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HCBUs are still producing Black talented scholars who go on to complete professional degrees at high rates. The Civil Rights Movement helped re-access the role of HBCUs in Black development and created an increased awareness of how HBCUs play an important role in higher education. Despite the achievements and importance HBCUs have played in higher education, funding for the majority of the universities is still an issue, and they have to get creative to keep their campus open.

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In 2025, Hispanics are expected to constitute approximately one-fourth of all students at each educational level (White House Initiative, 2001.), even though they are ranked among the least educated of the American population. Many universities, especially in California, have the HSI designation but are struggling to retain their Hispanic students.

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AAPIs, HBCUs, HSIs, and TCUs each had special legislation designed to create federal designations for communities under this category. However, these designations do not protect these communities from dealing with the lack of political infrastructure for advocating the educational issues these communities have related to education

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For example, the AAPI community struggled to receive funding and an AAPI designation because AAPI students are high achievers and, as such, do not need much help, which is far from the truth. Yes, AAPI students do tend to score higher marks, but that percentage is also a particular sub-group of AAPI students and not all. Many AAPI students’ academic preparedness and access to educational resources were inaccessible due to living in lower socioeconomic environments.

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I wasn’t surprised that the early colonists only helped create TCUs because they felt that the “natives” needed their help to become more “civilized” when there was nothing wrong with American Indians. The early history of both HCBUs and TCUs is based on the colonization of their culture. Both African-descent individuals and early Native Americans already had education, but the Church villainized their culture, language, and educational standards and tried to erase their identity.

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The article underscores that HBCUs remain crucial in advancing Black education and social mobility. Despite financial and systemic challenges, they continue to serve as spaces for empowerment, leadership development, and cultural preservation.

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MSIs are crucial for fostering diversity in higher education and promoting social mobility among marginalized groups. Despite historical and ongoing challenges, MSIs continue to serve as beacons of educational opportunity and empowerment for minority students in the U.S.

"MSIs... represent the voices and concerns of minority communities to take control and manage their own education." (p. 127)

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The book traces the formation of HSIs as a federally recognized category in higher education. It highlights the struggle for equitable funding and policy recognition, citing testimonies from Latino leaders. A key moment was the 1986 HEA amendment, which defined the enrollment threshold for HSIs and secured congressional support. “HSIs must move beyond being ‘enrolling institutions’ and become truly ‘serving institutions’ that leverage Latin@ assets.” (p. 92) How has this changed over the last decade? Has there been enough change?

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"...that’s sort of like equity... You don’t create something new that others don’t have because what you want to sell is that this is no different than anything else and it is simply an extension of a privilege that is given to other minority groups.” (p. 110) While the designation was a step forward in ensuring federal recognition, sustaining funding and advocacy remains a challenge. The authors suggest that long-term success depends on continued political engagement, institutional accountability, and increased community infrastructure for education advocacy.

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TCUs represent a powerful movement for Indigenous education, providing culturally relevant and community-driven learning opportunities. They are vital in addressing historical inequities, fostering Native self-determination, and ensuring long-term prosperity for AI/AN communities through education. The article strongly advocates for continued support and recognition of TCUs to enhance their impact on Native students and communities.

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Themes:

The historical significance of HBCUs in American education.

The role of HBCUs in promoting Black excellence and leadership.

Current challenges and contributions of HBCUs in society.

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The article provides a historical overview of Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs), explaining how they emerged due to the systemic exclusion of minority communities from higher education. The authors examine four major types of MSIs:

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Key Themes:

Legislative History: Valdez explores key pieces of legislation, particularly focusing on the early efforts to create a designation for institutions that primarily serve Hispanic students. This includes the pivotal role of the 1986 and 1992 reauthorizations of the Higher Education Act.

Policy Formation: The article details how policy was formed to specifically address the underrepresentation and educational disparities faced by Latino students, as well as the struggle to get these issues addressed in federal education policy.

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Key Themes:

Model Minority Myth: The article examines how the "model minority" stereotype affects Asian American students, often leading to assumptions about their academic success and personal challenges, which overlook the diversity of experiences within this group.

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Key Themes:

Cultural Preservation: TCUs play a key role in preserving Native American languages, cultures, and traditions while offering modern academic programs.

Educational Development: They aim to provide educational opportunities that meet the needs of indigenous communities while fostering academic achievement and innovation.

Challenges: TCUs face the challenge of balancing cultural relevance with the need to meet state and federal educational standards. They also struggle with limited funding and resources compared to mainstream institutions.

