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A resource directory for Adapted Physical Education (APE) is a curated collection of tools, references, and materials designed to support students with disabilities, their families, and educators in creating an inclusive and effective PE environment. It serves as a "toolbox" for addressing the diverse needs of students with disabilities under IDEA and aligns with the goals of universal access, equity, and specialized support.

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Description: Resources available within the community to support individuals with disabilities.

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Description: Resources available within the community to support individuals with disabilities.

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The purpose is it provide accessible and local help for families and schools.

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Description: Resources that identify the 13 different disability categories under IDEA with traits that you see with them. 

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Description: Resources that identify the 13 different disability categories under IDEA with traits that you see with them. 

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The purpose is to help teachers, parents, and students understand specific challenges and strengths.

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Description: Nationwide initiatives and supports provided by the government to help students with disabilities and their families. 

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Description: Nationwide initiatives and supports provided by the government to help students with disabilities and their families. 

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Description: technology tools and sources that students with disabilities and families could use. 

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Description: technology tools and sources that students with disabilities and families could use. 

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Description: Resources that identify universal precautions for staff or anyone working with students with disabilities should be thoughtful of. 

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Description: Resources that identify universal precautions for staff or anyone working with students with disabilities should be thoughtful of. 

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Description: Tools and adaptations that allow students with disabilities to participate and for parents to help support. 

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Description: Tools and adaptations that allow students with disabilities to participate and for parents to help support. 

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Description: Resources and tools designed to support students with sensory processing challenges.

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Description: Resources and tools designed to support students with sensory processing challenges.

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Description: Techniques to ensure physical activities are both age-appropriate and safe for students with disabilities.

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Description: Techniques to ensure physical activities are both age-appropriate and safe for students with disabilities.

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Description: Research-backed methods to improve instruction and outcomes in APE.

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Description: Research-backed methods to improve instruction and outcomes in APE.

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Description: Understanding how students develop physical and perceptual skills, and adapting instruction accordingly.

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Description: Understanding how students develop physical and perceptual skills, and adapting instruction accordingly.

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Description: Resources on how students with disabilities go through motor control. 

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Description: Resources on how students with disabilities go through motor control. 

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Description: Ways to promote exercise and movement and give student with disabilities the best way. 

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Description: Ways to promote exercise and movement and give student with disabilities the best way. 

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Description: The resource goes through understanding typical and atypical growth for students with disabilities in APE. 

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Description: The resource goes through understanding typical and atypical growth for students with disabilities in APE. 

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Description: Resources for providing APE strategies tailored to each disability under IDEA.

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Description: Resources for providing APE strategies tailored to each disability under IDEA.

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Description: Preparing students for post-secondary or community engagement in APE or strategies for physical activity. 

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Description: Preparing students for post-secondary or community engagement in APE or strategies for physical activity. 

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Description: Devices and technology tools to support participation in PE or APE

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Description: Devices and technology tools to support participation in PE or APE

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Description: Tools for assessing physical and cognitive skills.

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Description: Tools for assessing physical and cognitive skills.

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Description: Resources on teamwork with families, providers, and other educators.

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Description: Resources on teamwork with families, providers, and other educators.

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At a glance

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education services to eligible students.

IDEA covers 13 disability categories.

Not every student who struggles in school qualifies.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education and related services to eligible students. But not every child who struggles in school qualifies. To be covered, a child's school performance must be "adversely affected" by a disability in one of the 13 categories below.

1. Specific learning disability (SLD)

The "specific learning disability" (SLD) category covers a specific group of learning challenges. These conditions affect a child's ability to read, write, listen, speak, reason, or do math. Here are some examples of what could fall into this category:

SLD is the most common category under IDEA. In the 2018-19 school year, around 33 percent of students who qualified did so under this category.

2. Other health impairment

The "other health impairment" category covers conditions that limit a child's strength, energy, or alertness. One example is ADHD, which impacts attention and executive function.

3. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

ASD is a developmental disability. It involves a wide range of symptoms, but it mainly affects a child's social and communication skills. It can also impact behavior.

Various mental health issues can fall under the "emotional disturbance" category. They may include anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression. (Some of these may also be covered under "other health impairment.")

5. Speech or language impairment

This category covers difficulties with speech or language. A common example is stuttering. Other examples are trouble pronouncing words or making sounds with the voice. It also covers language problems that make it hard for kids to understand words or express themselves.

6. Visual impairment, including blindness

A child who has eyesight problems is considered to have a visual impairment. This category includes both partial sight and blindness. If eyewear can correct a vision problem, then it doesn't qualify.

Kids with a diagnosis of deafness fall under this category. These are kids who can't hear most or all sounds, even with a hearing aid.

The term "hearing impairment" refers to a hearing loss not covered by the definition of deafness. This type of loss can change over time. Being hard of hearing is not the same thing as having trouble with auditory or language processing.

Kids with a diagnosis of deaf-blindness have both severe hearing and vision loss. Their communication and other needs are so unique that programs for just the deaf or blind can't meet them.

10. Orthopedic impairment

An orthopedic impairment is when kids lack function or ability in their bodies. An example is cerebral palsy.

11. Intellectual disability

Kids with this type of disability have below-average intellectual ability. They may also have poor communication, self-care, and social skills. Down syndrome is one example of a condition that involves an intellectual disability.

12. Traumatic brain injury

This is a brain injury caused by an accident or some kind of physical force.

13. Multiple disabilities

A child with multiple disabilities has more than one condition covered by IDEA. Having multiple issues creates educational needs that can't be met in a program designed for any one disability.

Having a disability is not enough to qualify for special education. The disability has to have an "adverse effect" on a child's education.

Key takeaways

Each of the 13 disability categories in IDEA can cover a range of difficulties.

Dyslexia, dyscalculia, and written expression disorder fall under the "specific learning disability" category.

"Other health impairment" can cover ADHD.

About the author

About the author

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Rayma Griffin, MA, MEd has spent her 40-year career advocating for the rights of children with learning and thinking differences, both in the classroom and as an educator.

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See a list of the 13 IDEA disability categories. Find out which disabilities can qualify kids for special education.

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I like this one because for each disability it has a link that directs you to even more direct information about the specific disability.

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Current and accurate as of January 2022
In Spanish | En español

The nation's special education law is called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA. As part of making special education and related services available to children with disabilities in the public schools, Part B of IDEA defines the term "child with a disability." That definition includes specific disability terms, which are also defined by IDEA, as this webpage describes.

The IDEA's disability terms and definitions guide how States in their own turn define disability and who is eligible for a free appropriate public education under special education law. The definitions of these specific disability terms from the IDEA regulations are shown beneath each term listed below. Note, in order to fully meet the definition (and eligibility for special education and related services) as a "child with a disability," a child's educational performance must be adversely affected due to the disability.

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Quick-Jump Links

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In the list below, if a disability term is linked, clicking on the link will take you to a fact sheet for that particular disability and to other related information.
1. Autism...
...means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term autism does not apply if the child's educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in #5 below.

A child who shows the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria above are satisfied.
2. Deaf-Blindness...
...means concomitant [simultaneous] hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

...means a hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

4. Developmental Delay...

...for children from birth to age three (under IDEA Part C) and children from ages three through nine (under IDEA Part B), the term developmental delay, as defined by each State, means a delay in one or more of the following areas: physical development; cognitive development; communication; social or emotional development; or adaptive [behavioral] development.
5. Emotional Disturbance...
...means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:

(a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.
6. Hearing Impairment...
...means an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but is not included under the definition of "deafness."
7. Intellectual Disability...
...means significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently [at the same time] with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

( Editor's Note, February 2011: "Intellectual Disability" is a new term in IDEA. Until October 2010, the law used the term "mental retardation." In October 2010, Rosa's Law was signed into law by President Obama. Rosa's Law changed the term to be used in future to "intellectual disability." The definition of the term itself did not change and is what has just been shown above.
8. Multiple Disabilities...
...means concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness.
9. Orthopedic Impairment...
...means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g.,cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).
10. Other Health Impairment...
...means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that-

(a) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and

(b) adversely affects a child's educational performance.
11. Specific Learning Disability...
...means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
12. Speech or Language Impairment...
...means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child's educational performance.
13. Traumatic Brain Injury...
...means an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech.

The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.
14. Visual Impairment Including Blindness...
...means an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

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Considering the Meaning of "Adversely Affects"
You may have noticed that the phrase "adversely affects educational performance" appears in most of the disability definitions. This does not mean, however, that a child has to be failing in school to receive special education and related services. According to IDEA, states must make a free appropriate public education available to "any individual child with a disability who needs special education and related services, even if the child has not failed or been retained in a course or grade, and is advancing from grade to grade." [§300.101(c)(1)]

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**Highly Rated Resource! This resource was reviewed by 3-member panels of Parent Center staff working independently from one another to rate the quality, relevance, and usefulness of CPIR resources. This resource was found to be of "High Quality, High Relevance, High Usefulness" to Parent Centers.
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Categories of Disability Under Part B of IDEA

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Current and accurate as of January 2022 In Spanish | En español The nation's special education law is called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA. As part of making special education and related services available to children with disabilities in the public schools, Part B of IDEA defines the term "child with a disability."

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This article goes over eligibility and also the process of the parent's child with a disability getting services.

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Special Education Eligibility & The 13 Categories - The PROMISE Act

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Discover special education eligibility under IDEA, the 13 categories, evaluation process, and support resources.

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I like the platform how it has the specific category and it gives you a whole layout and even teaching strategies to help support the student with a specific disability. Good for teachers.

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The U.S. Department of Education currently classifies students in special education into one or more disability categories.

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Stanislaus County Office of Education (SCOE) Special Education provides direct and indirect support services for students with special needs and their families throughout the county, in school settings or in the home. Specialized services are provided to students from birth to age 22, supporting district programs, operating SCOE programs on district campuses and at our own two schools on Stonum Road in Modesto (off Hatch Road in Ceres), Margaret L. Annear and John F. Kennedy Schools. Staff work closely with students to help them reach their individual goals and to provide the opportunity for each student to achieve their full potential.

Program Goals

Our overarching goal is to establish a comprehensive educational program catering to a diverse range of students with disabilities, from severe to non-severe, as well as those with low-incidence disabilities, spanning the age group from birth to 22 years. By tailoring educational programs to suit the unique needs and abilities of each individual identified as having special needs, we aim to maximize their potential for success and personal growth.

Support Services
Provided by specialists, allowing students to benefit from their special education program.
Services include:

Adapted P.E. Teachers

Occupational Therapy

Orientation & Mobility
Instructors

Assistive Technology Specialist

Readiness Teachers

Augmentative Communication Specialist

Resource Specialists

Behavior Specialists

School Nurses

Inclusion Specialists

School Psychologists

Itinerant Specialists for Deaf, Blind and Orthopedically Impaired

Speech/Language Pathologists

Mental Health Clinicians

Vocational Education Teachers

Resources for Parents

Parents-CAC

Special Education Rights of Parents and Children - Notice of Procedural Safeguards

Parent Trainings/Workshops

**See the brochure for detailed dates.
Spanish interpreter available upon request only. Please call 238-6553 or email clowe@stancoe.org at least one week prior to the event.
Community Advisory Committee (CAC) Information

2023-2024 SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASS/PROGRAM CALENDARS

Various Video Resources from the Special Education Division at the Stanislaus County Office of Education.

Contact Us

1336 Stonum Rd
Modesto, CA 95351

SCOE Special Education Services

Itinerant professionals are skilled and trained, provide support to students with severe developmental, speech, language, hearing, health, orthopedic, or vision impairments to be successful in general education classes in their neighborhood schools.

Special day class teachers, instructional assistants and itinerant professionals provide specially designed instruction for students with similar disabilities. These services and classrooms are located on general education school sites which enable students to participate with non-disabled peers to the greatest extent possible.

MISSION STATEMENT

Through the caring and commitment of public education and effective leadership and instruction, we empower students and parents by supporting independence, providing opportunities through the implementation of best practices, and establishing partnerships for lifelong learning.

VISION STATEMENT

Our impact on individuals with disabilities and their families will provide independence, opportunity and hope for the future.

Parent Testimonials

Play and Pause Buttons for Slideshow
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"When I was introduced to SCOE, I was lost and confused with a child that felt much worse than I did. Before coming here, everyone cared but didn't know how to help. With SCOE, I get both the nurture that I would provide for my son, and expert staff who are ready to equip my son with tools to help him grow and manage challenges.

~ Parent of a 4th grade student in our ED program at Sisk Elementary School

"Two thumbs up, 110%, I love the program. He has gotten more confident and is verbalizing his feelings now. This program has helped with his issues and helped him get to the next level."

~ Parent of a junior high student that attends our ED program at Salida Middle School

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Frequently Asked Questions

You can find out the name of your school district by going to this website and putting in your home address. http://www.greatschools.org/school-district-boundaries-map/

Key Contacts

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Special Education and Health Services - Stanislaus County Office of Education

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Special Education and Health Services - Stanislaus County Office of Education

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Any service needed for support

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BenefitsCal.com is an easier way to apply for, view, and renew CalFresh, CalWORKs, and Medi-Cal. BenefitsCal is the first statewide-automated site built by and for the people of California. Together, we benefit.

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BenefitsCal.com is an easier way to apply for, view, and renew CalFresh, CalWORKs, and Medi-Cal. BenefitsCal is the first statewide-automated site built by and for the people of California. Together, we benefit.

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Services and Resources CA Dept. of Education

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Services and Resources CA Dept. of Education

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Services & Resources - Special Education (CA Dept of Education)

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Programs and services available to students with disabilities, publications, training and technical assistance opportunities, and recruitment resources and materials.

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Community college that is willing to work with meeting the needs of students with disabilities and help further their post-secondary learning.

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We're Here For You

On behalf of the staff of Accommodations and Support Center (ASC), we are pleased to have this opportunity to Welcome you to Modesto Junior College (MJC). It is our sincere hope that all of your goals are realized during your attendance here. MJC is dedicated to servicing the community, and we provide an innovative college experience for students. Modesto Junior College is known for popular academic programs, noteworthy college activities, athletics, and for special facilities that cater to top academic programs.

MJC is committed to transforming lives through programs and services informed by the latest scholarship of teaching and learning. The ASC dedicated staff and faculty provide several accommodations and services, including test-taking facilitation, specialized counseling, interpreter services, scribes, and alternate media services. Several resources on the ASC website is designed with you in mind, and we invite you to explore the amenities we have for you.
To better serve you, please contact our office.
ASC Main Office
Student Services Building 112
435 College Ave.
Modesto, CA 95350
(209)575-6225

Announcements

Students are required to schedule a meeting with a counselor to obtain an accommodations form for the current semester. It is recommended that students make an appointment before the semester begins by calling (209)575-6225.

Summer 2024 semester - May 13 to August 16.

Fall 2024 semester - August 26 to December 13.

