gold Medal, the nation's highest civilian award. "Fortunately, the Senate Bill passed by unanimous consent during the 116th Congress," said COL (USA, Ret.) Edna W. Cummings. This passage gives advocates momentum to work harder to bestow this overdue recognition to these trailblazers." Moran and Moore intend to re-introduce the bills in early February 2021.

On April 4, 2019, the SixTripleEight documentary premiered at the Women in Military Service to America (WIMSA) and screened throughout the United States to include The National WWII Museum in New Orleans. In May 2019, the production team (James Theres, Edna W. Cummings, Elizabeth Helm-Frazier, and Brigadier General (USA, Ret) Clara Adams-Ender) screened the film throughout the United Kingdom on the invitation of then-US Ambassador, Robert Wood Johnson. The documentary has earned several Best Documentary Feature awards.

On May 13, 2019, US Ambassador to the Court of St. James, Robert Wood Johnson, dedicated a Blue Plaque at King Edward's School in Birmingham, England to mark the location where the SixTripleEight was stationed in February 1945. Three SixTripleEight members served as Grand Marshals in the 2019 National Memorial Day Parade in Washington, D.C. and received the Audie Murphy award during the American Veterans Center's October 2019 American Valor Awards Ceremony.

In May 2019, the Reginald F. Lewis Museum in Baltimore screened the SixTripleEight documentary to a standing-room only audience. Other large screenings were held at the War Memorial Center in Milwaukee and on the University of Phoenix campus in Arizona.

In September 2019, the Congressional Black Caucus presented a Certificate of Special Congressional Recognition to the producers of the SixTripleEight documentary. A month later, the US Army Women's Foundation screened the SixTripleEight documentary at the annual Association of the United States Army Annual Meeting held at the Walter E. Washington Convention Center. In February 2021, the SixTripleEight appeared on the cover of The American Legion Magazine 's February edition.
SOME OF THE WOMEN AS PRIVATE CITIZENS
By March 1946, the unit had returned home. Some of its members stayed in the military, while others used the GI Bill to earn college degrees. They became teachers, bankers, nurses, and Civil Rights activists. There are nine known surviving women of the SixTripleEight.

Executive Officer, Captain Abbie N. Campbell retired as a dietician from the Tuskegee Veterans Administration Medical Center in Alabama. She passed away on July 2, 2007.

Staff Sergeant Millie Dunn Veasey earned an M.A. in business administration from North Carolina Central University. She taught business in high school and became the first female president of the local chapter of the Wake County NAACP. She helped organize the 1963 March on Washington and met President Barack H. Obama in 2016. She passed away on March 9, 2018, one month after receiving the Congressional Black Caucus's Foundation AVOICE award along with Retired General Colin Powell.

Major Charity Adams left military service in 1946 as a lieutenant colonel, the highest-ranking black female in the US Army at that time. She would go on to a distinguished career as an educator and administrator. She was selected for the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame and The Smithsonian Institution: 100 Most Important Black Women in History among other honors and awards. Adams received honorary doctorates from Wilberforce University and the University of Dayton. She passed away on January 13, 2002.

PFC Elizabeth Johnson was the first woman to use her GI Bill and graduated from what was then Winston-Salem Teachers College in 1949 with a degree in special education. She taught school for 32 years and volunteered another 15 years. In 2019, she gained national notoriety when she walked across the stage during WSSU's 2019 graduation ceremony, 70 years after receiving her degree. She passed away on August 23, 2020, a few months after her 100th birthday.

PFC Lydia "Chino" Thornton became a housewife until her youngest daughter reached junior high school, then used her GI Bill to earn bi-lingual teaching credentials at Immaculate Heart College. She helped Spanish speaking people in her community with citizenship, life skills, and improving their English. During the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles, she served as a translator for Spanish speaking Olympic boxers. Chino passed away on May 1, 2011.

PFC Indiana Hunt Martin continued her public service by working for the New York State Department of Labor in New York City, Niagara Falls, and Buffalo for a total of 41 years before her retirement in 1987. Congressman Brian Higgins, D-NY26, introduced a bill to name a post office in Buffalo, NY after her. She passed away on September 21, 2020 at 98.

First Lieutenant Fannie Griffin remained in the military and later joined the US Air Force. She retired as a major after serving for 26 years. At 100, she remains active in her Tempe, Arizona, community. The University of Phoenix and The National Society of Leadership and Success Foundation honored her by naming the 2020 Major Fannie Griffin-McClendon Scholarship in her honor.

PFC Delores Ruddock, 97, enlisted in the WACs in October 1943 in Washington DC. She went into banking after the war. She remains active in her church and community in Mount Rainer, Maryland.

PVT Anna Mae Robertson, 97, enlisted in the Army at age 19 and trained at Fort Des Moines, Iowa and Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. She lives in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and inspired her daughter, Janice, to join the US Postal Service. In 2014, US Rep. Gwen Moore, D-Wis helped her to receive her wartime medals.

PFC Maybelle Rutland Tanner Campbell, 97, lives in Alexandria, Virginia. She enlisted in the Women's Army Corps on August 4, 1943 at Fort Des Moines, Iowa, and was discharged from the Army after serving overseas with the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion. In June 2018, she took a Dream Flight in a restored 1940s Boeing Stearman open cockpit biplane from World War II, sponsored by the Ageless Dream Foundation.