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-        57% of African American males who receive doctorates in science or engineering completed their pre-doctoral training at HBCUs

o   Given this and that 15% of doctorates for black students are earned at HBCUs, I wonder what the gap is. Do many HBCUs not offer doc programs? Are talented students encouraged to go elsewhere to a doctorate from a “name brand” school by advisors?

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-        However, without White philanthropic support they remained vulnerable to economic instability.

o   Now has shifted to Fed funding, but what after fed funding is cut?

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-        we helped write testimony for them, and got them in. It was easy to do in those days because the place was run by Democrats. Now, it changed in 1980, of course, when Ronald Reagan’s people came in. But even then, part of the thing about DC is that there are parts of it that just move on, whoever’s in  charge. You know, the establishment, the organizations. . .

o   I hope this quote doesn’t age poorly…

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-        My feeling at the time was you don’t introduce something new when you’re trying to sell something on the Hill; that’s sort of like equity. . . . You don’t create something new that others don’t have because what you want to sell is that this is no different than anything else and it is simply an extension of a privilege that is given to other minority groups.

o   Definitely an interesting way to navigate legislation and still meet the needs of the community. Though it is unfortunate that something new and tailored couldn’t be achieved.

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-        The committee agreed that a narrow definition of curriculum encompassing syllabi, materials, and instructional methods is insufficient.

o   Another interesting way to create agency in education but maintaining standards. The phases of this credential program still lay out the educational goals that each student must achieve, but allows for flexibility that keeps things relevant to the individual and the way they want to impact their community.

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Allen, W. R., Jewell, J. O., Griffin, K.A., & Wolf, D. (2007)

Key Takeaways

1. I understand that HBCUs have been central to the Black struggle for equality, providing education despite systemic barriers.

2. It’s important to note that HBCUs are far more than just educational institutions. HBCUs preserve Black culture, develop leadership, and reflect historical and social realities.

3. Brown v. Board of Education struck down legal segregation in schools, but segregation persisted due to systemic racial and socioeconomic disparities. While it opened doors to higher education for Black students, it also led to increased challenges in urban schooling.

4. HBCUs have historically produced a significant portion of Black degree holders, especially at the doctoral level. These institutions play a crucial role in fostering Black professionals and leaders across multiple fields, ensuring representation in higher ed.

5. HBCUs, at first, received little to no federal funding and relied on local and community efforts to fund and staff their own schools.

6. As more Black students gained access to PWIs because of Brown v. Board, HBCUs faced shifts in enrollment and funding challenges.

7. HBCUs have been more successful than PWIs in retaining and graduating Black students, providing nurturing environments, role models, and academic support.

Golden Lines/Quotes

1. “In addition to being diverse in terms of educational background and social class, early HBCU campuses were surprisingly ethnically diverse as well. HBCUs were the first southern institutions to open their doors to everyone; they did not discriminate and accepted students from any gender, race, creed or color (Redd, 1998),” (Allen et al., 2007, p. 268).

1. Means: This quote demonstrates that even from their inception, HBCUs have been inclusive of everyone.

2. Matters: This is important for two reasons:

1. It dispels the myth that HBCUs are only for Black students

2. It demonstrates that HBCUs and MSIs are beneficial for everyone

2. “Historically Black colleges and universities exist at the intersection where the ‘American Dream’ of unbridled possibilities meets the ‘American Nightmare’ of persistent racial-ethnic subordination.” (Allen et al., 2007, p. 275)

1. Means: This quote highlights the duality that HBCUs embody. On one hand, they represent the promise of upward mobility and educational access (the American Dream), but on the other, they exist due to systemic racial barriers that have historically excluded Black individuals from mainstream institutions (the American Nightmare).

2. Matters: This is important for two reasons:

1. It underscores the necessity of HBCUs as institutions that provide opportunities for marginalized communities who were historically denied access to higher education.

2. It demonstrates that racial inequality persists despite the nation's ideals of equal opportunity, making HBCUs a crucial space for empowerment and resistance.

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Gasman, M., Nguyen, T., & Conrad, C. F. (2015).

Key Takeaways

1. I know that MSIs emerged due to systemic exclusion. Historically marginalized groups were denied access to higher education, leading to the creation of HBCUs, Tribal Colleges, HSIs, and AANAPISIs to provide opportunities for academic advancement and cultural preservation. These institutions do more than provide degrees since they foster identity, leadership, and activism, ensuring that minority communities have educational environments that affirm their experiences and histories.