Students with a current semester ID card can ride MAX and StanRTA buses for free. See StanRTA Routes & Schedules.

Apply to the Accommodations & Support Center

To be considered for ASC, please complete and submit the application packet including the verification of disability to the East Campus ASC office in Student Services Building 112.

1. Steps to Become an ASC Student

2. Verification of Disability (fillable form, must be completed by your doctor/therapist and submitted with your application) OR submit a digital copy of your IEP from high school. You can bring a paper copy to the ASC office.

3. Complete ASC Application Packet (log in with your MJC student email address and password)

4. Complete California Voter's Registration Statement

5. Student Information Release Authorization (fillable form)
After completing the release of information, email the form as an attachment to: mjcasc@yosemite.edu

Student Contact Information

Keeping your contact details current ensures that ASC can contact you. Please update your contact information on link to student profile.

Appointment Information Guidelines

Bringing Children to Appointment
Due to learning disability testing being conducted in our office, please do not bring children with you for a counseling appointment.
Late Arrival Notice

To ensure sufficient time for counseling appointments, any arrival beyond a specified time will be considered a NO SHOW.

5-minute late arrival to a30-minute appointment

10-minute late arrival to a1-hour appointment

10-minute late arrival to alearning disability testing appointment

If a student arrives late to an appointment, it is at the counselor's discretion to see the student, and a reschedule might be necessary.

Service Animals

Service animals are permitted on campus. A service animal is a dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for a person with a disability. Dogs whose sole function is to provide comfort or emotional support do not qualify as service animals under the American with Disabilities Act (ADA).

The Yosemite Community College District will allow an individual with a disability to use a service animal in district facilities in compliance with state and federal law. Please refer to YCCD Policy on Service Animals.

Compliance Regulations

Web Accessibility Statement

The Accommodations & Support Center (ASC) is committed to ensuring digital accessibility for people with disabilities.We are in the process of revising our website in conjunction with the Department of Education to make our website more accessible and have adopted the WCAG 2.1 standard for accessibility. We are continually improving the user experience for everyone and applying the relevant accessibility standards. Please let us know if you encounter accessibility barriers on the ASC website.

Please refer to the Help with Online Classes resource page for guidance on accessing Canvas courses from home.

Notice of Complaint Process

ASC is dedicated to providing students with disabilities access to post-secondary education through supportive services and/or instruction. If you have any questions regarding the complaint procedures or a complaint that has been submitted, please contact the ASC Coordinator, Jacquelyn Forte:
fortej@mjc.edu
(209) 575-6225

You may also contact the Vice President of Student Services/Title IX Campus Coordinator, Dr. Andrea Wilson:
sarhadij@mjc.edu
(209) 575-6060

Yosemite Community College District Board Policy and Administrative Procedures No. 3435 (Discrimination and Harassment Complaints and Investigations)
Link to Discrimination and Harassment Complaints and Investigations

Unlawful Discrimination Complaint Form
Link to Unlawful Discrimination Complaint Form

Notice of Non-discrimination

It is the policy of Modesto Junior College not to discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex or disability in its educational programs and its employment practices.

Title IX sexual harassment regulations define Title IX sexual harassment to include four terms "as defined in" the Clery Act and the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA).

1. Sexual Assault

2. Dating Violence

3. Domestic Violence

4. Stalking

The following person has been designated to handle inquiries regarding Title IX, Section 504/Title II policies:

Name: Dr. Andrea Wilson, Title IX Campus Coordinator
Address: YCCD, 2201 Blue Gum Ave Modesto CA 95358
Email: wilsona@yosemite.edu
Telephone Number: (209) 575-6060

For inquiries concerning Title IX, visit the YCCD District Title IX Resources.

Voter Registration

ASC is a registration site where students have the opportunity to become registered voters. There is no obligation to register to vote and the student's decision will have no effect on services offered by ASC.
You can visit the link to Registrar of Voters Website.

Alternate Media Requests

Who needs to make an appointment?

Students that need assistance in requesting materials for a semester

Students learning assistive software technologies (must be approved by ASC counselor)

Students needing further assistance with software

Who does NOT need to make an appointment?

(Please note that you may have to wait if there is another student being helped)

Students requesting assistive equipment (must be approved by a ASC counselor)

Students picking up and dropping off loaned equipment

Students dropping off a receipt as proof of book rental or purchase

Student updating a request form

Students dropping off hard copy of materials to be converted into an accessible format

Student Support Services

Essential Services for Students

Need Assistance finding food, paying housing bills, or other essential services? Please visit the 211 Service or call dial 211 to speak to someone who can help.

Suffering from Anxiety or feeling Overwhelmed? Mental health services are free to MJC students. Schedule an appointment with an MJC provider by calling: 209-575-6281 from 7:30am to 12:00pm or 209-575-6038 from 12:30pm to 5pm. Students can also receive 24/7 support link to TimelyCare

Apply for CARE Program

Modesto Junior College will be using an online application process. All eligible students will receive an email requesting they complete the online application via the Student Financial Services Electronic Data Submission (EDS) portal.
See details on the CARES Act Information Page

Apply for Financial Aid

Need help paying for college? Visit the MJC Financial Aid page or call (209)575-7700.

Veteran Services

For available resources and services for veteran students and their dependents, please refer to MJC Veteran Services webpage.

Checking Out Technology

Subject to availability, laptops and calculators may be checked out from the East Campus Library and Learning Center. You may call (209)575-6228 to learn more.

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On behalf of the staff of Accommodations and Support Center (ASC), we are pleased to have this opportunity to Welcome you to Modesto Junior College (MJC). It is our sincere hope that all of your goals are realized during your attendance here. MJC is dedicated to servicing the community, and we provide an innovative college experience for students.

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We’re on a mission to promote disability inclusion by empowering educators and engaging students and communities.

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Different Program Options

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Central Valley Training Center, Inc. (CVTC) strives to integrate services for people with developmental disabilities by promoting their rights and supporting each individual in acquiring the skills needed to achieve their personal goals. CVTC offers the Day Program which provides self-advocacy, community integration and employment training.

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Are you aware of the federal government programs available to minors? Some cover all minors and some cover only minors with disabilities. They vary from cash payments to healthcare coverage to a range of other supports.

Cash Payments

Children with qualifying disabilities whose families meet SSI's low income and asset requirements are eligible to receive monthly cash payments intended to help families meet their child's needs. The resources and income of the minor's parents are "deemed" to the child. The 2016 resource limit is $3,000 for a two- adult household and $2,000 for a one-adult household, although the value of the family home, furnishings and automobile is not considered. Income limits are based on a complex formula dependent on certain factors, such as household income and how many individuals are living in the home. If the family meets the income and asset limits and the minor child meets the SSI disability standard, the minor child may receive a monthly SSI payment of up to $733. A few states provide a supplement to this amount.

Monthly cash benefits are available for unmarried children under 18 upon the death, retirement or disability of a parent who is eligible for Social Security. Amounts are calculated based on the parent's lifetime earnings. Upon turning 18, a person with a qualifying disability who has been receiving these Social Security benefits could receive Social Security Disabled Adult Child (DAC) benefits, with payments continuing throughout life so long as the person continues to meet eligibility standards.

This program provides temporary financial assistance and other services to assist low-income parents in caring for their children in their home, while promoting job preparation, work and marriage. Eligibility requirements and monthly cash assistance vary by state and are not limited to families raising a child with a disability.

This program (formerly called Food Stamps) provides low-income individuals assistance with purchasing food through an electronic debit card. It is available for families who meet the household eligibility requirements, as determined by their state. SNAP is not limited to children or adults with disabilities, but there are special eligibility provisions for individuals with disabilities.

The various VA benefits take into consideration whether the veteran has a dependent child. Veteran's Aid and Attendance is a cash payment available to low-income veterans with disabilities, which is increased if the veteran has a dependent child. An individual's residence and vehicle are not considered when calculating eligibility, and medical expenses are deducted from countable income.

Healthcare

Funded by both the federal and state governments, this program varies greatly, depending on location. In most states, if a child with disabilities receives SSI, he/she is automatically qualified for Medicaid. In other states, the child may qualify based on meeting the income and resource requirements. In addition, for some Medicaid waiver programs, if the child is cared for at home but requires the level of care provided in an institution, s/he can be found eligible. In addition to covering health care, the program pays for durable medical equipment and, depending upon the state's waiver programs, in-home support and other community-based services. Given long waiting lists for many waiver programs, it may be important to sign up early.

This program varies by state and is referred to by different names in each. It provides comprehensive health coverage, including dental care, to individuals under 19 whose families can't afford private insurance but whose incomes are too high for Medicaid. There is usually no asset limit. In some states, a modest premium is charged to those at the higher end of the income spectrum.

Depending on where you live, there may be other state programs available to children with disabilities. For instance, in California, where I practice law, there are services for children and adults with developmental disabilities offered through Regional Centers. Families should contact the Department of Health and Human Services information centers or local disability groups for information on programs available in their state.

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Government Programs for Children with Disabilities

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By Mary Waltari, Esq. Are you aware of the federal government programs available to minors? Some cover all minors and some cover only minors with disabilities. They vary from cash payments to healthcare coverage to a range of other supports.

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Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP)

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Information about the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) a sub-office of the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) at the U.S. Department of Education.

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Description: Online platforms offering free or low-cost resources for students with disabilities and their parents for help and support. 

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Description: Online platforms offering free or low-cost resources for students with disabilities and their parents for help and support. 

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Audiobooks for Dyslexia & Learning Disabilities

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Audiobooks for Dyslexia & Learning Disabilities

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Audiobooks for Dyslexia & Learning Disabilities | Learning Ally

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Learning Ally solutions help struggling readers through audiobooks & support services for educators, parents, and students dealing with dyslexia. Reading accommodations

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Do2Learn began in 1996 through a National Institutes of Health Small Business Innovative Research grant. Our team searches out the most talented and creative teachers and clinicians across the world. These gifted individuals work with our technical experts to transfer their knowledge into formats that we can make available to you.
Since beginning, we have grown into a world-wide resource with over 11 million hits a month. While based in North Carolina, approximately half of our users are from outside of the U.S. Thousands of sites link to us and we can be easily found on most search engines using topics such as 'picture cards', 'facial expressions', and 'job tips'. We hope you find our resources helpful and pass on our link to others.
We believe that simply telling busy teachers, parents, and professionals what they should be doing is not enough. If we explain how to devise a visual communication system using picture cards, we provide free cards to get you started.

When we present the Teacher Toolbox on how to adapt a classroom for children with special needs, we provide resources for behavior management plans, literacy tools, and the materials to create everything in your classroom.

Our approach is to use the latest technology and expert guidance to create innovative and usable solutions.

Learn about DiagnoseFirst, our newest project to help teachers and clinicians recognize the symptoms of ASD.

Pre-employment screening assessments are online or paper tests that some companies require applicants to complete during the application process. Read more about JobTIPS Student Version!

JobTIPS Toolbox PRO is filled with resources to help you coach your students through the challenges of assessing their skills, finding and applying for jobs, and practicing the social skills needed to do well in the workplace.

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picture exchange communication system cards

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Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

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picture communication cards, songs, games and learning activities for autism, aspergers, fetal alcohol syndrome and disabilities

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Resources for Supporting Learners with Disabilities - Digital Promise

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Adaptive Equipment Available for students with disabilities. 

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Adaptive Equipment Available for students with disabilities. 

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One of the best charities to donate to! Helping children with disabilities get adaptive and medical equipment. Providing inclusion so no child is left behind.

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Connections California: Transition to Adulthood can make it a little easier! You'll find important information in Connections California #cca. We want to help YOU create the smoothest transition to adulthood possible alongside your loved one!

Connections California: Transition to Adulthood is a FREE and COMPREHENSIVE program from Parents Helping Parents - San Jose. Get 24/7 access to relevant info about the transition to adulthood for you and your loved one with a disability. #cca includes LIVE webinars, 100+ e-learning videos, and more!

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Get information, find resources, and build parent support for children and adults with disabilities in San Jose & Silicon Valley.

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PACER Helps Parents and Professionals

PACER Helps in Many Ways

Through more than 30 projects, PACER provides individual assistance, workshops, publications, and other resources to help families make decisions about education and other services for their child or young adult with disabilities.

PACER's National Bullying Prevention Center® provides resources designed to benefit all students, including those with disabilities.

PACER is for:

Families and their children or young adults with disabilities or special health care needs from birth through adulthood.

Educators and other professionals who work with students with or without disabilities.

Parents of all children and schools working together to encourage family involvement in education .

If You Have Concerns About Your Child's Development:

When a parent is experiencing challenging times, PACER is here to help. If your child isn't meeting major milestones, is struggling in school, has received a new diagnosis or you sense there's a problem, you are not alone! PACER's parent advocates and resources are here to assist you. The links below will lead you to helpful resources. You can also speak to a PACER parent advocate by calling 952.838.9000 or emailing [email protected]

If You Have Concerns About Your Child's Physical Health

PACER's Health Information Center can connect you to resources to receive appropriate assistance. You can prepare by recording concerns to share with your child's doctor. Learn about the medical documentation you will need to qualify for services.

Learn about how to access public services

Medical Assistance (MA) or TEFRA: All children who are certified as disabled by the state of Minnesota are eligible for health insurance and disability services, such as a Personal Care Attendant ( PCA) through MA or TEFRA.

Social Security: If your child meets the Social Security Administration's definition of a disability, they may be eligible to receive Supplemental Security Income (SSI), especially after age 18. If your family meets income guidelines, they may be able to receive SSI at an earlier age.

If You Have Concerns About Your Child's Education

Birth -2: There is an early intervention system for children who aren't meeting developmental milestones. Help Me Grow provides services for children who are not meeting their milestones.

Ages 3-5: At age 3, children who receive early intervention services transition to Early Childhood Education Services. A preschool Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is developed to address your child's unique needs as he or she learns the skills needed to prepare for kindergarten.

School age: A school evaluation determines eligibility for Individual Education Plans (IEP), a written plan to serve a child's unique educational needs. If your child does not qualify for an IEP, they may qualify for a 504 Plan, which provides modifications and/or accommodations at school.

Individual Health Plans (IHP): Learn about an IHP, the written document that addresses your child's medical needs in the school setting.
PACER Resources
PACER Center offers additional services and specialized programs for parents of children with disabilities or mental health needs

Speak with an advocate: PACER advocates can assist you in obtaining appropriate benefits and services for your child. Email [email protected] or call(952) 838-9000.

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Parent Programs for Children with Special Needs, Children programs - PACER Center

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By contacting PACER, you're taking the first step toward finding more support for your family, educators and other professionals who work with student or child programs with or without disabilities.

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1 Multiple studies: Collins, 1990; Elkind, 1993; Elkind, Black & Murray, 1996; Higgins & Raskind, 1995; Higgins & Raskind, 1997; MacArthur, 1993, 1998; MacArthur, Schwartz, & Graham, 1991; McNaughton, Hughes & Clark, 1997; Priumus, 1990; Raskind & Higgins, 1995; Raskind, Higgins & Herman, 1997.