For more about the SixTripleEight, go to www.lincolnpennyfilms.com.

Additional Resources:

One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC by Charity Adams Earley

Archival interviews located in the Veterans History Project, Library of Congress.

LTC Charity Adams, Oral History, 1990 on YouTube.

The SixTripleEight documentary. James W. Theres, Edna W. Cummings, Elizabeth Helm Frazier, Producers.

Meet the Authors
Edna W. Cummings, COL, USA (RET)
A native of Fayetteville, NC, Colonel (Retired) Edna W. Cummings operates a Washington DC area consultancy specializing in management and proposal services for federal and commercial clients. She earned her commission as an Army officer through the Reserve Officer Training Corps program at Appalachian State University (ASU), Boone, NC. Afterwards, she embarked on a distinguished 25-year military career in a variety of progressive assignments culminating with senior-level positions at Georgetown University, the Pentagon, and NORAD/USNORTHCOM. After retiring from the Army, she held management positions for federal contracting companies wherein she led homeland security and information technology initiatives for federal agencies including the Department of Defense and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Col. Cummings' outreach efforts as producer and marketing coordinator for the SixTripleEight documentary resulted in the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom hosting members of production team on a UK documentary screening tour in May 2019 culminating with a Blue Plaque dedication at the King Edward School, Birmingham, England to mark where the SixTripleEight lived during World War II. Her outreach efforts also resulted in media coverage reaching millions of audiences throughout the world. In May 2019, the SixTripleEight living members served as Grand Marshals for the 2019 National Memorial Day Parade, and in October 2019, the SixTripleEight received the Audi Murphy Award during the nationally televised American Valor Honors, Washington DC. As further recognition of Col. Cummings' contributions to the Army and bringing recognition to the unsung WWII 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, in March 2020, the Army Women's Foundation inducted Col. Cummings into its Hall of Fame. Currently, she is championing the effort and working with Congressional bill sponsors to enact passage of the bi-partisan legislation, the Six Triple Eight Congressional Gold Medal Act that passed the Senate in December 2020.

Col. Cummings also holds a Master of Strategic Studies, Army War College, Carlisle, PA, and a Master of Science Degree in Foundations of Education, Troy State University, Troy, AL. Military awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal, Meritorious Service Medals (three awards), Army Commendation Awards (four awards), Joint Service Commendation Award, Army Superior Unit, Reserve Forces Medal, Overseas Service Ribbon, National Defense Service Medal, and the Army Staff Identification Badge.
James William Theres
James William Theres is an award-winning Executive Writer at the National Cemetery Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs in Washington DC. He has received 10 Veterans Affairs national awards for speech writing, feature writing, event planning, and media affairs. As an independent filmmaker, he has written, directed, and produced three documentary films, The 30th of May (2016), The Hello Girls (2018), and The SixTripleEight (2019). His films have received over 40 filmmaking awards and have appeared on Mississippi and Wisconsin Public Television: and on National PBS.

In 2019, for his documentary The Hello Girls, James received the prestigious Daughters of American Revolution (DAR) Media and Entertainment Award, and a Special Recognition Award from the US Army Women's Foundation. On November 11, 2018, the 100th anniversary of the WWI Armistice, James screened The Hello Girls in Chaumont, France, the former headquarters of General John J. Pershing and the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). His next film, The SixTripleEight, received a Special Recognition Award from the Congressional Black Caucus. In May 2019, the SixTripleEight screened throughout the UK at the invitation of US Ambassador to the Court of James, Robert Wood Johnson.

His work has screened at film festivals in the United States, England, India, South America, and Taiwan; and at public institutions such as the Women in Military Service to America (WIMSA) museum, the National Archives in Washington DC, National WWI Museum in Kansas City, The National WWII Museum in New Orleans, the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library in Independence, Mo, and the Jimmy Carter Presidential Library in Atlanta, Ga.

James has a BA in History from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater (1988), an MBA from Cardinal Stritch University (2007), and an MA in History from Jackson State University (2016). In May 2016, James received the prestigious Dr. Margaret Walker Alexander Award for his graduate paper, "The 30th of May" at Jackson State University's 10th Annual Creative Arts Festival.

James is a Persian Gulf War/US Army Veteran.

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The SixTripleEight: No Mail, Low Morale | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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On February 3, 1945, the US Army sent over 800 black women overseas to England aboard the SS Ile de France. Their mission unknown to them. Eleven days later, after dodging German U-boats, the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion "the SixTripleEight" landed in Glasgow, Scotland.

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WWII Museum Distance Learning Webinar: 6888th Postal Battalion

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WWII Museum Distance Learning Webinar: 6888th Postal Battalion

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The 6888th Central postal Battalion Webinar from 2/23

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The 6888th Central postal Battalion Webinar from 2/23

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Women of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Women of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Home / USA / Women of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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The Women of the 6888th Central Postal Battallion were the first and only all Black female unit to be deployed overseas during WWII. The unit was active from 1945 to 1946 and consisted of 855 women.