2. While early policies reinforced segregation and assimilation, later legislation such as the Morrill Act (1890), Civil Rights Act (1964), and Higher Education Act (1965) helped fund and formally recognize MSIs, though disparities in support persisted. Interestingly enough, while the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 provided resources to found HBCUs, they did so doing land grants. This means that they still used systemically oppressive methods toward one group (Indigenous Americans) to knock down systemic boundaries for another (African Americans).

3. MSIs have historically received less federal and philanthropic support than predominantly PWIs, limiting their resources, infrastructure, and ability to expand programs.

4. As the U.S. becomes more diverse, these institutions play a crucial role in closing educational gaps, especially with supporting first-generation and low-income students.

Golden Lines/Quotes

1. “The UNCF began solely as a fund raising organization but eventually took on advocacy and educational roles (Gasman, 2007). The organization also served as an example for other racial and ethnic minorities wanting to establish organizations to support their students and causes (e.g., Thurgood Marshall College Fund, American Indian College Fund, Hispanic Scholarship Fund, and the Asian & Pacific Islander American College Fund.),” (Gasman et al., 2015, p. 126).

1. Means: This quote explains that the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) started as a financial resource for Black students and HBCUs but expanded into a broader advocacy and educational organization. It also became a model for other minority scholarship and support programs, influencing funds for Hispanic, Native American, and Asian Pacific Islander students.

2. Matters: This matters because it shows that through the necessity of self-advocacy for minority communities, it’s also given them the ability to have agency over educational organization and funding, rather than relying on the state.

2. “The history of Native American higher education can be described as ‘compulsory Western methods of learning, recurring attempts to eradicate tribal culture, and high dropout rates’ (American Indian Higher Education Consortium, 1999, p. 7),” (Gasman et al., 2015, p.121).

1. Means: his quote highlights the historical struggles Native American students have faced in higher education. Institutions imposed Western educational models while actively working to suppress Indigenous languages, traditions, and cultural practices.

2. Matters: This quote is important for my work and research because it provides an excellent example of a settler-colonial state using its educational system as a tool of settler-colonialism.

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Valdez, P. L. (2015)

Key Takeaways

1. HSIs were formally recognized in 1992, but their foundation was laid in the 1970s and 1980s by Latino education advocates. The Hispanic Higher Education Coalition (HHEC) played a crucial role in lobbying congress to increase funding

2. Early efforts focused on expanding Title III of the Higher Education Act to provide financial support to underfunded institutions serving Hispanic students. This was met with resistance since Title III funding was originally intended for HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions.

3. The first official definition of an HSI was established in 1986, requiring institutions to have at least 20% Hispanic enrollment to receive federal support. By 1992, this was raised to 25%

4. HSIs have historically received less federal funding per student compared to other MSIs, such as HBCUs and Tribal Colleges. Many HSIs also struggle with limited resources, lower endowments, and a high proportion of first-generation, low-income students.

5. HSIs are essential in closing education and economic opportunity gaps for Hispanic students.

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Park, J. J., & Chang, M. J. (2010)

Key Takeaways

1. I understand that the effort to federally recognize AAPISIs took over five years. The College Cost Reduction and Access Act (CCRAA) of 2007 finally granted the designation.

2. A major barrier to establishing AAPISIs was the misconception that all Asian Americans succeed in higher education. This stereotype led policymakers to overlook disparities, particularly among Southeast Asian and Pacific Islander students.

3. The federal designation allows institutions serving AAPI students to access targeted grants, improving student support services, academic programs, and financial aid opportunities. However, early funding was limited compared to other MSIs.

4. The push for AAPISIs faced resistance from legislators and hesitancy from other MSI advocates, who feared it might reduce funding for existing HBCUs, HSIs, and TCUs.

5. The official designation helped establish AAPIs as a minority group in need of federal support, setting a precedent for future policy advocacy, funding expansion, and improved educational access. More than just a policy shift, this was a key ideological shift

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Pavel, D. M., Inglebret, E. & Banks, S. R. (2001).

Key Takeaways

1. Historically, American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN) were excluded from mainstream higher education. TCUs emerged in 1968 with Diné College, allowing Native communities to reclaim control over their education.

2. TCUs integrate Indigenous knowledge, languages, and traditions into their curricula. They emphasize community-based learning, ensuring that education aligns with tribal values and self-determination. This counteracts the individualistic approach stemming from enlightenment era learning.