2 Higgins, E. L. & Raskind, M. H. (2000). Speaking to Read: The Effects of Continuous vs. Discrete Speech Recognition Systems on the Reading and Spelling of Children With Learning Disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15 (1), 19-30.

3 Raskind, M. H. & Higgins, E. L. (1999). Speaking to Read: The Effects of Speech Recognition Technology on the Reading and Spelling Performance of Children With Learning Disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 251-281.

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Assistive Technology for Kids with Learning Disabilities: An Overview

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If your child has a learning disability, he or she may benefit from assistive technology tools that play to their strengths and work around their challenges.

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Free Assistive Tech Tools That Support Academic Success

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These no-cost resources provide tools that help students with disabilities achieve academic success.

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Students with disabilities, from deafness and blindness to ADHD, have the legal right to a free and appropriate K-12 education in the United States, as well as reasonable accommodations in their post-secondary education. Schools often meet these requirements with assistive technology, which, according to Cynthia Curry, refers to technology "intended to support the function of the individual."

Curry is the director of the National Center on Accessible Educational Materials and the Center on Inclusive Technology & Education Systems.

Popular assistive technologies for blind students, for instance, include refreshable Braille displays and screen readers, which "read aloud all the content on the screen, as well as buttons, links, menus [and] images, if the images have alternative text on them," she said.

What Is Assistive Technology?

Assistive technology (AT) is the use of devices and software to improve the experience of learning or going about daily life. AT can range from Braille displays and books to text-to-speech software or wheelchairs. The beauty of assistive technology is that it can be anything that improves life and learning. To qualify as assistive, though, a technology has to meet the individual user's needs. In other words, it's inherently personal.

Curry's interest in assistive technology in the classroom is personal too. It started during her days as a middle- and high-school science teacher. Although she was well-versed in the subject due to her previous work as an engineer, Curry was bowled over by the variety of learners in her classroom.

Assistive Technology Definition

"I really had difficulty with learner variability," she said. "Particularly [with] students who didn't think like I thought. I was working about 16 hours a day trying to make up for my lack of education and training, creating my own materials, and trying to work individually with students."

Curry's students came from different cultures and spoke different languages. They had different class backgrounds. They also had various levels of physical and cognitive ability.

Supporting kids with disabilities felt essential to Curry, whose sister has disabilities. Legislation like the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, had made that support mandatory, but it also felt more "straightforward" than "trying to accommodate student variability in language or race or ethnicity, or even gender."

In other words, equal access for disabled students has a practical component. It can be engineered into existence, in part, with assistive technology.

All Technology is Assistive

Some critics argue that it's silly to categorize some technology as "assistive" and other technology as simply "technology." All technology assists its users, whether we classify them as "disabled" or not. As Sara Hendren wrote in Wired:

"Honestly - what technology are you using that's not assistive? Your smartphone? Your eyeglasses? Headphones? And those three examples alone are assisting you in multiple registers: They're enabling or augmenting a sensory experience, say, or providing navigational information. But they're also allowing you to decide whether to be available for approach in public, or not; to check out or in on a conversation or meeting in a bunch of subtle ways; to identify, by your choice of brand or look, with one culture group and not another... [A]re you sure your phone isn't a crutch, as it were, for a whole lot of unexamined needs?"

Not only is mainstream technology assistive, technology designed for those with legally protected disabilities often helps those without them. Or, more generally, improving accessibility for one group improves accessibility for all, in ways we can't always predict. That's the foundational principle of Universal Design.

One famous example are curb cuts, the ramp-like dips in sidewalks. Originally designed for people in wheelchairs, they turned out to benefit parents with strollers, rollerbladers and a host of other users.

Universal Design for Learning, or UDL, shifts Universal Design's ideas into the classroom. "It's based on research on how humans learn," Curry said. The UDL philosophy goes that lessons designed with accessibility in mind often- "though not always" -work best for everyone, accommodating varied learning styles.

According to a framework first laid out in the 1990s, UDL lessons should represent information in multiple ways. That can be simple enough - think closed caption videos, which make dialogue comprehension easier for the hard of hearing, English language learners and anyone who's absorbing unfamiliar vocabulary. Evaluation should also let students demonstrate what they know in various ways - in an audio recording, for example, or in writing.

Lessons designed to meet UDL specifications often incorporate, or integrate easily with, assistive technology. Let's take a look at some examples of assistive technology and the companies behind it.

Here are 10 tools changing the way assistive technology in the classroom is being used.

Related Reading Inclusive Design Takes Many, Many Forms

Examples of Assistive Technology in the Classroom

Speechify

Speechify is a text-to-speech software that captures text and translates it into audio format. This is particularly useful for textbooks, PDF reading assignments and more. The software is compatible with the Chrome browser as well as iPhones, Macs and Androids. Speechify is commonly used by learners and students with ADHD and dyslexia.

Kurzweil 3000

Kurzweil Education's Kurzweil 3000 is a literacy support system for Macs and various browsers, which comes equipped with a variety of assistive technologies. The speech-to-text and text-to-speech functions, which work in 18 languages, help students with vision impairments and ADHD, among other conditions. Meanwhile, a font designed for dyslexic readers, called OpenDyslexic, alleviates letter confusion with its bottom-heavy characters.

Google Classroom

Google Classroom has become popular with the surge of online learning and it also offers a host of tools for executive function and speech-to-text capabilities that improve accessibility and learning. The platform is compatible with Kurzweil 3000 as well as Hāpara Student Dashboard, which helps students organize their tools in one streamlined place. In the upcoming editions of Classroom, Google plans to deploy features like video tutorials, guided lessons and automated hints.

TactPlus

The TactPlus is a Braille printer. Often used by educational institutions, the portable printer precision-heats a specialty foamed paper to create a page of Braille (or other 3D images) in one to two minutes. The printer is also outfitted with audio instructions, to aid visually impaired users.

Seeing AI

The Seeing AI app from Microsoft is designed for the low-vision community and offers audio guidance in a vast array of situations. It reads text aloud as soon as it appears in a smartphone's camera viewfinder. It also identifies products by barcode when shopping and describes surrounding scenery and its colors. Over time, it learns to recognize the user's friends and describe their facial expressions.

More on Edtech Big Data in Education: 10 Companies Delivering Insights to the Classroom

Clicker

Clicker from Crick Software is a writing and reading platform that's outfitted with a whole suite of assistive features. Its mapping feature, for instance, lets elementary-age students create webs of words and emoji-like pictograms, or diagram entire projects. That helps visual learners tackle reading and writing projects.

Co:Writer

Co:Writer, a tool created by Don Johnston Learning Tools, can transcribe speech and predict intended words and phrases - a boon to students with a wide variety of special needs. Produced in partnership with Google for Education, Co:Writer's built-in prediction engine grasps the fundamentals of grammar and free association, unearthing writers' meaning even when they misspell words and conjugate verbs incorrectly.

Dragon

Dragon is a smart speech recognition software. Though it's marketed as a business productivity tool, it's also a widely used accessibility technology for students with disabilities that make mouse use and typing difficult. Equipped with deep learning capabilities, the software can transcribe natural speech at speeds of up to 160 words per minute.

MathTalk

MathTalk is a speech recognition software designed for students with ADHD and physical disabilities that preclude keyboard use. An add-on to Dragon, this software comprehends technical vocabulary and transcribes in mathematical notation appropriate for trigonometry, algebra, calculus and even PhD-level courses.

Tobii Technology

Tobii offers eye-tracking devices that turn the human gaze into a hands-free mouse. To use the technology, students with limited motor skills and verbal difficulties simply need to look at their screen, and a mix of infrared projectors, cameras and machine-learning algorithms will detect their point of focus.

The Future of Assistive Edtech

Going forward, assistive technology in the classroom has room to grow. Curry sees potential in two particular areas: artificial intelligence and mapping apps.

AI, she said, already has transformed life for people with disabilities. However, "it's not quite accurate yet under all conditions," and she worries that accessibility programs over-rely on it, especially when working with those who are hard of hearing.

Right now, AI often generates wonky automated closed captions, or live captions for talks. (It might translate "Pokemon" as "bro give mom," for example.) AI needs "human monitoring and human vetting" to really work, Curry said.

Once it can work reliably on its own, though, it will transform daily life for people with a wide array of disabilities. Higher-quality AI could not only hear "Pokemon" correctly, but also generate useful tools for people with Autism who have difficulty understanding facial expressions.

Many students with Autism - though not all - struggle with that, Curry notes. Facial recognition technology, a branch of AI, could help them match a peer's facial expressions with a feeling and guide them in knowing "how to interact with the individual," Curry said.

Another opportunity for improvement lies in digital mapping. Maps apps already offer users spoken navigation instructions and a highly granular sense of their surroundings nearly everywhere in the world. The maps of the future, however, could support blind people in new ways.

Many blind people memorize the layouts of their neighborhoods and schools and can navigate them without assistance, Curry says. However, unfamiliar environments pose problems. Mapping technology can't specify which streets have uneven sidewalks and which have no sidewalks. It also can't guide users through unfamiliar buildings - not yet, anyway.

"Augmented and virtual reality could help [blind students] orient themselves in new environments," Curry said. "And that can be true in smaller spaces, like a learning environment. So students who come into schools - maybe they're transferring from one district to another, or transitioning from middle school to high school - can more quickly and independently navigate their environments."

Of course, that mapping technology would only qualify as assistive for students seeking independent navigation skills in the first place. Assistive technology has to meet the individual's needs, not the needs that outsiders project onto them.

In that spirit, the ultimate assistive classroom technology in the classroom might be a teacher who asks, "How can I help you?"

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Examples of Assistive Technology in the Classroom Changing How Education Works

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Assistive technology tools for the classroom, like screen readers and 3D Braille printers, offer students with disabilities new ways to participate in school.

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Good for teaching strategies.

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9 examples of assistive technology and adaptive tools in school

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Kids can use assistive technology to help with learning and thinking differences in the classroom. Learn about nine common examples of assistive technology and adaptive tools at school.

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The Basics of Universal Precautions: Teaching staff to avoid infection

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Universal precautions refers to infection control measures that all health care workers and child care providers follow with the goal of protecting themselves and the children in their care from disease-producing microorganisms. The concept requires workers to treat all blood and various other bodily fluids as if infected with HIV, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens.

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Top 25 Adaptive School Supplies for Kids with Disabilities

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Adaptive tools help students access their classroom and curriculum. Check out this best-of school supply list from occupational therapists and parents!

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eSpecial Needs | Special Needs Strollers, Toys and Adaptive Equipment

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eSpecial Needs is the premier provider of adaptive equipment and therapy products including special needs strollers, toys, clothing, furniture and learning tools.

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Description: Mobility aid for students and families to look for support. 

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Description: Mobility aid for students and families to look for support. 

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Updated on September 29, 2020

"Assistive technologies are an important addition to physical and occupational therapy." - Dr. Catherine Bearce Nowak

Fourteen percent of people in the US have a mobility disability. Everyday tasks like getting out of bed in the morning, walking, or even sitting on a chair can present challenges for adults and children with mobility disabilities. By helping adults and children with physical disabilities perform routine tasks, adaptive mobility devices can transform an adult's independence and maximize a child's potential.

According to Dr. Catherine Bearce Nowak , Clinical Director at The Feingold Center for Children , assistive technologies and adaptive devices are an important addition to physical or occupational therapy but are either not covered at all by insurance companies or only partially covered.

In this article, we'll help you better understand adaptive mobility devices and their benefits, plus share an inspiring patient mobility success story.

What is an assistive technology tool or adaptive device?

Assistive technologies and adaptive devices are either physical equipment or digital tools that help adults and children with physical, intellectual, speech, hearing, and/or vision impairments to participate in activities, perform tasks, be more active, and live a more independent and functional life.

What are examples of assistive mobility devices?

Adaptive bikes, strollers, wheelchairs, and leg braces are among some of the most common assistive mobility devices that we fund for our young and growing patients:

Adaptive Bikes Adaptive bikes can be instrumental in getting a patient's legs moving better and improving their walking - and are usually not covered by insurance companies.

Adaptive Strollers
Adaptive strollers help families safely move their child who is too large for a regular stroller in a setting like the local store, doctors appt or outdoor event - and are usually not covered or only partially covered by most insurance companies.

Wheelchairs and Leg Braces
Wheelchairs and braces are necessary for mobility but a growing child can quickly outgrow these and family has to wait until they're allowed a new one - and are usually covered by insurance companies.
Other common assistive mobility technologies for adults and children:
What are the benefits of adaptive mobility devices?

Assistive technologies can be medically necessary for people with physical disabilities , genetic disorders, or diseases to thrive in our modern world. Through technology, mobility assistance makes it easier for adults and children with disabilities to get around and be active - even making it possible for some people to walk and perform independent tasks.

Patient Success Story
A six-year-old patient with a progressive muscle disorder who is followed by specialists at The Feingold Center for Children had never been able to walk due to tight muscles. The patient received excellent regular physical therapy to keep his muscles as limber as possible. When his therapist thought an adaptive bike might help, he took to it very quickly during his physical therapy sessions.

Unfortunately, it was not within the family budget to get him an adaptive bike of his own to use every day at home, so The Genesis Foundation for Children Assistive Technology helped the family make this purchase. The child was thrilled with his newfound independence and sense of accomplishment, and his family and therapy team noticed the bike allowed him to move his legs in ways no one knew he could do. After many months with the adaptive bike, he is now able to walk with a walker - proving just how these "added extras" can be in maximizing a child's potential.

Adaptive mobility devices can be life-changing

There are hundreds of different assistive technologies on the market. Adaptive mobility devices are more than just helpful aids that can enable a person with physical disabilities to perform routine tasks, they can transform lives by empowering people with disabilities to live to their full potential, vigorously and independently.

Learn more about how we fund assistive technologies or donate today to help fund an assistive technology for a child in need.
For nearly 40 years, The Genesis Foundation has helped fund assistive technology devices for patients affected by a rare disease or genetic disorder from childhood through adulthood. To relieve the family of this financial burden and provide our children with a healthy and happy upbringing, The Genesis Foundation helps to cover some of the costs of these devices. We are committed to helping provide children seen at the Feingold Center for Children with assistive technologies to help them thrive in our modern world.

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Types Of Adaptive Mobility Devices For People With Disabilities - The Genesis Foundation for Children

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Updated on September 29, 2020 "Assistive technologies are an important addition to physical and occupational therapy." - Dr. Catherine Bearce Nowak Fourteen percent of people in the US have a mobility disability. Everyday tasks like getting out of bed in the morning, walking, or even sitting on a chair can present challenges for adults and children with mobility disabilities.