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Arlington National Cemetary: 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (Women's Army Corps)

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Arlington National Cemetary: 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (Women's Army Corps)

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The U.S. Army's 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion was the only all-minority, all-female Women's Army Corps (WAC) unit to serve overseas during World War II. The primary mission of the "Six Triple Eight," as the unit was popularly known, was to sort the two- to three-year backlog of undelivered mail for U.S. service members in the European theater of war. The unit, organized on March 4, 1945 in Birmingham, England, contained about 850 officers and enlisted personnel who formed four companies. Whereas most Black units in the military contained white officers, every position in the 6888 th was staffed by Black women.

The WAC was created on July 1, 1944, from the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC), which did not have official military status. Black women were allowed into the segregated WAAC, but after its conversion into the WAC, only white units served overseas until African American organizations pressured the War Department to allow for the deployment of a Black WAC unit. The War Department approved the 6888th's deployment in November 1944.

The Army initially gave the 6888th six months to clear several warehouses filled with returned mail and packages. By working around the clock in three eight-hour shifts, including on weekends, the women accomplished their mission in only three months. When the war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945, members of the 6888th shipped to Rouen, France, where they were again given six months to clear another mail backlog. Again, they did it in three. When they completed their mission, the women of the 6888th had broken all records for redirecting mail, sorting an average of 5.85 million parcels per month.

Through their dedicated service in the face of discrimination, members of the Six Triple Eight challenged barriers of both race and gender. This unit forever changed the U.S. military, helping it to better reflect the country's diverse population. They proved, like others had before them, that African American women wanted to serve their country nobly in a time of crisis, and they provided an enduring legacy for future generations of military women.

On February 28, 2022, the House of Representatives voted unanimously to award the Congressional Gold Medal to the Six Triple Eight; the Senate had approved the award in 2021. Other commemorations and honors include a 2009 Army commendation ceremony at the Military Women's Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery.

As of March 2022, fourteen known members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion are buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Their names and gravesites are:

* Gatha Louise Amos -Section 67, Grave 1603
* Catherine Louise Bowie - Section 54, Grave 1432
* Hortense Pollard Cole - Columbarium Court 7, Section NN, Column 19, Niche 1
* Lila Virginia Burt Dale - Section 68, Grave 1308
* Allie Harshaw - Section 64, Grave 5494
* Margaret Y. Jackson - Columbarium Court 8, Section PP, Column 23, Niche 1
* Margaret Ellen Barnes Jones - Columbarium Court 6, Section N1, Column 14, Niche 3
* Annie B. Jordan - Section 3, Grave 4353-B
* Willia G. Knighton - Section 64, Grave 6306
* Mary Louise Peterson - Section 66, Grave 1657
* Ardella C. Pitts - Section 59, Grave 1762
* Mary Crawford Ragland - Columbarium Court 7, Section PP, Column 2, Niche 5
* Bessie Lee Robinson - Section 43, Grave 887
* Blanche L. Scott - Section 64, Grave 2962

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6888th central postal directory battalion

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6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Leavenworth, KS : The Six Triple Eight Battalion Monument

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Leavenworth, KS : The Six Triple Eight Battalion Monument

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Wounded Warrior Project, The “Six Triple Eight” Proved That No Role Was Too Small During World War II

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Wounded Warrior Project, The “Six Triple Eight” Proved That No Role Was Too Small During World War II

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WWP News & Media: Veteran Group Outings, Charity Events, Helping Vets

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Honoring the Six Triple Eight: WWII’s Unsung Heroes

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This Black History Month, Wounded Warrior Project salutes hidden figures in the United States military. This installment honors the Army’s 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion. Read more.

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Tyler Perry and 6888th member, Lena Derriecott Bell King meet before her passing in January 2024

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Tyler Perry and 6888th member, Lena Derriecott Bell King meet before her passing in January 2024

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8M views · 337K reactions | Before her passing, real-life Six Triple Eight member Lena Derriecott met Tyler Perry and the cast of the film to thank them for shining a light on their story ❤️ | Netflix

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Before her passing, real-life Six Triple Eight member Lena Derriecott met Tyler Perry and the cast of the film to thank them for shining a light on their story ❤️.

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National Museum  of the United States Army, A Different Kind of Victory: The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (Article)

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National Museum  of the United States Army, A Different Kind of Victory: The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (Article)

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In the waning months of World War II, the 855 women of color who comprised the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion - 824 enlisted Soldiers and 31 officers - completed a time-sensitive mission in the European Theater of Operations. Army leadership believed their success would be key to boosting morale amongst the 7 million war-weary American service members, U.S. Government personnel, and Red Cross workers stationed throughout Europe in 1945. The mission? To label, sort, and clear millions of pieces of mail - including letters, photographs, and gifts - that had been stockpiled and left languishing in warehouses for months, even years. One general predicted it would take six months to process the massive backlog of undelivered mail, yet the battalion, nicknamed "Six Triple Eight," managed to do it in just three.