3. These institutions help address economic, political, and social disparities by providing education that strengthens Native leadership annd fosters tribal sovereignty in policy-making.

4. TCUs are underfunded, receiving less federal and philanthropic support than other MSIs. They face hurdles in faculty retention, accreditation, and development.

5. Probably most importantly, TCUs support Indigenous resilience and healing from historical trauma. They provide language preservation programs, culturally responsive teacher training, and strengthen Native identity.

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Quote: "Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have been at the center of the Black struggle for equality and dignity."

**Meaning**: This highlights HBCUs' crucial role in fighting racial inequality and empowering African Americans through education, both historically and today.

**Why It Matters**: Understanding HBCUs' significance is key to addressing racial disparities in education and supporting institutions that empower Black students, contributing to a fairer society.

**Visual Representation**: A three-panel image: one showing early HBCUs educating freed slaves, the second with a diverse campus of modern students, and the third showing graduates reaching for future opportunities, connected by a winding road symbolizing progress, with strands for race, class, and gender.

**What I’m Learning**: HBCUs have always played a vital role in shaping Black students' experiences and continue to face challenges in addressing racial and social issues while evolving for a more inclusive future.

**Questions**: How are HBCUs adjusting their programs to meet the needs of a growing, diverse student population while staying true to their roots in empowering Black students?

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Quote: "It is through the historical legacy of MSIs that we showcase how these institutions came to represent the voices and concerns of minority communities to take control and manage their own education."

**Meaning**: This quote highlights how Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs) have empowered marginalized communities by offering a platform for self-determination and cultural expression in education.

**Why It Matters**: Understanding MSIs’ history helps shape modern education policy, addressing equity gaps and promoting inclusive practices for diverse students, especially those from marginalized backgrounds.

**Visual**: A tree with roots representing oppression, the trunk symbolizing struggles and resilience, branches for each type of MSI (HBCUs, HSIs, TCUs, AANAPISIs) with unique fruit, and leaves representing empowered students. The tree grows toward the sun, symbolizing a more equitable future in education.

What I’m Learning**: MSIs have overcome barriers to provide educational pathways for marginalized groups while maintaining cultural identities, and their legacy is essential for creating a more inclusive higher education system.

**Questions**: What teaching strategies have been most effective at MSIs, and how can they be adapted to meet the needs of today’s diverse students?

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Quote: "So that generations later will know who the pathfinders were when there was no course charted, when there was no road to be followed."

**Meaning**: This quote emphasizes the importance of remembering and recognizing the early advocates who paved the way for Hispanic higher education, even when there was no clear path forward.

**Why It Matters**: Preserving this history helps inform current policies and inspires future leaders. Recognizing these pioneers ensures their struggles and achievements are not forgotten, contributing to better opportunities for Hispanic students.

**Visual**: A winding road leading to a university, with milestones for key legislative moments and increasing figures walking alongside it. The road starts dark, representing early struggles, and becomes brighter as it nears the university, symbolizing increased opportunity, with the quote inscribed at the start.

**What I’m Learning**: The HSI legislation was the result of years of hard work by early advocates, and their efforts to influence policy laid the foundation for greater access and equity for Hispanic students in higher education.

Questions**: How can current HSI leaders use the lessons from early advocacy to address today's challenges and ensure the continued success of Hispanic students in a changing higher education system?

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Quote: "Symbolically it would just be more of a recognition of our history, our history as API people and the struggles, disavowing the whole model minority myth."

**Meaning**: This quote emphasizes the importance of recognizing the history and struggles of the AAPI community and challenging the harmful "model minority" stereotype that overlooks the real educational challenges many AAPI students face.

**Why It Matters**: Understanding these issues helps dismantle stereotypes and ensures that AAPI students receive the resources and support they need, promoting fairness in education.

**Visual**: A seesaw with "Model Minority Myth" on one side weighing it down, and "AAPI Needs" and "Advocacy Efforts" trying to lift the other side. The fulcrum is the AAPI serving institution designation, acting as a lever to balance the situation.

**What I’m Learning**: Building strong advocacy and policy infrastructure is crucial to address the unique needs of AAPI students and challenge harmful stereotypes that hinder their access to opportunities.

**Questions**: What strategies were most successful in convincing lawmakers of the need for AAPI-serving institutions, and how can these strategies be used for other underserved student populations?