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Last updated:

People with mobility, circulatory, respiratory, or neurological disabilities use many kinds of devices for mobility. Some use walkers, canes, crutches, or braces. Some use manual or power wheelchairs or electric scooters. In addition, advances in technology have given rise to new devices, such as Segways, that some people with disabilities use as mobility devices, including many veterans injured while serving in the military. And more advanced devices will inevitably be invented, providing more mobility options for people with disabilities.

This publication is designed to help title II entities (State and local governments) and title III entities (businesses and non-profit organizations that serve the public) (together, "covered entities") understand how the new rules for mobility devices apply to them. These rules went into effect on March 15, 2011.

Covered entities must allow people with disabilities who use manual or power wheelchairs or scooters, and manually-powered mobility aids such as walkers, crutches, and canes, into all areas where members of the public are allowed to go.

Covered entities must also allow people with disabilities who use other types of power-driven mobility devices into their facilities, unless a particular type of device cannot be accommodated because of legitimate safety requirements. Where legitimate safety requirements bar accommodation for a particular type of device, the covered entity must provide the service it offers in alternate ways if possible.

The rules set out five specific factors to consider in deciding whether or not a particular type of device can be accommodated.

Wheelchairs

Most people are familiar with the manual and power wheelchairs and electric scooters used by people with mobility disabilities. The term "wheelchair" is defined in the new rules as "a manually-operated or power-driven device designed primarily for use by an individual with a mobility disability for the main purpose of indoor or of both indoor and outdoor locomotion."

Other Power-Driven Mobility Devices

In recent years, some people with mobility disabilities have begun using less traditional mobility devices such as golf cars or Segways®. These devices are called "other power-driven mobility device" (OPDMD) in the rule. OPDMD is defined in the new rules as "any mobility device powered by batteries, fuel, or other engines... that is used by individuals with mobility disabilities for the purpose of locomotion, including golf cars, electronic personal assistance mobility devices... such as the Segway® PT, or any mobility device designed to operate in areas without defined pedestrian routes, but that is not a wheelchair". When an OPDMD is being used by a person with a mobility disability, different rules apply under the ADA than when it is being used by a person without a disability

Choice of Device

People with disabilities have the right to choose whatever mobility device best suits their needs. For example, someone may choose to use a manual wheelchair rather than a power wheelchair because it enables her to maintain her upper body strength. Similarly, someone who is able to stand may choose to use a Segway® rather than a manual wheelchair because of the health benefits gained by standing. A facility may be required to allow a type of device that is generally prohibited when being used by someone without a disability when it is being used by a person who needs it because of a mobility disability.

For example, if golf cars are generally prohibited in a park, the park may be required to allow a golf car when it is being used because of a person's mobility disability, unless there is a legitimate safety reason that it cannot be accommodated.

Requirements Regarding Mobility Devices and Aids

Under the new rules, covered entities must allow people with disabilities who use wheelchairs (including manual wheelchairs, power wheelchairs, and electric scooters) and manually-powered mobility aids such as walkers, crutches, canes, braces, and other similar devices into all areas of a facility where members of the public are allowed to go.

In addition, covered entities must allow people with disabilities who use any OPDMD to enter the premises unless a particular type of device cannot be accommodated because of legitimate safety requirements. Such safety requirements must be based on actual risks, not on speculation or stereotypes about a particular type of device or how it might be operated by people with disabilities using them.

For some facilities - such as a hospital, a shopping mall, a large home improvement store with wide aisles, a public park, or an outdoor amusement park - covered entities will likely determine that certain classes of OPDMDs being used by people with disabilities can be accommodated. These entities must allow people with disabilities using these types of OPDMDs into all areas where members of the public are allowed to go.

In some cases, even in facilities such as those described above, an OPDMD can be accommodated in some areas of a facility, but not in others because of legitimate safety concerns. For example, a cruise ship may decide that people with disabilities using Segways® can generally be accommodated, except in constricted areas, such as passageways to cabins that are very narrow and have low ceilings.

For other facilities - such as a small convenience store, or a small town manager's office - covered entities may determine that certain classes of OPDMDs cannot be accommodated. In that case, they are still required to serve a person with a disability using one of these devices in an alternate manner if possible, such as providing curbside service or meeting the person at an alternate location.

Covered entities are encouraged to develop written policies specifying which kinds of OPDMDs will be permitted and where and when they will be permitted, based on the following assessment factors.

Assessment Factors

In deciding whether a particular type of OPDMD can be accommodated in a particular facility, the following factors must be considered:

the type, size, weight, dimensions, and speed of the device;

the facility's volume of pedestrian traffic (which may vary at different times of the day, week, month, or year);

the facility's design and operational characteristics (e.g., whether its business is conducted indoors or outdoors, its square footage, the density and placement of furniture and other stationary devices, and the availability of storage for the OPDMD if needed and requested by the user);

whether legitimate safety requirements (such as limiting speed to the pace of pedestrian traffic or prohibiting use on escalators) can be established to permit the safe operation of the OPDMD in the specific facility; and

whether the use of the OPDMD creates a substantial risk of serious harm to the immediate environment or natural or cultural resources, or poses a conflict with Federal land management laws and regulations.

It is important to understand that these assessment factors relate to an entire class of device type, not to how a person with a disability might operate the device. (See next topic for operational issues.) All types of devices powered by fuel or combustion engines, for example, may be excluded from indoor settings for health or environmental reasons, but may be deemed acceptable in some outdoor settings. Also, for safety reasons, larger electric devices such as golf cars may be excluded from narrow or crowded settings where there is no valid reason to exclude smaller electric devices like Segways®.

Based on these assessment factors, the Department of Justice expects that devices such as Segways® can be accommodated in most circumstances. The Department also expects that, in most circumstances, people with disabilities using ATVs and other combustion engine-driven devices may be prohibited indoors and in outdoor areas with heavy pedestrian traffic.

Policies on the Use of OPDMDs

In deciding whether a type of OPDMD can be accommodated, covered entities must consider all assessment factors and, where appropriate, should develop and publicize rules for people with disabilities using these devices.

Such rules may include -

requiring the user to operate the device at the speed of pedestrian traffic; identifying specific locations, terms, or circumstances (if any) where the devices cannot be accommodated;

setting out instructions for going through security screening machines if the device contains technology that could be harmed by the machine; and

specifying whether or not storage is available for the device when it is not being used.

Credible Assurance

An entity that determines it can accommodate one or more types of OPDMDs in its facility is allowed to ask the person using the device to provide credible assurance that the device is used because of a disability.

If the person presents a valid, State-issued disability parking placard or card or a State-issued proof of disability, that must be accepted as credible assurance on its face. If the person does not have this documentation, but states verbally that the OPDMD is being used because of a mobility disability, that also must be accepted as credible assurance, unless the person is observed doing something that contradicts the assurance. For example, if a person is observed running and jumping, that may be evidence that contradicts the person's assertion of a mobility disability. However, it is very important for covered entities and their staff to understand that the fact that a person with a disability is able to walk for a short distance does not necessarily contradict a verbal assurance - many people with mobility disabilities can walk, but need their mobility device for longer distances or uneven terrain. This is particularly true for people who lack stamina, have poor balance, or use mobility devices because of respiratory, cardiac, or neurological disabilities. A covered entity cannot ask people about their disabilities.

Staff Training

Ongoing staff training is essential to ensure that people with disabilities who use OPDMDs for mobility are not turned away or treated inappropriately. Training should include instruction on the types of OPDMDs that can be accommodated, the rules for obtaining credible assurance that the device is being used because of a disability, and the rules for operation of the devices within the facility.

For more information about the ADA, please visit ADA.gov or call our toll-free number.

ADA Information Line 800-514-0301 (Voice) and 1-833-610-1264 (TTY) M-W, F 9:30 a.m. - 12:00 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. - 5:30 p.m., Th 2:30 p.m. - 5:30 p.m. (Eastern Time) to speak with an ADA Specialist. Calls are confidential.

For people with disabilities, this publication is available in alternate formats.

The Americans with Disabilities Act authorizes the Department of Justice (the Department) to provide technical assistance to individuals and entities that have rights or responsibilities under the Act. This document provides informal guidance to assist you in understanding the ADA and the Department's regulations.

This guidance document is not intended to be a final agency action, has no legally binding effect, and may be rescinded or modified in the Department's complete discretion, in accordance with applicable laws. The Department's guidance documents, including this guidance, do not establish legally enforceable responsibilities beyond what is required by the terms of the applicable statutes, regulations, or binding judicial precedent.

Duplication of this document is encouraged.

Originally issued:

Last updated:

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ADA Requirements: Wheelchairs, Mobility Aids, and Other Power-Driven Mobility Devices

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This document is designed to help title II entities (State and local governments) and title III entities (businesses and non-profit organizations that serve the public) understand how the new rules for other power driven mobility devices apply to them.

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The Occupational Therapist’s Master Guide for Children’s Adaptive Equipment

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Generally, the world is not adapted to people with special needs, but adaptive equipment bridges the gap between independence and inclusion. Adaptive equipment makes it possible for children with developmental delays, medical conditions, psychiatric conditions, and/or congenital conditions to reach their full potential.

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Some examples of assistive technologies are:

Mobility aids, such as wheelchairs, scooters, walkers, canes, crutches, prosthetic devices, and orthotic devices.

Hearing aids to help people hear or hear more clearly.

Cognitive aids, including computer or electrical assistive devices, to help people with memory, attention, or other challenges in their thinking skills.

Computer software and hardware, such as voice recognition programs, screen readers, and screen enlargement applications, to help people with mobility and sensory impairments use computers and mobile devices.

Tools such as automatic page turners, book holders, and adapted pencil grips to help learners with disabilities participate in educational activities

Closed captioning to allow people with hearing problems to watch movies, television programs, and other digital media.

Physical modifications in the built environment, including ramps, grab bars, and wider doorways to enable access to buildings, businesses, and workplaces.

Lightweight, high-performance mobility devices that enable persons with disabilities to play sports and be physically active.

Adaptive switches and utensils to allow those with limited motor skills to eat, play games, and accomplish other activities.

Devices and features of devices to help perform tasks such as cooking, dressing, and grooming; specialized handles and grips, devices that extend reach, and lights on telephones and doorbells are a few examples.

For more information about types of assistive devices, check out the following resources:

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What are some types of assistive devices and how are they used?

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Some examples of assistive technologies are:

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Good teaching strategies for teachers.

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Classroom accommodations for sensory processing challenges

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These sensory strategies for the classroom can help kids with sensory processing challenges. From alternate seating to visual schedules, explore sensory tools for the classroom that help with learning.

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Another for teachers.

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By: Laura Petix, MS OTR/LEPISODE 10

Hey there! Welcome back to the podcast. This week's episode is a nice complement to last week's episode, where we talked about what kinds of preschool environments work best (or don't work best) for a child with sensory processing disorder or sensory processing differences. So if you want to learn more about those details, make sure you head over to episode 9.

Today's episode is perfect for parents but also if there are any OTs out there who support kids in classrooms, and also any teachers out there trying to find some solutions to help your sensory students out... this is a great one.

One quick disclaimer for you: I realize that at the time of this recording (October 2021) the school systems in the US are dealing with huge impacts from the pandemic, such as teacher shortages & resource shortages.

Also, there are changes in the way that classrooms are set up and regulations on what materials or items are allowed to be used in the classroom. The following are all suggestions I would have used in the past when I worked with schools pre pandemic.

I also want to make it clear that not all teachers or schools or classrooms have the ability to make all of these suggestions work. You can suggest them, but some classrooms just don't allow for these modifications.

Lastly, some suggestions require a change on your part as the parent for drop off/pick up which again, I understand is not always easy and many parents don't have the flexibility with work schedules or other siblings- this is me just brain dumping as many solutions and accommodations as I can think of... and you can decide what would work or not work for your child/family/school.
Want to start an open dialogue with your child's teacher? Check out my free email template!

Sensory accommodations for the classroom

Let's start out by talking about some sensory tools, accommodations or strategies that might be helpful in the classroom.

Whenever I talk about what sensory tools a child should have access to in the classroom, parents always bring up a question like "well, I don't want my kid to stand out" or "I don't want my child to feel like they're the only one using headphones or that special chair".

I get this. I really do, and I've heard this for years. I have a couple things to offer in regards to this.

First, I ask you... what's the alternative? If you don't want your child to "stand out" or be "noticed" for using headphones or a fidget or a different chair... how would you feel if your child was noticed for how wiggly they always were, or always getting called out by their teacher to sit still, or for having meltdowns because the sound was too loud vs just using headphones to help?

The other thing is... this is where advocacy and spreading awareness comes into play. I would love if more teachers could have more lessons on inclusivity with different abilities and learning and playing styles.

For example, when introducing sensory tools to the classroom, a quick lesson like

"These are called sensory tools. They help some students learn. They are not toys. Everyone needs something different to help their body feel calm and ready to learn. This helps some students feel that way. If you want to try it, you can. If it becomes a distraction and doesn't help you learn or feel calm, then it's not the right tool for you."

Something as simple as that can help set the stage for the idea that these are just tools for learning, not toys, not special things that one boy gets, and not something "weird" that the weird kid gets... everyone uses them if they need it.

Here's a few of the most common sensory accommodations for the classroom I've recommended in the past.

Open access to sensory tools (headphones, wiggle cushion, weighted vest, weighted lap pad, calm down jar, chewy necklace or allowing a chewy snack)

Calm down or sensory corner- one that fits just for one person at a time and (NOT time out)

Alternative seating options or preferential seating

Adding a theraband to the bottom of a chair for a sensory seeker to bounce their feet/legs on when they're wiggly.

Allowing an under-responsive/low registration child to sit close to the teacher to help with auditory and visual cues

Allowing to stand at the back of circle time instead of sit

Allowing to use a special cube chair or other chair for more support

Educating the teacher that "whole body listening" is not inclusive to neurodivergent kids and that your child may be listening while fidgeting with their shoelaces

Being flexible with transitions between activities, usually "walk to your desk" can be changed to "crab walk" to your desk.

Sensory Accommodations for Routines & Schedules in the Classroom

Aside from sensory tools and strategies within the classroom setting, I also make a few suggestions for parents/teachers/administration staff to include within the child's overall school routine and schedule based on their needs. Here's a few examples:

Alternative options for school uniforms that your child may be itchy or have a hard time with (work with the school on this- maybe you could wear a red shirt even if it's not the red polo that's itchy for your child.

From Stressed to Dressed Guide

Allowing extra time to complete assignments if they have a learning disorder or sensory challenges that make completing the task in a certain amount of time difficult.

Being provided intermittent movement breaks- can offer a functional task with this like a delivering things to the office or passing out supplies, but finding a way to schedule in movement breaks for sensory seekers is helpful.