The story of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion is a tale of adventure, hard work, and success against the odds. But it is also one of incredible resilience and perseverance in the face of deeply entrenched racial and sex inequality. Though many of the women of the 6888th joined the Army for the opportunities it offered for travel, education, and a regular paycheck, the desire for social change remained a strong undercurrent that unified the individual women into a cohesive and resilient unit. Alyce Dixon, a straight-talking former corporal with the 6888th Battalion said it most plainly as she reflected on her experience as a young woman: "We're all human - whether black, white, red or brown, and we all have something to offer."

The Six Triple Eight's achievements are remarkable considering the fraught social and political climate of the time. Indeed, the women of the 6888th Postal Directory Battalion proved to be pioneers in military service during an era when racial segregation was law, and few opportunities were available to women to work outside the domestic sphere.

Race and Sex

Although Black men have served in the Army since the Revolutionary War, until World War II Black women were virtually excluded from military service. Beginning in 1901, white women were officially accepted into the Army as part of the Army Nurse Corps. Black nurses, were all but excluded from service. Only a handful served in the Army during the 1918 flu epidemic. Several attempts had been made to create space for white women in other military roles shortly after women earned the right to vote in 1920. However, bills introduced in the House of Representatives in 1926 and then again in 1931 supporting women's right to serve were roundly rejected. It was not until World War II that the tides changed for women in military service.

The bombing of Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941, suddenly accelerated the War Department's plans for a women's corps. The Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was signed into law on May 15, 1942. Fourteen months after the creation of the WAAC, it was converted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC), which granted women full military status, rank, and benefits. Due to segregation policies in the U.S. military at the time, Black WACs could only constitute up to 10% of the overall force. Although the United States' entry into World War II ultimately provided the needed impetus for the creation of the WAAC/WAC, important groundwork had been laid in the years prior to World War II by tireless advocates of racial equality.

Advocates and Leaders

National organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and influential Black leaders were instrumental in ensuring a place for African American women in the armed services at the outset of World War II. One such leader, Mary McLeod Bethune - educator, community organizer, public policy advisor, and, eventually, advisor to President Franklin Roosevelt - worked tirelessly in this regard. When the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) was excluded from a conference of the Women's Interest Section on the War Department in 1941, for example, Bethune protested to the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson in a scathing letter:

"We are anxious for you to know that we want to be and insist upon being considered a part of Our American democracy, not something apart from it. We know from experience that our interests are too often neglected, ignored or scuttled unless we have effective representation in the formative stages of these projects and proposals ... We are incensed!"

The War Department reversed its decision and invited the NCNW to participate in the conference. Yet similar situations continued to arise, where the national interests of African American women were often carelessly sidelined or worse, deliberately ignored. Thus, the importance of Bethune's influence on some of the highest-level policymaking throughout the 1930s and 1940s cannot be overstated. Ultimately, Bethune was responsible for recruiting the woman who would become the highest-ranking African American Army officer during World War II: Charity Adams.

Adams, a teacher who had been taking summer classes at The Ohio State University in 1942, was invited to apply for entry into the WAAC. In July 1942, Adams reported to Fort Des Moines, Iowa to train in the first WAAC officer training class. Despite living and training in a segregated environment, Adams excelled. She graduated in August 1942 and led the 3rd Company, 3rd Training Regiment, made up of two white and one Black platoons. Stationed in Fort Des Moines until 1944, she worked as a station control and staff training officer. The Army promoted her to major in 1943, making her one of the highest-ranking female officers at the fort and in the nation. In December 1944, Adams was given command of the 6888th Central Postal Battalion. Following, her overseas service Adams was promoted to lieutenant colonel.

Patriotism and Adventure

Educational and employment opportunities remained limited for women in the 1940s, and especially so for African American women. Racial biases, segregation policies, and dehumanizing indignities, particularly in the South, created daunting barriers to women seeking jobs outside the domestic sphere. Even those who completed their education and were qualified for teaching or other professional jobs found it difficult to find appropriate positions open to them. Thus, joining the Women's Army Corps was an attractive option for many women seeking education, economic stability, and bit of adventure. The war also offered an opportunity to demonstrate their patriotism and contribute to "women's uplift" as Bethune had called her efforts to improve the lives of Black women.

Elaine Bennett joined the WAC, "because I wanted to prove to myself, and maybe to the world, that we [African Americans] would give what we had back to the United States as a confirmation that we were full-fledged citizens." Essie Woods joined the Army for similar reasons: "I guess we got patriotic carried away, and we enlisted. And so that's really how it was, that feeling of wanting to do something." Ultimately, it is estimated that 150,000 women served in the WAAC/WAC during the war, about 4% of whom were African American. While most women were placed in administrative and clerical positions, many also served as cooks, chauffeurs, and mechanics, among a wide variety of other noncombatant jobs.

Segregation and Racial Bias

Once they entered service, Black WACs faced segregation, racism, and relegation. Often, the women were assigned to menial tasks, despite extensive training or education. One woman, Vera Knapp, was accepted into the WAC as in the Auxiliary Aircraft Warning Service. She underwent seven months of extra training for her new role. However, after completing training she was told that "Negro enrollment in the Aircraft Warning Service of the WAC was not presently being accepted."