Creating special jobs/roles that integrate the child's sensory needs with the teacher. For example- door holder, or "caboose" of the train - always last in line but this allowed the child to move freely in line without bumping into peers. Vs. a sensory sensitive child who would prefer to be at the front near the teacher

Placement of cubby spot- mostly it's alphabetical, but if you have a child who is sensory sensitive, placing their cubby in the middle where they'd have to sneak in between kids and deal with close bodies is hard- try placing the cubby's at the very end of the section.

Being flexible with drop off/pick up routines for a sensory sensitive child- can you drop off a little later if the first few minutes of school are hectic and loud and chaotic? E.g. if the first 15 minutes of school drop off is pledge of allegiance and free choice and the classroom is bustling and loud, it may be hard for your child. Maybe the next activity is like quiet reading or art that makes drop off easier- play around with this and see if there's an easier drop off time. For some extreme cases, where my client's were extremely dysregulated at the end of the day, parents & teachers came to the conclusion to have the child picked up 15 minutes earlier (when the last part of the day was something not academically heavy) and made it easier for everyone.

Giving the parents a heads up (when possible) when scheduled fire drills will be happening. You can use this to prepare the child with a social story a few days in advance, or choose to not send your child to school that day or to pull them out early. Again, for some extremely sensory sensitive children, a fire drill can completely set them off for the rest of the day or days after. It can be very traumatic, and something not worth having your child sit through.

Allowing a child a sit next to the door or somewhere quieter during assemblies, or offering them the option to skip assemblies altogether. Again, in some extreme cases, it was easier for my client to sit back in the classroom with a teacher's aid or help in the office during an assembly vs deal with loud PA systems, music, clapping, etc and then be expected to go back to the classroom and be regulated to learn for the rest of the day.

Offering a visual checklist or visual schedule on your child's desk that they can see and help them understand what's coming next and how the day is flowing. This is helpful for anxious kids and sensory kids so they can anticipate louder parts or messier parts of the day.

Eliminating idle wait times for sensory seekers. For example, some teachers dismiss certain tables or children at different times, like they'll call your name and say you can go line up at the door, etc.... Based on the child's needs if it's a sensory seeker, it would be best if the teacher can limit the amount of time the sensory seeker has to wait in line. So, calling the child to line up at the end of the line rather than lining up first where they'd be expected to stand and wait longer. And in the same vein, when children are sitting on the rug waiting for the rest of the children to join, if you have a sensory seeker who has a hard time sitting as it is, don't call them first to sit on the rug to then have to wait for all other children to join, which would extend their sitting & waiting time.

One huge PSA:
Do NOT let your child's teacher take away recess or any other form of physical movement/ sensory activity as a punishment. Or if you're a teacher listening, please don't do this, and please advocate or speak out against other teachers who do this.

Too many schools are doing this. "Oh you didn't listen during story time" or "you didn't finish your assignment you need to sit in at recess and do it" We should NOT be taking away recess. I can't stress this enough and I hope this message gets to at least one teacher that can change their mind.

There are a lot more ways to help your child succeed in a classroom, but these were just some of the common ones I often use when supporting my clients.

I hope this information was helpful! Remember, it's more important to adapt and modify the tasks and environments to best fit our child's needs, vs trying to change our child to meet the environment.

/sens

Learn how to look at behavior through an OT lens and start decoding your child's behavior into sensory and non sensory triggers, so you can start supporting them more effectively. Check out the Sensory IS Behavior mini course.

Links
Instagram: @TheOTButterfly www.instagram.com/theotbutterfly Website/blog: www.theotbutterfly.com Email: LauraPetix@TheOTButterfly.com Work with me: www.theotbutterfly.com/parentconsult More SPD parent resources: www.sensorywisesolutions.com Buy me a coffee & ask me a question for a future episode: www.theotbutterfly.com/coffee

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Classroom Accommodations for Sensory Needs -

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It's our job as parents and educators to make sure that our children's learning styles and sensory needs are supported and accommodated in the classroom. What are some of the classroom modifications and accommodations we can ask for to support our children with sensory differences? I'll answer that in this podcast episode.

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School Success Kit for Kids With Sensory Processing Issues | Child Mind Institute

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Going back to school is an exciting time, but for kids with sensory processing issues it can be overwhelming. Here are a few tips and strategies to help your child (and you!) feel calm, comfortable and confident this year.

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Sensory issues are common in people with autism and are even included in the diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder. Each autistic person is unique, and this includes their personal sensory sensitivities.

People with autism might have sensitivities to:

Autistic people can experience both hypersensitivity (over-responsiveness) and hyposensitivity (under-responsiveness) to a wide range of stimuli. Most people have a combination of both.

Many autistic people experience hypersensitivity to bright lights or certain light wavelengths (e.g., LED or fluorescent lights). Certain sounds, smells, textures and tastes can also be overwhelming. This can result in sensory avoidance - trying to get away from stimuli that most people can easily tune out. Sensory avoidance can look like pulling away from physical touch, covering the ears to avoid loud or unpredictable sounds, or avoiding certain kinds of clothing.

Hyposensitivity is also common. This can look like a constant need for movement; difficulty recognizing sensations like hunger, illness or pain; or attraction to loud noises, bright lights and vibrant colors. People who are hyposensitive may engage in sensory seekingto get more sensory input from the environment. For example, people with autism may stimulate their senses by making loud noises, touching people or objects, or rocking back and forth.

What do sensory issues feel like?

Having unique sensitivities to certain types of sensory input can create challenges in everyday situations like school, work or community settings. For someone who is hypersensitive, it can take a lot of effort to spend all day under LED or fluorescent lights, navigate a crowded space or process conversations in rooms with background noise. This can be incredibly physically and emotionally draining and can leave the person feeling too exhausted to do other important tasks.

Many autistic people use stimming as a form of sensory seeking to keep their sensory systems in balance. Repetitive movements, sounds, or fidgeting can help people with autism stay calm, relieve stress or block out uncomfortable sensory input.

However, constant movement can sometimes seem inappropriate or disruptive in certain settings (like the workplace), so autistic people often feel like they need to suppress their stimming. When this happens, it becomes more and more difficult to self-regulate, leading to sensory overload, exhaustion or burnout.

Sensory overload happens when an intense sensory stimulus overwhelms your ability to cope. This can be triggered by a single event, like an unexpected loud noise, or it can build up over time due to the effort it takes to cope with sensory sensitivities in daily life. Sensory overload can feel like intense anxiety, a need to escape the situation or difficulty communicating. When the brain has to put all of its resources into sensory processing, it can shut off other functions, like speech, decision making and information processing.

What do sensory issues look like?
Many people with autism show certain behaviors when they are experiencing a sensory issue:

Increased movement, such as jumping, spinning or crashing into things

Increased stimming, such as hand flapping, making repetitive noises or rocking back and forth

Talking faster and louder, or not talking at all

Covering ears or eyes

Difficulty recognizing internal sensations like hunger, pain or the need to use the bathroom

Refusing or insisting on certain foods or clothing items

Frequent chewing on non-food items

Frequent touching of others or playing rough

Difficulty communicating or responding as the brain shifts resources to deal with sensory input (shutdown)

Escalating, overwhelming emotions or need to escape a situation (meltdown)

A ccommodations for sensory issues

Understanding and accommodating sensory issues can ease discomfort and increase opportunities for autistic people to learn, socialize, communicate and participate in the community. Accommodations might mean modifying the environment, using tools and strategies, or creating new habits or routines. Since sensory needs depend the environment, accommodations may need to be adapted for each setting.

Examples of accommodations for hypersensitivity:

Using light covers, sunglasses or a hat under fluorescent lights

Wearing ear plugs or headphones in noisy environments

Working in spaces with a closed door or high walls

Avoiding strongly scented products

Choosing foods that avoid aversions to textures, temperatures or spices

Wearing soft, comfortable clothing

Adjusting schedules to avoid crowds

Examples of accommodations for hyposensitivity:

Visual supports for those who have difficulty processing spoken information

Using fidget toys, chewies and other sensory tools

Arranging furniture to provide safe, open spaces

Taking frequent movement breaks throughout the day

Eating foods with strong flavors or mixed textures

Weighted blankets, lap pads or clothing that provides deep pressure

Autistic people have the right to ask for reasonable accommodations at work and school. If you are the parent or support person of a child with autism, you can talk about sensory accommodations at school with their IEP team or consider a 504 plan.

Self-advocacy for sensory issues

If you are an autistic person, you may need to self-advocate for your sensory needs to be met. This starts with learning about your needs so you understand what works and what doesn't work for you. Then, you can make changes to your environment, try new tools or strategies, or change your routines to better meet your needs.

Our Self-Empowerment Roadmap can help you learn more about your needs so you can overcome your challenges. Keep in mind that it can take time and lots of trial and error to fully understand your needs and figure out what accommodations work best for you.

Once you understand the accommodations you need, you can work with your employer and support team to get those needs met. Our Employment Tool Kit will give you the tools you need to navigate these conversations and cope with sensory issues in the workplace.

You can also reach out to the Autism Response Team at help@autismspeaks.org to learn how to conduct a sensory scan and advocate for your needs at work.

What resources are there to help with sensory issues?

Learn how occupational therapy can help people with autism learn to better process sensory input in everyday environments.

Learn how feeding therapy can address aversions to tastes and food textures, as well as under- and over-sensitivities that can hamper chewing and swallowing.

Learn how speech therapy can use sensitivity-reducing and sensory-stimulating activities to improve speech, swallowing and related muscle movements.

Learn how cognitive behavioral therapy can help manage anxiety and gradually increase tolerance to overwhelming sensory experiences.

View Autism Speaks' Autism-Friendly Events Calendar for a list of sensory-friendly events in your area

Learn about sensory processing disorder and potential accommodations at work.

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Sensory issues often accompany autism. Examples of accommodations for hyper- and hyposensitivities. Additionally, therapies can help with sensory issues.

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Shape America Instruction Practice Guidlines K-12

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Shape America Instruction Practice Guidlines K-12

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A good website for teachers to look at 5 main categories: learning environment, intructional strategies, curriculum, assessment, and professionalism.

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via Heartland AEA

Adapted Physical Education (APE) is critically important to the physical, cognitive, and social development of students with disabilities. It is also often a subject that is overlooked; sadly, the result is that students who require APE services are 4.5 times less likely to engage in physical activity than their peers who don't share their cognitive or physical barriers.

It is for this reason we are proud to introduce 62 new APE content pages.

These content pages allow educators to draft targeted, comprehensive, and safe goals that are connected to all the critical areas of APE:

Stability: concerned with balance and the safe execution of controlled movements (e.g. stretching, strength and coordination exercises)

Tools and Equipment: concerned with the proper use of personal equipment during physical activities (e.g. wheelchair and walker)

Personal Health and Fitness: concerned with healthy eating habits, the benefits of exercise, and basic knowledge of the structures and functions of the human body

Social Interaction: concerned with the importance of following the rules and good sportsmanship

Locomotor Skills: concerned with the controlled manipulation of sports equipment with hands and feet (e.g. throwing, kicking, and dribbling)

Physical development is an important part of education and is especially critical for students with more significant physical and cognitive needs. These students may not be able to safely access typical PE instruction nor be as physically active during unstructured times (e.g. recess).

If you observe the level of scaffolding from the grade-level goal to the intense level of support goal for the Catch a Thrown Ball content page, you'll notice that the scaffolds ensure the safety of the student while maintaining the integrity of the criteria for success.

"APE services provide students with ample opportunities to increase their confidence in a physical activity setting and to improve their overall self-esteem."
-Tamika Jones, M.Ed., CAPE

We believe that physical education is about more than fitness. It's about inclusion in a holistic school experience that develops critical interpersonal and intrapersonal skills through physically and cognitively demanding tasks. If students can find success at recreational activities in a safe and structured environment, then they are more likely to independently engage in these activities during unstructured play times.

Each APE content page prioritizes UDL strategies that offer alternatives that may better suit the needs of a physically and/or cognitively diverse group of students.

Teachers who deliver APE instruction must attend to all aspects of instructional design, implementation, and service delivery. Our instructional content pages help educators create highly-specific learning targets for the students they work with. Within each content page, teachers have the ability to determine the intensity of the level of support based on student needs so that all students can perform actions and activities that help them meet the standard and, more importantly, keep their students active.

Our hope is that the resources and levels of support within these content pages instill knowledge and confidence in teachers around their ability to teach students with significant cognitive and physical barriers.

OR Sign In to Toolkit

Follow our publication Follow us on Twitter @goalbookapp and join the conversation about how we are working toward success for ALL students! Innovating Instruction to stay up to date on all of our product updates and to read about the impact Goalbook is having on our partner districts.

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Safely Challenging Students with Adapted Physical Education Content Pages

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Adapted Physical Education (APE) is critically important to the physical, cognitive, and social development of students with disabilities. It is also often a subject that is overlooked; sadly, the...

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Physical Education and Adapted PE for Students with Disabilities - Wrightslaw

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The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) requires schools to provide physical education / adapted physical education to students with disabilities as part of the student's special education program.

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Evidence-Based Physical Education - SPARK Leads the Way

The term "evidence-based" is used frequently in education and fortunately for all of us, is directly applicable to physical education as well. Our team at SPARK feels that a program can claim it is evidence-based if there is data demonstrating positive results on students and/or teachers linked to relevant outcomes (i.e., activity levels, fitness, skill development, etc.) and if those outcomes have been published in a peer-reviewed journal. Additionally, it is important that other content experts/organizations (i.e., CDC, N.I.H., National Cancer Institute, etc.) agree with the findings and support a group's EB claim.

Below, you'll find additional links to websites where SPARK is either directly or indirectly included in the evidence-based conversation.
A list of SPARK publications is Coming Soon

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Evidence-Based Physical Education Evidence-Based Physical Education - SPARK Leads the Way The term "evidence-based" is used frequently in education and fortunately for all of us, is directly applicable to physical education as well. Our team at SPARK feels that a program can claim it is evidence-based if there is data demonstrating positive results on students [...]

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The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.

HHS is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private websites.

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Healthy People 2030 includes objectives focused on improving health and well-being by helping people get enough aerobic and muscle-strengthening activity. Learn more about physical activity.

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Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.

High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.

Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.

Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.

Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.

Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.

Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.

Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.

Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.

The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century ( Hackensmith, 1966). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students ( Weston, 1962). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913; Wood and Cassidy, 1930) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood's inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle ( NASPE, 2004).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a "comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement" (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009), who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children's cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children ( NASPE, 2004).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity ( Lonsdale et al., 2013). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students' learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child's ability to use his or her body for self-expression ( Abels and Bridges, 2010). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself ( Laban, 1980) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al., 1984). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement ( Abels and Bridges, 2010). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves-with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education ( NASPE, 2004; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop ( Siedentop, 1994; Siedentop et al., 2011). The goal of the model is to "educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons" (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O'Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in students' developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels ( Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model's merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students' understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis ( Lonsdale et al., 2013) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School ( Corbin et al., 2007); Personal Fitness for You ( Stokes and Schultz, 2002); Get Active! Get Fit! ( Stokes and Schultz, 2009); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good ( Williams, 2005); and Foundations of Fitness ( Rainey and Murray, 2005). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education ( Chen et al., 2008), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools ( Chen et al., 2007). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living ( Sun et al., 2012). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children's lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1, can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity ( Greenberg and Stokes, 2007).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game-DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)-raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009), studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players' various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school-age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007), studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children's overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010), studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming's utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed ( Baranowski et al., 2008). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a "low-intensity" physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education ( Fogel et al., 2010). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs-such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)-are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first ( Johnston et al., 2010), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study ( Romero, 2012), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 ( Welk et al., 2004). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985, 1988) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents' behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain ( Erwin and Castelli, 2008). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children ( Castelli and Valley, 2007). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study ( Hensley and East, 1989), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student's current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on "Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement." Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students' accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements. NASPE (2007a, p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include "opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment." If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student's needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3.

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012), online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008, for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30-40 minutes) or longer (65-90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3, there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child ( HHS, 2008). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4) and children's social and emotional well-being ( HHS, 2008; Chapter 3). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues ( Pate et al., 2011). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007), has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child's daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment ( NASPE, 2012).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010), the National Association of State Boards of Education ( NASBE; 2012), and NASPE (2004, 2010) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3, research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness ( Stodden et al., 2008, 2009). Exercise psychology research also has identified children's perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity ( Sallis et al., 2000). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits ( Corbin, 2002). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 ( Healthy People 2020, 2010) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: "PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation's public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students " and "PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education."

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation, points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010), developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that "one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity" can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4.

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student's comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations-such as the NFL through its Play60 program-have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike's (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda, a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5).

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let's Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) "provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day" and (2) "provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity" ( AAHPERD, 2012). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement ( AAHPERD, 2012). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to 50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had "cut" policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be balanced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) ( Bassett et al., 2013). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b, 2009b, c) (see Box 5-6). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies-SPARK and CATCH-are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program "fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills" ( SPARK, 2013).

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district ( Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012). In one study, researchers found that "the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling in the students toward physical activity" ( McKenzie et al., 1994, p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition ( McKenzie et al., 1998). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests ( Sallis et al., 1997). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week ( McKenzie et al., 1997; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children's health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students ( Perry et al., 1990). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children's behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity ( Luepker et al., 1996). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention ( Nader et al., 1999).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education, NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must possess and display (see Box 5-7). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education ( McKenzie et al., 2001). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected ( Lonsdale et al., 2013). The role of certified physical education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical ( McKenzie, 2007). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education ( NASPE, 2012). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states ( NASPE, 2012), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years ( NASPE, 2012). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years ( NASPE, 2012). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor's degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator ( NASPE, 2012).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development, body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy-the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor's teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master's-level) training.

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as "nationally recognized." The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term "physical education" resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 ( College Board, 2013) and 1,945 ( Peterson's, 2013). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study ( Kulinna et al., 2010), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity- and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals ( McKenzie, 2007).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008-2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs that were training future teacher educators ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011a). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators-36.8 each year on average-89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011b). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator's profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement ( Ball and Cohen, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1, which aligns with the research on effective professional development ( Kennedy, 1998; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Fishman et al., 2003; Guskey and Sparks, 2004), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ( Whitehurst, 2002), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers' knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9.

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers' professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks' (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students' physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students' physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers' instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10). According to Learning Forward (2012):

When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.

When educators' knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students' learning needs.

When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.

When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.

Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents ( IOM, 2012a).

POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively ( McCullick et al., 2012), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11.

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101-11), core academic subjects include "English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography." If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE's State School Health Policy Database ( NASBE, 2012; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012): "At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as 'codified law' used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)" (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among "credit," "Carnegie unit," and "course" so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student's grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools' responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools "the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles" ( Pate et al., 2006, p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school's or district's wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year's 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered "nonessential" subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics ( Center on Education Policy, 2008). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects ( Center on Education Policy, 2007, 2008) (see Table 5-2).

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for "nonessential" subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these "nonessential" subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement or academic outcomes ( CDC, 2010). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006-2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001-2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess, and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science ( Center on Education Policy, 2007).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act ( Center on Education Policy, 2007; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

Districts with at least one school identified as "in need of improvement" under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement ( Center on Education Policy, 2007).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Barriers

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher's control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers' perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5. The institutional barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4.

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6.

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

Staffing

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

Funding

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs ( GAO, 2012), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools' ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school's ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and "throw out the ball" activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with disabilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher's planning time. In addition, students receive school board-mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters ( San Diego State University, 2007), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs ( San Diego State University, 2007), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included wellness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understanding the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research ( Trost, 2009) cites evidence that "children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children's health through physical education." The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

"In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores."

"Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement."

"Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems."

"There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior."

"Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities."

SUMMARY

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identified a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

A majority of parents (54-84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects ( CDC, 2010).

Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).

Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity ( NASPE, 2009a).

Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 ( NASPE, 2003).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students' physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7.

REFERENCES

AAHPERD (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance). 2011 Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) survey report. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2011.

Abels KW, Bridges JM. Teaching movement education: Foundations for active lifestyles. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers; 2010.

ACS (American Cancer Society) CAN (Cancer Action Network), ADA (American Diabetes Association), and AHA (American Heart Association). Physical education in schools-both quality and quantity are important: A statement on physical education from the American Cancer Society and Cancer Action Network (ACS CAN), the American Diabetes Association (ADA), and the American Heart Association (AHA). Dallas, TX: AHA; 2012.

Ball DL, Cohen DK. Developing practice, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-based theory of professional development. In: Darling-Hammond L, Sykes G, editors. In Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, San Francisco, CA: ERIC; 1999. pp. 30-32. (Jossey-Bass education series).

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2010.

Center on Education Policy. Choices, changes, and challenges: Curriculum and instruction in the NCLB era. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy; 2007.

Center on Education Policy. A call to restructure restructuring: Lessons from the No Child Left Behind Act in five states. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy; 2008.

Corbin C, Le Masurier G, Lambdin D. Fitness for life: Middle school. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007.

GAO (U.S. Government Accountability Office). K-12: School-based physical education and sports programs. Washington, DC: GAO; 2012.

Greenberg J, Stokes R. Developing school site wellness centers. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007.

Hackensmith CW. History of physical education. New York: Harper & Row; 1966.

Hensley L, East W. Measurement concepts in physical education and exercise science. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1989. Testing and grading in the psychomotor domain.

HHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Physical activity guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: HHS; 2008.

IOM. Fitness measures and health outcomes in youth. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2012b. [ PubMed: 25187939 ]

Kennedy M. Form and substance of inservice teacher education. Madison: National Institute for Science Education, University of Wisconsin; 1998. (Research Monograph No. 13).

Laban R. The mastery of movement. Plymouth: Macdonald & Evans; 1980.

Logsdon B, Barrett K, Logsdon B. Physical Education for Children. 1984. Movement-the content of physical education; pp. 295-355.

NASPE (National Association for Sport and Physical Education). Parents' view of children's health and fitness: A summary of results. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2003.

NASPE. Physical activity for children: A statement of guidelines for children ages 5-12. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2004.

NASPE. Moving into the future: National standards for physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 2004.

NASPE. Initial guidelines for online physical education: Position paper. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007a.

NASPE. Position statement: What constitutes a highly qualified physical education teacher. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2007b.

NASPE. Physical education trends in our nation's schools: A survey of practicing K-12 physical education teachers. Port Washington, NY: Roslow Research Group; 2009a.

NASPE. School physical education program checklist-how does your program rate. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2009b.

NASPE. NASPE resource brief: Quality physical education. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2009c.

NASPE. Opportunity to learn: Guidelines for elementary, middle, and high school physical education. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2010.

NASPE. Instructional framework for fitness education in physical education. Guidance document. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2012.

NASPE and AHA. Shape of the nation report: Status of physical education in the USA. Reston, VA: AAHPERD; 2010.

Nike. Designed to move: A physical activity agenda. Beaverton, OR: Nike; 2012.

Rainey DL, Murray TD. Foundations of personal fitness. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2005.

San Diego State University. Physical education matters: Success stories from California low resource schools that have achieved excellent P.E. programs. Los Angeles: The California Endowment; 2007.

San Diego State University. Physical education matters: A full report from The California Endowment. Los Angeles, CA: The California Endowment; 2008.

Siedentop DL. Sport education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Chicago, IL: Human Kinetics; 1994.

Siedentop DL. Introduction to physical education, fitness, and sport. 8th. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2009.

Siedentop DL, Hastie PA, Van der Mars H. Complete guide to sport education. Chicago, IL: Human Kinetics; 2011.

Sit CH, Lam JW, McKenzie TL. International Journal of Pediatrics. 2010. Children's use of electronic games: Choices of game mode and challenge levels. epub ahead of print. [ PMC free article: PMC2905688 ] [ PubMed: 20652069 ]

Stokes R, Schultz S. Personal fitness for you. Winston-Salem, NC: Hunter Textbooks; 2002.

Stokes R, Schultz SL. Get active! Get fit! Winston-Salem, NC: Hunter Textbooks; 2009.

Trost S. Active education: Physical education, physical activity and academic performance. San Diego, CA: Active Living Research, San Diego State University; 2009.

Weston A. The making of American physical education. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1962.

White K, Kilding AE, Schofield G. Energy expenditure and enjoyment during Nintendo ® Wii active video games: How do they compare to other sedentary and physical activities. New Zealand: AUT University, Center for Physical Activity and Nutrition (CPAN); 2009.

Whitehurst GJ. Research on teacher preparation and professional development; A paper presented at the White House Conference on Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers; Washington, DC. Mar 5, 2002.

Williams CS. Personal fitness: Looking good/feeling good. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt; 2005.

Wood TD. The ninth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (part 1). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1913.

Wood TD, Cassidy RF. The new physical education: A program of naturalized activities for education toward citizenship. New York: Macmillan; 1930.

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Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

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Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as "a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence."

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Perceptual, Motor, & Physical Development

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Perceptual, Motor, & Physical Development

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Perceptual, motor, and physical development are foundations for children's learning in all domains. Development in these areas allow children to fully explore their environment and interact with people and objects. The domain includes four elements: perception; gross motor; fine motor; and health, safety, and nutrition.

Perception refers to how children use their senses to gather and understand information and respond to the world around them. Infants and toddlers use perception during interactions, for exploration, and to make sense of their experiences. Preschoolers rely on perceptual information to develop greater awareness of their bodies in space and to move effectively to perform tasks, such as kicking a ball to a friend.

Gross motor skills refer to moving the whole body and using larger muscles, such as those in the arms and legs. In infancy, gross motor skills include gaining control of the head, neck, and torso to achieve a sitting or standing position. They also include locomotor skills that emerge in the toddler years, such as walking, throwing, and stretching. Preschoolers gain even greater control over their bodies. This contributes to their increasing confidence and ability to engage in social play.

Fine motor skills refer to use of the small muscles found in individual body parts, especially those in the hands and feet. Children use their fine motor skills to grasp, hold, and manipulate small objects, such as cups, or to use tools, including scissors and paint brushes. As they gain hand-eye coordination, preschoolers learn to direct the movements of their fingers, hands, and wrists to perform more complex tasks, including drawing fine details or stringing small beads.

Health, safety, and nutrition is the fourth element of perceptual, motor, and physical development. Children's physical well-being depends on several factors, including their knowledge and use of safe, healthy behaviors and routines. Children's ability to keep themselves safe and healthy, such as communicating to adults when they are hungry or sick, is extremely important and contributes to learning and development in all areas.

To read more about this domain, visit the Interactive Head Start Learning Outcomes Framework.

The Perceptual, Motor, and Physical Development domain includes the following sub-domains:

Infants and Toddlers

Preschoolers

Effective Teaching Practices

The effective teaching practices that follow are grouped in three categories: Interactions, Environment, and Individualization. Examples of ways to support goals for children are provided by sub-domain. It is likely, however, that these practices will also support goals for children in additional domains and sub-domains. This is the nature of teaching and learning in the early years.

Home Visitors

Teaching practices in home visiting are the ways home visitors work with families to provide experiences that support their child's development and learning, engage in responsive interactions, and use the home as the learning environment. Home visitors:

Facilitate parent-child interactions

Engage parents in focusing on their child's development

Directly encourage parents to teach, talk, and interact with their child in responsive and warm ways

Use family activities, routines, and materials in the home for learning

Collaborate with parents to plan activities and experiences

Home visitors may consider using group care teaching practices in the "Know," "Do," and "Improve" sections during home visits and group socializations. They can engage with parents to identify, adapt, and use these practices, or when appropriate, model the practices.

Sub-Domains

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Perceptual, Motor, and Physical Development | ECLKC

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Perceptual, motor, and physical development are foundations for children's learning in all domains. Development in these areas allow children to fully explore their environment and interact with people and objects. The domain includes four elements: perception; gross motor; fine motor; and health, safety, and nutrition.

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Perceptual and Motor Development Domain - Child Development (CA Dept of Education)

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Understanding Perceptual Motor Skills | PGpedia

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Perceptual motor skills refer to a child’s developing ability to interact with his environment, learn more here!

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Children with such illnesses as Cerebral Palsy (CP) commonly have, among many accompanying disorders, a visual processing or perceptual disorder. This refers to a hindered ability to make sense of…

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It's a self-perpetuating cycle: Kids with developmental disabilities face challenges in building motor skills, which makes them less able to participate in routine physical activity, which gives them less opportunity to practice those same motor skills.

But parents can make a big difference by modeling and supporting physical activity in daily life, especially with younger children, a recent study from Oregon State University found.

"When we see 12-year-olds playing soccer, we'll have some 12-year-olds with developmental disabilities, and their motor skills might look more like a 6-year-old," says researcher Megan MacDonald in OSU's College of Public Health and Human Sciences, who studies movement and physical activity in children. "If we can give them more opportunities to improve those motor skills, they'll have more opportunity to engage in those activities."

Gross motor skills like jumping and running, and object control skills like throwing and catching, are the building blocks upon which more complex physical activity can be learned as children grow, so the sooner kids work on being active, the better, Megan says.

The study, published last month in the Disability and Health Journal, surveyed 135 parents of children with developmental disabilities ages 5-7, and found that parents who reported spending more time on these physical activities observed better motor skills in their children.

Survey questions about "parental explicit modeling" asked parents how often they and their family engaged in physical activity, as well as how they used their own behavior to encourage activity. "Parental tangible support" included creating a supportive environment with actions like driving kids to and from recreational activities and watching their games or activities.

Both factors had a significant positive impact on increasing physical activity among children, which then positively impacted the development of the children's motor skills.