Other women documented open racism from their white superior officers. One white WAC colonel at the hospital at Fort Devens, Massachusetts was quoted as saying "I don't want any black WACs as medical technicians. They are here to mop walls, scrub floors and do the dirty work." This "dirty work" resulted in several Black WACs being demoted from medical technician to orderly, despite their training and background. Four women who disobeyed orders and refused to do the work of an orderly, were dishonorably discharged and sentenced to one year of hard labor. Thankfully, the Judge Advocate General Office of Boston voided the case less than a month later.

However diverse their backgrounds, members of the 6888th shared the experience of being stigmatized as women of color in a predominantly white male institution. African American men and (later) white women were regularly deployed overseas, but Black WACs were excluded from such assignments until the War Department acquiesced to political pressure specifically aimed at this omission.

Training and Preparation

Political motives alone, however, do not explain the excitement these women felt about going overseas. Many were still in their teens and twenties and had experienced little outside their hometowns or home states, and so they were eager to see another part of the world.

Members of the 6888th assembled at the Extended Field Service Battalion, Third WAC Training Center, Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, to receive training and to be outfitted for overseas duty. Training was comprehensive and intense. Gladys Carter remembers, "We had to climb ropes ... and come down the side of a ship as would if it were sinking. We had to do some crawling under wire ... We had to put on gas masks ... So that was part of it. A lot of marching and just getting ready, getting outfitted, that kind of thing." However, none of the women were told what their assignments would be, where they were going, or when they were going to leave.

All of the women thought highly of their battalion commander, Maj. Charity Adams. Even if they had not trained under her, they knew of her because she was one of the two highest-ranking African American women in uniform at that time. After Battalion Commander Charity Adams and her executive officer Capt. Abbie Noel Campbell's departure to Europe, members of the 6888th followed in two waves.

Mission Accomplished

The first contingent of nearly 700 Black WACs departed on the ship Ile de France on Feb. 3, 1945, and arrived in Glasgow on Feb. 11. From there, the women traveled to Birmingham, England by train. Nearly two months later, the second contingent of WACs arrived in England. Conditions were harsh in Birmingham, with the women working around the clock in three eight-hour shifts in the cold and dimly lit warehouses where several million pieces of mail were stacked from floor to ceiling. Some of the mail was mildewed or had been picked over by rats looking for the bits of food that had been wrapped and sent by loved ones to their Soldiers overseas. To process the mail, the Soldiers updated and maintained millions of locator cards containing the serial numbers and location of all American personnel stationed in Europe. They became detectives searching envelopes for clues to determine the intended recipient. As Adams recalled, "after a few weeks on the job some of the women had developed great skill in putting the packages back together."

After clearing the mail in Birmingham, the Six Triple Eight transferred to Rouen, France shortly after V-E (Victory in Europe) Day. There they again dug into the task of sorting letters and preparing the mountain of backlogged mail for delivery. Of their mission, Myrtle Rhoden recalled, "We found the same condition in France that we had found in England; the mail had been held up for months ... There was mail that was two or three years old." In France, the women worked alongside French civilians and German POWS to accomplish their objective. The new recruits found the work challenging as non-native English speakers. Despite the challenge, the woman cleared the backlog in five months.

The arrival of a significant number of American women on the continent attracted the attention of both white and Black servicemen, who "suddenly found that they had business in Rouen," according to Adams. Of their time in France, Adams further recalled, "we enjoyed visiting the other towns and villages ... there were all sorts of festivals ..." The unit was also able to participate in recreational activities including tennis, ping pong, softball, and basketball.

Next the unit was sent to Paris in October 1945 to continue the same work. On Feb. 27, 1946, the remaining Soldiers in the unit boarded the Claymont Victory for return to the United States. The unit was disbanded at Fort Dix, New Jersey without any further ceremony. Members of the unit received the European African Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, the Women's Army Corps Service Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal.

Social Progress and Overdue Recognition

World War II marked a turning point in the status of racial minorities and women in the U.S. armed services. The critical need for personnel during World War II was the major driving force behind overdue changes in race and sex policies in the military and other American institutions.

Their achievements may not have been celebrated with victory parades or a public recognition of their service, but their accomplishments encouraged the General Board, United States Forces European Theater to adopt the following in their study of the Women's Army Corps:

"The national security program is the joint responsibility of all American irrespective of color or sex ... the continued use of colored, along with white, female military personnel is required in such strength as proportionally appropriate ..."

In recent years the Six Triple Eight has received renewed attention due to the women themselves their family members who have dedicated themselves to preserving their legacy. In 1989, Charity Adams Early published her memoir "One Woman's Army" about her service. In addition, members have taken part in unions and public recognitions honoring their achievements. In 2018, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas dedicated a monument to the Six Triple Eight. The following year, the unit was awarded a Meritorious Unit Commendation.

In March 2022, the 855 women assigned to the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. Signed into public law by President Joe Biden, the Six Triple Eight Congressional Gold Medal Act of 2021 recognizes the outstanding achievements of the Battalion - not only for the successful completion of their mission at the end of World War II, but for their sustained collective pursuit of racial and sex equality in the face of significant social and political barriers. Speaking of the Six Triple Eight, retired Col. Edna W. Cummings declared: "The Congressional Gold Medal is the nation's gratitude for the 6888th Battalion and the thousands of African American women who served in the Army during World War II. Their service will never be forgotten as soldiers and trailblazers for gender and racial equality."