Intervening early sets children up to have more opportunity for physical activity in the future, and takes advantage of the fact that younger kids already spend more time watching and copying their parents, MacDonald said.

Parents of children with developmental disabilities have more to think about than parents whose children don't have disabilities, she said: They might want to prioritize working on social and communication skills, and it is possible physical activity is less of a priority.

"But we're trying to say, 'Hey, in physical activity, you can focus on other things too,'" such as teaching social skills or reciprocal communication during a game on the playground, Megan says. "So, taking your kid to the park, providing these opportunities, counts on many levels. It's fun and it's healthy."

"And how you act as a parent is something all kids pick up on, including children with developmental disabilities."

The primary author on the study was Byungmo Ku of the Division of Natural, Physical and Health Sciences at Vanguard University of Southern California. The other co-authors were Bridget Hatfield and Katherine Gunter of the College of Public Health and Human Sciences at OSU.

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Parents modeling physical activity help kids with developmental disabilities improve motor skills

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Parents can make a big difference by modeling and supporting physical activity in daily life, especially with younger children.

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WHAT ARE FINE MOTOR SKILLS?

Fine motor skills are connected to the small muscles of the body that enables writing, holding small objects and fastening clothes with zips and buttons.

Fine motor skills involve strength, control and dexterity mainly of the hands. It is also used in co-ordination with eyes, mouth hands and feet. Like wriggling your toes Sticking out your tongue and flexing your fingers.

Learning and living skills
A weakness in the small muscles of the hands, can seriously affect your child's ability to eat by themselves, write, use a computer, and turn pages in a book and perform personal grooming tasks, like brushing hair and teeth. So as you can see dexterity of the small muscles, are most important for school activities and everyday life in general.

Fine motor weakness
If your child's has motor weakness it may be affecting his school work, discuss this with his teacher, to determine if this may be the causing the problem. Your child may have to be evaluated by a physical therapist and/or an occupational therapist to determine if his motor skills or small muscle control,are of concern. Therapy can improve this weakness considerably.

Your child's school teacher will use the therapists' assessments to determine if your child needs regular therapy. The school will then also incorporate the therapy activities into his every day work, there by increasing the effectiveness of the therapy.

DEVELOPING FINE MOTOR SKILLS ACTIVITIES
Always encourage and motivate your child with plenty of positive feedback and praise for his efforts, especially when he has mastered a skill. We all need to improve our weaknesses to an acceptable standard, compensate where we have to, and enjoy our strengths and talents.
No one is good at everything. When you have a special needs child, it is important to find the right stimulating activities to help your child develop an area that he has potential in. Do not over stimulate your child or force them to do activities that they do not enjoy. This is counter productive and will demotivate you and your child.

Have fun, fun and then some more fun!!!
Learning and practising skills without even knowing it, is what it's all about.

The following are some activities for your child to develop fine motor skills. You can adapt them to his abilities and expand on them as your child gets older:

Drawing and colouring with crayons, markers, coloured pencils and chalk are good for promoting exercises of the small muscles in the hands.

Use bath time to exercise motor skills, by playing with bath crayon soap, shaving cream on the side of the bath, letting your child draw pictures in the foam.

Make a scratch pad, by colouring a piece of cardboard with different coloured wax crayons. Paint a layer of black paint onto. When it is dry, use a orange stick to scratch pictures onto the black and see the crayon colour come through.

Manipulating play dough, strengthens the hand muscles and teaches controlled movement.

Folding, tearing and scrunching paper, a good strengenthening exercise.

Cutting with scissors, use different thicknesses of paper, and start by cutting out simple shapes eventually moving to intricate patterns, like snow flakes.

Threading beads and lacing activities.

Playing with finger puppets.

Picking up small objects like beads with wooden pegs.

Jenga is a strategy game that uses fine motor skills focusing on the pincher grip which is used in writing.

Remote control cars, manipulating the remote controls not only develops hand and finger control, but helps with hand-eye co-ordination as well.

Recommended Toys:
Fine Motor Skills

Amazon.com Widgets

Return from Fine motor skills back to Home page
Return from Fine motor skills back to Therapies

Occupational therapy/Physical Therapy/Speech Therapy/Gross motor/Sensory Integration/Low muscle tone

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Fine motor skills activities for special needs children

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An article about how important it is to develop fine motor skills in children, some tips and techniques for activities to develop related skills, especially for special needs children...

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Special Education Resources - Improve Motor Skills

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Motor skills are a vital part of our lives and take many years to develop. However, with some imagination, fun activities can help speed up the process.

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Research and my clinical observations over the years have highlighted that many
autistic children often have difficulties with posture, coordination and motor planning.

Research consistently shows that autistic children can experience both gross and fine motor delays and/or atypical motor patterns (e.g. Green et al. 2002). A research study by Johnson-Ecker and Parham (2000) showed that autistic children achieved lower scores in praxis tests (the ability to conceptualise, plan and co-ordinate movements to carry out a motor task) than their typically developing peers.

Motor skill development depends on forming complex connections between different parts of the brain that link sensory information from the body with information from the environment, plus our innate motivation in order to plan and execute motor movements. There are many theories as to why these motor difficulties are so prevalent in the neurodivergent population, yet none are conclusive. Possible theories include:

Differences in brain wiring - this may affect ideas and intentions, sensory integration, motor.

Learning, prediction, body awareness, coordination and praxis.

Joint hypermobility/low muscle tone - this affects core stability, postural stability, muscle strength and overall stamina.

Anxiety - this can affect willingness to participate in challenging and novel tasks. It can lead to avoidance of activities and therefore a reduction in the development of motor skills.

Gross motor skills

Gross (large) motor movements involve balance, such as walking, running, riding a bike, throwing and catching. Activities to develop these skills include:

Trampolining: This is an excellent piece of equipment which helps students develop muscle tone, balance and motor planning skills. Trampolines also provide proprioceptive input (an awareness of the body's position and movement in space) which can be both regulating and calming.

Swimming: Not only does this promote coordination skills but it also offers calming proprioceptive input.

Playing on equipment: Give students plenty of opportunities to climb, run, slide and swing.

Playing Twister: This is a great game to help develop balance and body awareness.

Playing with different types of balls: Encourage students to play games with a variety of different balls. Larger balls will be the best ones to start with. Scarves are also a good starting point as these move through the air slowly.

Playing animal games: Pretend to be different animals for example, squatting like a duck, jumping like a frog, standing on tiptoes like a giraffe.

Fine motor skills

Fine motor skills involve manipulation, such as grasping, threading and buttoning used daily tasks such as dressing, using cutlery, general tool use and writing or typing. Efficient fine motor skills are underpinned by many skills including:

balance

eye motor control (this is the ability for our eyes to work together in order to follow and/or hold an object in the line of vision as needed)

hand-eye coordination

manual dexterity

hand and finger strength

body awareness (proprioception)

bilateral coordination − using two hands together with one hand leading (e.g. cutting with scissors while holding the piece of paper).

So, it's not surprising that we all may struggle with the acquisition of precise and accurate fine motor skills.

Activities to develop these skills include:

Picking small items (e.g. buttons, beads) out of play dough with the thumb and index finger. Race against peers!

Playing with dough -squeeze, flatten, cut and roll with scissors, cookie cutters or a garlic press.

Lacing cut up drinking straws or macaroni onto string, spaghetti, or pipe cleaners.

Screwing/unscrewing nuts and bolts, using construction kits.

Looping a rubber band around a pencil several times.

Playing travel-sized games, such as Connect 4.

Using chopsticks to eat popcorn, raisins, peas, etc.

Handwriting is a complex skill that uses both fine and gross motor difficulties, along with visual perceptual difficulties. If a student has difficulties with motor coordination, then very often handwriting is never going to be a true representation of their cognitive ability and will definitely not be a fun activity!

Core stability

Reduced core stability will impact on all motor skills including sitting posture, balance and stamina. Activities to improve core stability include:

yoga

Pilates

using a gym ball and outdoor gym equipment.

Try alternative seating such as wedge-shaped cushions and ensure student has feet rested on floor or block to aid stability. To assist fatigue, ensure seated sessions are alternated with brain breaks to maintain alertness levels.

Tips for everyday activities
Dressing:

Sew sleeve buttons on with elastic so the arm can be pushed through.

Use coloured stickers to match buttons with corresponding holes.

Use socks with coloured heels and toes.

Choose a coat with a contrasting lining to help differentiate inside and outside.

Add a key ring or tab to zips to help with pulling up.

Using cutlery:

Consider using shaped cutlery which guides the fingers into the correct position

Consider plates with a high edge or use a plate guard to keep food on the plate.

Place a sticker on the index fingernail and one on the cutlery where the finger should be placed as a visual guide.

Strategies to minimise sensory sensitivities also need to be considered - for example, alternative seating to aid balance or provide movement, or using spongy pen grips to make the pen 'feel' better.

Repetition is the key to developing motor skills, and interventions should be regular and short in length to maintain engagement in the activity. Although it may be challenging, given the right opportunities, patience and strategies everyone can improve their motor skills.

For more motor skill strategies along with sensory strategies and self-regulation tools please see my recent publication 'Sensory and Motor Strategies (3rd Edition)'.

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Research and my clinical observations over the years have highlighted that many autistic children often have difficulties with posture, coordination and motor planning. Research consistently shows that autistic children can experience both gross and fine motor delays and/or atypical motor patterns (e.g. Green et al. 2002).

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Developing Gross Motor Skills for Individuals with Disabilities. 

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Developing Gross Motor Skills for Individuals with Disabilities. 

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Developing Gross Motor Skills for Individuals with Disabilities - ALSO

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Developing Gross Motor Skills for Individuals with Disabilities We often think of gross motor skills as activities like jumping, catching a ball, or waving our arms. But did you know that these are also the skills that allow us to get in and out of

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Physical Activity for Children and Teens with Disabilities: AAP Policy Explained

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The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) encourages children and teens with disabilities to participate in sports, recreation, and physical activities. Getting your child involved can boost just about every aspect of their lives.

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4 Ways to Build Inclusive Sports and Recreation Programs for Children with Disabilities - Kids Included Together

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Ready to make disability inclusion a priority for sports and recreation programs for kids? Learn 4 key strategies and get the resources you need.

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Why physical activity is important for children with disability

Being physically active each day is good for all children, including children with disability. It's vital for children's health, wellbeing and development, now and in the future.

Physical activity:

strengthens children's bones, muscles, hearts and lungs

improves children's coordination, balance, posture and flexibility

helps children stay at a healthy weight

boosts children's immune systems

reduces children's risk of high blood pressure, anxiety, depression and type-2 diabetes.

Physical activity also boosts wellbeing. For example, active children are more likely to:

be confident, have healthy self-esteem and feel like they belong

be more independent

feel relaxed and sleep well

have better concentration and memory

get along with others and find it easier to make friends

share, take turns and cooperate.

Children with disability can do many sports and physical activities. Many sports have been modified so that children with disability can fully participate. Full and meaningful participation and inclusion in sport and all community activities is one of the rights of all children with disability.

Types of physical activity

Physical activity is any activity that involves moving your body. It includes everyday activities as well as organised sports and exercise.

Light physical activities don't noticeably change your child's breathing or heart rate. These include activities like standing, leisurely walking, leisurely wheeling a wheelchair, or playing a musical instrument.

Moderate activities make your child huff and puff a bit. These could include brisk walking, brisk wheelchair wheeling, dancing, weight training and swimming.

Vigorous activities increase your child's heart rate and make your child huff and puff a lot. Vigorous activities can happen in games or activities like cycling (including hand cycling), soccer, wheelchair sports and some forms of dance.

Activities that strengthen muscles and bones make your child's muscles work harder than usual and put extra force on bones. Strengthening activities include climbing, weight training and bodyweight exercises like lunges, squats, sit-to-stand exercises and seated push-ups using chair arms.

Moderate and vigorous physical activities are often also strengthening activities because they help to build muscles and bones.

It's good to find out what types of physical activity are safe and healthy for your child. You can start by talking to your child's paediatrician, physiotherapist or other health professional. They might also recommend certain sports or exercises to suit your child's abilities.

How much physical activity do children with disability need?

Your child with disability needs the same amount of physical activity as typically developing children.

Australian guidelines say that children need certain amounts of physical activity depending on their age:

At 1-3 years, children should be physically active for at least 3 hours each day. This includes energetic play.

At 3-5 years, children should be physically active for at least 3 hours each day. This includes one hour of energetic play.

At 5-18 years, children should do at least one hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity plus several hours of light physical activity each day. And at least 3 days a week, this should include activities that strengthen muscles and bones.

Encouraging children with disability to be active

Enjoyment, interest and variety are key to encouraging your child with disability to be active.

Your child is more likely to feel motivated and get involved when they enjoy and are interested in what they're doing. And if your child tries out a variety of activities, they can also discover new interests, develop more skills and get enough physical activity into their day.

Here are some ideas:

Involve your child in physical games and active play from when they're young. For example, you might give your baby tummy time or a toy or rattle to hold.

Ask your child whether they've seen any sports on TV or around the community that they're interested in and would like to try.

Regularly play together and take notice of which games and activities interest or excite your child. For example, if your child loves water play, they might enjoy swimming.

Give your child a good mix of play, sports, games and activities. For example, you could try playing with balls, racing on a chalk racetrack or mirroring movements.

Be active yourself - your child will probably want to follow your lead.

You can work with your child's disability professionals to encourage your child to be active. These professionals might have ideas about physical activities that you hadn't thought of, or they might be able to suggest ways to modify sports and activities for your child.

Finding or creating accessible physical activities for children with disability

Once you know about the physical activities that interest your child, you can look for ways for your child to do these activities in your community.

Sometimes schools, local sports clubs, fitness centres or community groups might already offer accessible or modified options for children with disability. And sometimes you might need to work with these organisations on modifying activities to make them accessible for your child.

Your first step is to make a list of centres or services that organise physical activities that interest your child. Then you can contact and/or visit these services to talk with staff or volunteers about what's needed for your child to participate.

Here are some things to consider:

What modifications or supports are needed? For example, does your child need extra or modified equipment, one-on-one supervision or assistance, rule changes and so on?

Can the centre or service accommodate these modifications or supports? For example, it might be quick and easy to change rules, move equipment or adapt spaces, but new equipment, structural changes or staff training might need extra funding or planning.

Can these modifications or supports be covered under your child's NDIS plan?

It can help to have your child's disability professional with you when visiting or talking to the centre or service. The professional can identify the modifications and supports that are needed to make the activity safe and appropriate for your child, and they can work with the centre or service on these modifications.

You might need to advocate for your child with disability to ensure they're able to participate meaningfully at school and in the community. You can ask a family member, friend, or volunteer or professional advocate to help you advocate for your child.

Disability-specific sports and physical activities

If your child is interested in doing physical activities with other children with disability, you could look at disability-specific sports and activities.

Here are some examples:

Wheelchair sports - these include basketball, rugby, tennis, table tennis, hockey, lawn bowls and more.

Adaptive bike riding - this might involve hand bikes, arm pedal exercisers or special bikes for frame running.

Swimming programs or other water activities specifically for children with disability - swimming and water sports can be good for children with physical disability who need full body support or who want to work on building muscle strength in a non-weight bearing way.

Blind and vision impaired sports - these include archery, judo, rowing, running, soccer and more.

Deaf sports - these include athletics, swimming, table tennis, ten pin bowling and more.

Horseback riding - some programs are available for children with disability as a therapy to improve balance, posture, muscle tone and coordination.

It's good to have your child's disability professionals regularly assess how your child is going with their physical activity or sport. They can check whether your child is enjoying the activity, fully participating and being included. If your child needs more changes or adaptations, your professionals might be able to help you negotiate this with the service or centre.

Physical activity resources for children with disability

The following organisations and resources help people with disability to be physically active and get involved in sport.

Blind Sports Australia
This organisation helps people with vision impairment to participate in sports. This includes participating in community sports and in national and international competitions.

Cerebral Palsy Alliance - Sports programs
This organisation partners with community sporting bodies to support people to play in local teams and competitions. It can also help people get involved in disability-specific sports.

Deaf Sports Australia
This organisation helps people who are deaf or have hearing loss to participate in inclusive sports.

Disability Sports Australia
This national body aims to help more people with disability be active. It provides funding, resources, training and accreditation to individuals and groups.

Discover Sailing - Sailability
This program provides adapted sail equipment, accessible docking options, inclusive and knowledgeable instructors, and affordable participation options.

Paralympics Australia
This organisation encourages participation in sport at all levels and helps people get involved in para-sports.

parkrun Australia
This organisation runs free community events worldwide. The running events include people of all abilities. Participants can walk, jog, run, use wheelchairs, volunteer or spectate.

RaceRunning Australia
This organisation promotes and coordinates the disability sport of frame running in Australia.

Reclink Australia
This organisation provides sport and art programs to disadvantaged people in Australia, including children with disability.

Special Olympics Australia
This organisation runs sports training and competitions for people with intellectual disability. It also runs a program called Young Athletes for children aged 2-8 years. This program introduces basic sport skills like running, throwing and kicking.

Sports Australia - Sports ability
This program provides 'inclusive activity cards' for many physical activities. Each card explains how to modify the activity so that children of all abilities can participate.

Looking for play and learning ideas for your child? You might like to explore our activity guides for children with disability.

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Physical activity for children and teenagers with disability

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Being physically active each day is good for all children, including children with disability. It's vital for children's health, wellbeing and development, now and in the future. Physical activity: strengthens children's bones, muscles, hearts and lungs improves children's coordination, balance, posture and flexibility helps children stay at a healthy weight boosts children's immune systems reduces children's risk of high blood pressure, anxiety, depression and type-2 diabetes.

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Adapted Physical Education: Inclusion Strategies for Students with Disabilities

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Here are helpful adapted PE teacher resources and inclusion strategies to ensure all of your students have access to physical education.

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How to Support Children with Disabilities to be Active

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Physical activity is important for all as it helps prevent and manage any major illnesses. Learn about activities for disabled children here.

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Promoting the Participation of Children With Disabilities in Sports, Recreation, and Physical Activities

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Promoting the Participation of Children With Disabilities in Sports, Recreation, and Physical Activities

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Typical and Atypical Motor Development - AbilityPath

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Most children develop skills in similar patterns and at similar times. But attaining milestones varies, based on each child’s family and personal history and environment.

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National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD)

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Early Identification: Normal and Atypical Development

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Children's development usually follows a known and predictable course. The acquisition of certain skills and abilities is often used to gauge children's development. These skills and abilities are known as developmental milestones. Some children exhibit behaviors that fall outside of the normal, or expected, range of development.

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Typical and Atypical Behaviors in Children

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Typical and Atypical Behaviors in Children

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Adapted physical education is physical education that has been modified so it is appropriate for students with disabilities. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004), all students with an Individualized Education Program (IE

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Schoolyard Blog | Teacher Resources | School Specialty

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Physical Education *

If you are a physical educator, you no doubt have had students with disabilities in your class. In many instances, you may be not be aware of which students have a disability because the disability doesn't affect their participation in your class. Other times you are well aware of those students and are looking for better ways to keep them challenged, and they end up having a successful and fun experience in your class. "Inclusive PE" is the term used for a General Education (Gen Ed) physical education class in which ALL students are included. This includes any student with a disability who may or may not also be receiving Adapted Physical Education (APE) by a special APE teacher. (APE is provided to students with disabilities as part of the special education services they receive.) Inclusive PE is part of the Gen Ed services and involves placing students alongside their peers with support and proper accommodations to help make everyone successful.

Inclusive PE incorporates everyone who can safely be included in a general PE class. Most students with disabilities (92% at elementary and 88% at secondary level) are mainstreamed into general PE classes. The greatest percentage of students with disabilities falls under the group "specific learning disabilities" (~45%) followed by "speech and language disorders" (~19%). The rest of the students with disabilities fall into the categories of "Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)," which can include emotional disturbance, hearing impairment (including deafness), intellectual disability, orthopedic impairments, other health impairments, traumatic brain injury, visual impairments (including blindness) and multiple disabilities.

Inclusive PE has benefits for all students. Students with disabilities gain valuable social skills when working and playing in the Gen Ed environment. All students learn appropriate behavior from a variety of their peers whether they are disabled or not. Students with disabilities have more opportunities to participate in age-appropriate physical activities in an inclusive PE environment compared to APE. Students develop relationships with their Gen Ed peers. Oftentimes, higher expectations lead children with disabilities to achieve more, gain confidence, and develop a stronger sense of self. On the other hand, the Gen Ed students also gain many advantages from inclusion. First, as they are exposed to children with disabilities, they tend to become more understanding of and develop more positive attitudes toward others with differences. They are less likely to see disability as an impairment and more likely to see it simply as a difference and accept them more readily. It has also been shown that when students are given the chance to be an "expert" in an area and become peer tutors, it helps them and increases their abilities in that area. In addition, when teachers create opportunities for students to learn in a variety of ways, it helps not just those with disabilities, but all students. There is no evidence at all that Gen Ed students lose academic or social skills as a result of inclusion. All evidence points to a win-win situation for all students.

As a PE teacher your goal is to help your students reach their full potential. An inclusive environment will help them get there. Be emphasizing respect, acceptance and cooperation as core values in class, you will create an environment that recognizes the value of differences and helps everyone focus on what they can do. The following strategies will help you build a more inclusive environment:

Talk to your class about inclusion

Have a conversation about expectations and etiquette. Students will have questions and concerns, so give everyone an opportunity for discussion. Help them to understand that all people have needs and rights and that everyone is different.

Use "People First" language

By putting the individual first and the disability second you are helping to create mutual respect. (E.g. "My student with autism" as opposed to "An autistic student.")

Get to know your students

Find out about their abilities, strengths and challenges, rather than making assumptions based on their disability. Find out about their learning needs and which specific strategies work for them.

Consult with specialists

Specialists such as PTs, OTs, APE teachers, speech and language therapists, and others with more experience or education regarding working with students with disabilities can be a very effective resource.

Engage your students when adapting activities

Help them see that there are many ways to adapt to help them be successful. Guide them so that eventually they will know best how to adapt for themselves.

Adapting rules and instructions

If students are having difficulty following rules, simplify so there are fewer rules to remember. Make instructions clear and add resources where needed (e.g. white board, demonstrations, minimize background noise, etc.)

Modify activities

Sometimes students will need modifications and sometimes they won't. It will depend on the student and the activity/skill/game being taught. Don't assume that if a student has a disability they will always need things to be modified. The following are some general ideas for adapting activities:

Let partners/peers assist

Eliminate time limits

Allow balls to be stationary

Modify the purpose of the activity

Use models to show the activity

Reduce number of players per team

Slow the pace of the activity

Provide rest periods as needed

Define boundaries clearly

Modify the activity area

Use a variety of sizes, weights, densities of toss/catchables

Make lower/larger goals

Use lighter equipment

Provide balance support

If you are looking for ways to adapt your teaching to better suit students with varying disabilities, Sportime carries an Inclusive PE Equipment Pack that can help your students with disabilities reach their potential in PE.

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How to Make Your Physical Education Class More Inclusive

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If you are a physical educator, you no doubt have had students with disabilities in your class. In many instances, you may be not be aware of which students have a disability because the disability doesn't affect their participation in your class. Other times you are well aware of those students and are looking [...]

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Description

Ages: 3-0 through 10-11
Testing Time: 15 to 20 minutes per subtest
Administration: Individual

The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) is a norm-referenced test used to identify children with gross motor deficits.

New Features in the Third Edition

All-new normative data were collected from 2014 to 2017.

Characteristics of the normative sample (N = 862) relative to socioeconomic factors, gender, disability, and other critical demographics are the same as those projected by the 2017 U.S. Census and are representative of the current U.S. population.

The normative information is stratified by age relative to geography, gender, race, ethnicity, household income, and parent education level.

Items were added to each subtest to eliminate possible ceiling effects.

New and extensive studies of test bias (both differential item functioning and subgroup comparison studies) were conducted, indicating that the TGMD-3 possesses little or no bias in regard to gender, race, or ethnicity.

New and extensive studies of the floors, ceilings, and item gradients for the TGMD-3's subtests and composite were conducted. The results indicate that the TGMD-3 has substantial and consistently good-to-excellent floors and ceilings.

All-new reliability and validity studies were prepared, including diagnostic accuracy analyses, which are considered the most rigorous techniques for establishing validity today. These analyses involve the computation of sensitivity and specificity indexes and the receiver operating characteristic/area under curve (ROC/AUC) statistic.

Additional studies of construct-identification validity, including studies of age differences, subgroup performance, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis of the test's structure, were provided. The results of these studies indicate that the TGMD-3's internal structure is sound and its results are valid.

Description of the Test

The TGMD-3 has two subtests. The first subtest, Locomotor, measures the gross motor skills that require fluid, coordinated movements of the body as the child moves in one direction or another. The second subtest, Ball Skills, measures the gross motor skills that demonstrate efficient throwing, striking, and catching movements. The TGMD-3 provides an overall composite (Gross Motor). The two subtest scaled scores are combined to form the Gross Motor composite. The Examiner's Manual discusses the test's theoretical and research-based foundation, item development, standardization, administration and scoring procedures, normative tables, and guidelines for using and interpreting the test's results.

The average coefficient alpha is .88 for the Locomotor subtest and .89 for the Ball Skills subtest, and is .93 for the composite. New validity studies demonstrate the test's ability to differentiate children with cognitive impairments and autism spectrum disorder from typically developing children. For the cognitive impairment sample, a Gross Motor Index cutoff score of 90 resulted in a sensitivity of .71, a specificity of .91, and a receiver operating characteristic/area under the curve of .87. For the autism spectrum disorder sample, a Gross Motor Index cutoff score of 85 resulted in a sensitivity of .76, a specificity of .91, and a receiver operating characteristic/area under the curve of .86.

COMPLETE TGMD-3 KIT INCLUDES: Examiner's Manual and 25 Examiner Record Forms in a sturdy storage box. (©2019)

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TGMD3 Test of Gross Motor DevelopmentThird Edition

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TGMD-3: Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition Ages: 3-0 through 10-11 Testing Time: 15 to 20 minutes per subtest Administration: Individual The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) is a norm-referenced test used to identify children with gross motor deficits.

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Discussion and information about the Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT), health-related tests of physical fitness for use with youngsters with disabilities

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Technology Tips From the Field Robert Waugh Elementary Health and Physical Education Teacher and Unified Sports Head Bocce Coach Pleasant Valley Elementary School, Knoxville, Maryland, and Williamsport Elementary School, Williamsport, Maryland What types of disabilities do your students have, and do you teach these students in an inclusive PE class? I have had students with many different special needs including, Down syndrome, autism, spina bifida, and many more. All of the students I have taught have been in an inclusive PE setting and not in an isolated APE class. What type(s) of digital technology do you use with students who have special needs? First, the most obvious use of technology in my classroom would be the music that I play during activities. We use it as a cue for when to start and when to stop activities. I also use a projector and screen in order to enlarge anything of importance that I would like to go over during class. The other main way I use technology for students with special needs is with the use of an Apple iPad and various iPad apps. I use various fitness and yoga apps that the students use when at fitness stations. The apps I have used the most have been Daily Cardio, Daily Legs, and Daily Yoga, but there are quite a few apps that can be used with students in the PE classroom. Most of my students have and use iPads or tablets at home and they feel very comfortable with them. The fitness apps will be playing when the students arrive at a station, and they will perform the exercise that is playing on the iPad. I’ve also projected apps such as Temple Run and Subway Surfer on the big screen and had my students act out the game as it is played. My students who enjoy a lot of stimulation tend to like these activities. One student will play the game, and if the player in the game is running, we run in our spots. If they jump, we jump; if they duck, we duck; and so forth. Finally, I have had students use the video recorder function on the iPad for activities. For example, as a class we created an exercise video. One student with special needs was uncomfortable being on camera performing our exercises, so that student was our camera operator. We also have used the iPad video camera for self-assessment. When learning to throw a Frisbee, I had the students get into groups of three. One student threw the Frisbee, one student retrieved it, and one video-recorded the throwing motion so that we could see what cues we were missing after the throw. This helped tremendously with some of my students. What is your main goal for using this technology? I want my students to be engaged and enjoy the technology, as well as use it to be successful during various units throughout the school year. What do you like about this technology? The technology was easy to use, most students are comfortable with it, and most students really enjoy incorporating it into the PE classroom. I thought the technology worked great for our uses and doesn’t need any improvements. What suggestions do you have for others in using this technology? Don’t be afraid of it. Many of us, especially those who have been teaching for many years, can get set in our ways. However, technology can be a great tool when working with students with special needs. Many of our kids are more fluent in the technology than we teachers are, so many times we just need to get them started and get out of their way. Incorporating technology into PE and using it with all students is much easier and much more beneficial than many teachers would think. Students in an adapted PE class follow along with exercises displayed via an iPad app; used as 45 to 60 second stations during warm-up or a fitness unit. Courtesy of Robert Waugh.

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Shop Gopher Sport to keep all students active! From foam covered scooters and textured hand balls to oversized activity balls, find the adapted pe equipment your program needs today!

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Assistive Technology Kit for Physical Education

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"Assistive Technology is any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability (Anderson, n.d.)."

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Integrating the Nintendo WII in Adaptive Physical Education

PE Central

https://www.pecentral.org › indivBPDisplay

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Adapted Physical Education in the Transition Process

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References Davidson, R. (2006). Accessing the general physical education curriculum for students with sensory deficits. New York: Nova Science. DiRocco, P., Felix, M., & Krueger, D. (2000). Obstacles adapted physical education specialists encounter when developing transtion