On April 27, 2023, Fort Lee, Virginia became Fort Gregg-Adams in a ceremony that renamed the base after two Black officers whose struggles paved the way for a more inclusive military: Lt. Gen. Arthur Gregg and Lt. Col. Charity Adams. Gregg, the first African American to achieve such a high rank, retired in 1981 after serving as the Army's deputy chief of staff, logistics. At the redesignation ceremony, Maj. Gen. Mark Simerly stated, "They led with dignity, they looked the part, they maintained their composure and they led by example ... In short, these two epitomize the professional qualities we seek in every leader who wears the uniform of the United States Army."

One year later, the U.S. Army Women's Museum on Fort Gregg-Adams opened a new exhibit on the Six Triple Eight. "Courage to Deliver: The Women of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion" was created in partnership with descendants of the unit. One speaker at the ribbon-cutting ceremony for the exhibit summed up the unit's exemplary work: "They fired no shots, and they fought no battles ... And yet, their courage and their dedication achieved a different kind of victory." Almost 80 years later, the 6888th continues to stand as a testament to the outstanding achievements of Black women Soldiers throughout U.S. Army history.

Melissa Thaxton
Graduate Historic Research Intern
Sources
"African American Nurses in World War II." National Women's History Museum, July 8, 2019. https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/african-american-nurses-world-war-ii

Carlton, Morgan. "African American Women and the Women's Army Corps during World War II." ProQuest. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://proquest.libguides.com/ld.php?content_id=66403138.

Clark, Alexis. "The Army's First Black Nurses were Relegated to Caring for Nazi Prisoners of War." Smithsonian Magazine, May 15, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/armys-first-black-nurses-had-tend-to-german-prisoners-war-180969069/.

"Creation of the Women's Army Corps." U.S. Army. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.army.mil/women/history/wac.html.

Fargey, Kathleen. "6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion." U.S. Army Center of Military History, February 14, 2014. https://history.army.mil/html/topics/afam/6888thPBn/index.html.

Gaddy, Brittany. "Fort Lee Renamed in Honor of 2 Black US Army Trailblazers." ABC News, April 27, 2023. https://abcnews.go.com/US/fort-lee-renamed-honor-2-black-us-army/story?id=98904204.

Martin, Eric, Sheila Abar, Washington Va Medical Center, and Alyce Lillian Dixon. Alyce Lillian Dixon Collection. 1943. Personal Narrative. https://www.loc.gov/item/afc2001001.05202/.

"The Mary McLeod Bethune Council House: African American Women Unite for Change." National Park Service. Last updated May 12, 2023. https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-mary-mcleod-bethune-council-house-african-american-women-unite-for-change-teaching-with-historic-places.htm.

Michigan Women's Historical Center and Hall of Fame, Katie Cavanaugh, Sarah E McLennan, and Essie Dell Woods. Essie Dell Woods Collection. 1943. Personal Narrative. https://www.loc.gov/item/afc2001001.04741/.

Moore, Brenda. To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race. New York: New York University Press, 1996.

Phelps, Janeen R. "U.S. Army Women's Museum Launches Exhibit Honoring 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion." U.S. Army, April 24, 2024. https://www.army.mil/article/275623/u_s_army_womens_museum_launches_exhibit_honoring_6888th_central_postal_directory_battalion.

Sheldon, Kathryn. "A Brief History of Black Women in the Military." Minerva's Bulletin Board III, no. 4 (Dec 31, 1995): 6. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/brief-history-black-women-military/docview/231082169/se-2.

Thompson, Cameron. "They 'Achieved a Different Kind of Victory.' Army Women's Museum is Highlighting Their Courage and Dedication." WTVR, April 26, 2024. https://www.wtvr.com/news/local-news/army-womens-museum-courage-to-deliver-exhibit-fort-gregg-adams-april-26-2024.

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National Museum of the United States Army

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In the waning months of World War II, the 855 women of color who comprised the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion - 824 enlisted Soldiers and 31 officers - completed a time-sensitive mission in the European Theater of Operations. Army leadership believed their success would be key to boosting morale amongst the 7 million war-weary American service members, U.S.

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“No Mail, Low Morale” (Military Review) - Army University Press

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“No Mail, Low Morale” (Military Review) - Army University Press

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The 6888th Central Postal

Directory Battalion

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The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Black Women & WWII: The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Black Women & WWII: The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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In the throes of World War II, the courageous women of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion battled against racial and gender discrimination to sort and deliver a backlog of mail, fueling soldiers' morale and forging an inspiring, overlooked chapter in the fight for civil rights.

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Black Women & WWII: The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion

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Little Engineers Grades K-4

Bubble Viewer

Picture Books and STEM

Ideas for Implementing WWII Lessons

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Reed- LITTLE ENGINEERS July 2025- Day 2 Session

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Linda Hervieux- the 320th Barrage Balloon Battalion

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The website of author and photographer Linda Herviuex, author of Forgotten: The Untold Story of D-Day’s Black Heroes, at Home and at War. Contains information about the author and about the men of the 320th, including photos, bios and information about barrage balloons, the unit specialty.

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Get in the Scrap! offers a suite of activities for you and your students to choose from. These activities can be done with your class, an afterschool club, or any other student organization.

Registration is open on a rolling basis. After you register online, a National WWII Museum educator will reach out to confirm your registration details. Upon confirmation, we will mail out an Introduction Kit that includes a printed Classroom Guide, program prizes, and some Get in the Scrap! classroom décor. Participants are encouraged to register early to ensure there is ample time for the Introduction Kit to be mailed out!

If you are interested in using the Artifact Trunk Lesson Plan, please visit the Museum's Operation Footlocker webpage to reserve a Home Front Footlocker.

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Get in the Scrap! | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Inspired by the scrapping efforts of students during World War II, Get in the Scrap! is a national service-learning project for students in grades 4-8 all about recycling and energy conservation.

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Session 4 of Grade Band 9 - 12

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Home | From the Collection to the Classroom

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From the Collection to the Classroom is a multimedia resource for teaching middle and high school students the history of World War II, focusing on the War in the Pacific. It employs essays and lesson plans that include a rich array of resources-from archival documents, photographs, and artifacts to oral histories, maps, and videos from the Museum's collections and galleries.

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Home | The Digital Collections of the National WWII Museum : Oral Histories

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The National World War II Museum is home to thousands of oral histories and hundreds of thousands of photographs. This website offers the visitor a way to browse a sample of these collections and purchase images if interested.

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Little Engineers K-4

GET IN THE SCRAP!

Scrap Catcher

Design a Switch Plate

Create a Propaganda Poster

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Reed- LITTLE ENGINEERS July 2025- Day 3 Session

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STEM Innovations - NOLA Vibes Playlist

Feel free to add more you like!

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Thanks to Penicillin... He Will Come Home!

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Thanks to Penicillin... He Will Come Home!

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Achieving the monumental goal of splitting the nucleus of an atom, known as nuclear fission, came through the development of scientific discoveries that stretched over several centuries. Beginning in 1789, when German scientist Martin Klaproth discovered the dense, metallic element he called uranium, exploration of atomic energy and radiation came to fascinate scientific minds. As Marie Curie was conducting her groundbreaking research on uranium in the late nineteenth century, she found that the element was naturally radioactive. Curie created the term "radioactive" to describe the emission of electromagnetic particles from disintegrating atoms. Curie's discovery of radioactivity in elements forever changed the nature of atomic science. Building from this research, British physicist Ernest Rutherford in 1911 formulated a model of the atom in which low-mass electrons orbited a charged nucleus that contained the bulk of the atom's mass.
GERMAN DISCOVERY OF FISSION
The 1930s saw further development in the field. Hungarian- German physicist Leo Szilard conceived the possibility of self- sustaining nuclear fission reactions, or a nuclear chain reaction, in 1933. The following year, Italian physicist Enrico Fermi unknowingly split neutrons within uranium while conducting his own experiments. On the heels of these developments, Austrian- Swedish physicist Lise Meitner, working with German chemist Otto Hahn, was among the first to achieve the successful fission of uranium. However, the anti-Semitism of the Nazi party forced Meitner, who was Jewish, to flee and settle in Sweden. While in Sweden, Meitner identified and named the process of nuclear fission.

Meitner's findings became a tipping point in the development of nuclear weapons, but as the world once more moved into war, it was the Germans who held the potential key to nuclear power. While Hahn chose to remain in Germany and continued to develop his research throughout World War II, scientists across Europe steadily fled. Szilard, a Jewish man, migrated to the United States in 1938 to avoid persecution. Fermi and his wife, Laura Capon, also left Europe at the end of 1938 to escape growing Fascism in Italy. Capon, who was also Jewish, traveled with Fermi to New York City where both applied for permanent residency.
THE UNITED STATES TAKES ACTION
When news of Hahn and Meitner's discovery of fission reached Szilard in his New York City home in early 1939, Szilard began work to confirm their findings. Szilard found help in collaborator Walter Zinn, and together they recreated Hahn's experiment. Recognizing the significance of that moment, Szilard stated, "That night, there was very little doubt in my mind that the world was headed for grief." Szilard began to work with Fermi to construct a nuclear reactor at Columbia University, but as they did so, Szilard feared that scientists in Germany, who were aiding the Nazi war effort, were similarly constructing their own reactors.

In July 1939, Szilard contacted the prominent Jewish German theoretical physicist Albert Einstein at his home on Long Island, New York, to discuss German advances in nuclear development. Together, Szilard and Einstein drafted a letter to US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In the letter, dated August 2, 1939, the warning was clear: "This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable-though much less certain-that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed." The letter did not reach Roosevelt until October, but once he learned of the potential risks presented by nuclear weaponry, he responded by forming the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which held its first meeting on October 21, 1939.

THE MANHATTAN PROJECT
Although formed in 1939, the Advisory Committee on Uranium moved slowly at first. However, Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, pushed the Committee into action. With the United States formally at war, the question of uranium development and the potential construction of an atomic bomb gained renewed interest. This interest rose even higher as a report issued by British scientists in March 1941 confirmed the possibility of building a uranium-based bomb, giving American scientists the validation they sought. In spite of this enthusiasm, the limitation of resources quickly became evident and prompted committee leaders to turn to the military for help.

As the United States began its island-hopping campaign in the Pacific, the Army Corps of Engineers took over the effort to produce atomic weaponry on the Home Front. On August 13, 1942, the Army Corps created the Manhattan Engineer District, named for the location of its offices in New York City. The following month, on September 17, Colonel Leslie R. Groves was appointed to head the project and received a promotion to Brigadier General. Within two days of his appointment, Groves made quick decisions to move the project forward, selecting three primary sites for the manufacture of an atomic bomb.

Groves first selected Oak Ridge, Tennessee, as the site for uranium enrichment. Also among the primary project sites was Los Alamos, New Mexico. Designated "Project Y," Los Alamos was the site of the Manhattan Project's weapons research laboratory. This Los Alamos site would become the location for the construction of the atomic bombs. The last primary site Groves selected was Hanford, Washington, which he designated to produce plutonium from the uranium isotope U-238. Though plutonium is not a naturally occurring element, scientists discovered its production within uranium reactors. Plutonium proved to be a more radioactive metal and had a higher possibility of achieving nuclear fission.

As Groves made these moves, a breakthrough in nuclear research beneath the squash courts at the University of Chicago created a model for the future production of atomic weapons.

Early in 1942, Fermi and Szilard, who had been working to build a reactor at the University of Columbia, moved their effort to Chicago. After construction was complete, on December 2 of that year, the scientists began removing the calcium control rods from the uranium pile. Following the removal of the final control rod, the pile went critical. The resulting nuclear reaction became self-sustaining and continued at an increasing pace for a few minutes until Fermi ordered the reactor shut off. Although the reaction only produced enough energy to power a light bulb, this moment marked the first instance in history of a self-sustaining nuclear reaction. The event also gave nuclear scientists a model for the production of large amounts of plutonium, which would eventually become the basis of the B Reactor built at Hanford.

After receiving formal approval from President Roosevelt on December 28, 1942, the Manhattan Project developed into a massive undertaking that spread across the United States. With over 30 project sites and over 100,000 workers, the Manhattan Project came to cost approximately $2.2 billion. Even though encompassing such a massive scale, the project largely remained a secret, and many of the people working on the construction of the atomic bomb did not fully know the purpose behind their jobs. Following Fermi's successful experiment in Chicago, there appeared to be two possible paths toward building atomic bombs: uranium and plutonium. The Manhattan Project built both kinds of bombs, ultimately resulting in the construction of Little Boy, a gun-method uranium bomb, and Fat Man, an implosion-method plutonium bomb.

The responsibility of bringing these bombs into existence fell to the man Groves selected to head the secret weapons laboratory at Los Alamos: J. Robert Oppenheimer. A theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, Oppenheimer became involved early in the scientific research that ultimately led to the Manhattan Project. Under Oppenheimer's direction, Manhattan Project workers constructed a plutonium bomb.

The plutonium bomb relied upon the implosion of the reactive plutonium rather than on the piercing of the plutonium with a bullet, which was common in gun-method bombs and which worked better with uranium. While the gun-method was a more familiar method conceptually to its creators, the implosion-method was not. Due to the unprecedented nature of such a bomb, Oppenheimer felt a test was necessary. Groves initially hesitated because plutonium was both expensive and rare. However, Groves relented and approved moving forward with a test.

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75th anniversary of the end of world war ii

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"Destroyer of Worlds": The Making of an Atomic Bomb | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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At 5:29 a.m. (MST), the world's first atomic bomb detonated in the New Mexican desert, releasing a level of destructive power unknown in the existence of humanity. Emitting as much energy as 21,000 tons of TNT and creating a fireball that measured roughly 2,000 feet in diameter, the first successful test of an atomic bomb, known as the Trinity Test, forever changed the history of the world.

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Session 3 for Grade Band 9 - 12

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Make It Do - Metal Shortages in World War II

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During World War II, metals and factories were needed for military purposes. Ships and planes and jeeps and guns and ration tins and helmets took precedence over civilian products.

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Presented by The Lupo Family Charitable Fund
Additional support provided by The Dale E. and Janice Davis Johnston Family Foundation

Join The National WWII Museum for a cross-country virtual expedition to discover the science, sites, and stories of the creation of the atomic bomb. Student reporters examine the revolutionary science of nuclear energy in the Museum's exhibits and the race to produce an atomic weapon in complete secrecy. Explore the world's first industrial nuclear reactor at the massive and remote Hanford Site in Washington State. Travel to the undercover laboratory and test site in New Mexico to learn about the team of talented physicists who tirelessly created the detonating device and witnessed its destructive power firsthand. Our reporters uncover the stories of mobilization, collaboration, and innovation to understand how the results brought about the end of World War II and forever changed the world.

Hosted by Dee-1 with expert commentary from nuclear research professor Sharon Squassoni.
Special thanks to our filming partners:
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Bradbury Science Museum
Los Alamos National Laboratory
The Department of Energy/ Hanford B Reactor

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The Manhattan Project | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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Presented by The Lupo Family Charitable Fund Additional support provided by The Dale E. and Janice Davis Johnston Family Foundation Join The National WWII Museum for a cross-country virtual expedition to discover the science, sites, and stories of the creation of the atomic bomb.