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Quote: "TCUs are promoting a new mindset that is leading to renewed economic, social, political, cultural, and spiritual vitality through education."

**Meaning**: TCUs are more than schools—they’re transforming Native communities by providing education that blends cultural values and holistic well-being, helping these communities thrive.

**Why It Matters**: This shows how TCUs help address historical inequalities and promote self-determination, offering a model for institutions that serve diverse communities by connecting education to culture and overall well-being.

**Visual**: A medicine wheel with four sections for economic, social, cultural, and spiritual vitality, centered around a TCU campus. Each section has symbols like thriving businesses, community gardens, ceremonies, and healthy families, all linked by pathways showing a holistic approach.

**What I’m Learning**: TCUs play a vital role in empowering Native communities by combining education with cultural preservation, leading to long-term community development and holistic student growth.

**Questions**: How can TCUs balance preserving traditional knowledge with preparing students for today’s economy? What strategies can ensure their financial stability amid changing funding and tribal economies?

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Allen et al (2007) explored the rich history of HBCUs, their continuing influence on the present-day educational landscape, and how they are adapting to challenges in the future. It may highlight how HBCUs honor their historical roots while engaging with contemporary issues like diversity, inclusion, and technology. It could also touch on the importance of supporting these institutions for the future success of their students and the communities they serve.

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Gasman & Nguyen (2014) discussed the history and significance of Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs), which included Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs), Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs), and Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institutions (AANAPISIs). They also highlighted the challenges MSIs face, such as limited funding and sustainability issues, while emphasizing their critical role in providing educational opportunities and fostering leadership among marginalized communities, which called for more targeted policies and support to strengthen MSIs and ensure their continued impact on higher education.

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Valdez outlined the development of Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs) and the key legislative efforts that supported them. It focused on federal recognition and funding for HSIs, starting with the 1986 inclusion of HSIs in federal policy, and culminating in the 1992 Higher Education Amendments, which officially designated them as eligible for federal support. It also discussed the challenges HSIs faced, including funding disparities, and emphasizes the role of Latino/a advocacy groups in securing policy changes to support these institutions and better serve the educational needs of Latino/a communities.

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This article examined the role of AANAPISIs in supporting underrepresented students from these communities and their unique challenges such as, funding limitations and institutional recognition, while emphasizing the need for increased support to enhance student success and institutional growth.

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Pavel (2009) examined the critical role of TCUs in preserving Indigenous culture while addressing educational and community needs in Native American populations. Their challenges included limited funding and cultural barriers, while also emphasizing opportunities for growth through increased support, partnerships, and strategic development.

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Question from the reading: Will this society commit to fundamental changes that will make the American Dream more reality than illusion? Or will society continue to embrace attitudes and practices that deny real opportunity to all but a select few?

HBCUs play important roles in the perpetuation of Black culture, the improvement of Black community life, and the preparation of the next generation of the Black Leadership

This has been the daunting charge to this unique group of institutions of higher learning; they have been called to preserve a culture, prosper a community, equip a new generation of leaders, and model what is best about America.

1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared racial segregation unconstitutional and ordered the integration of public schools across the nation with “all deliberate speed”

Brown offers a clear rejection of de jure segregation, yet the de facto segregation of neighborhoods, schools, and much of the American life remains very much that reality (BRown et al., 2003)

The resegregation of public education has concentrated Black and Latino students at low resourced urban schools, leaving them at a stark disadvantage and lending to deep disparities in terms of college preparation, admissions, and choice (Kozol, 2005)

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The article demonstrates how the emergence and the evolution of MSIs stem from our nation’s struggle to provide equal educational opportunities to minorities.

The article explores the role of the federal government in both suppressing and elevation higher education for minorities and the impact of various groups and individuals on the growth of MSIs

Through the historical legacy of MSIs the authors showcase how these institutions came to represent the voices and concerns of minority communities to take control and manage their own education.

Morrill Act brings a complex history to MSIs, in particular it is rooted in stolen land, then given to HBCUs as a result of the Morrill Act which included North Carolina A&T University but received less federal funds than that of the White land grant instutitions.

HACU as organization was formed …

Tribal College Fund was founded and inspired by the HBCU College Fund

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Hispanic students enroll in higher numbers to college, but have the lowest graduation rates. There are arguments made by Rendon (1999) that compares racial and ethnic students' entrance into college crossing a border zone. Like immigrants entering a new country

Larger issue of moving away from a more typical monocultural to a multicultural framework

Stage and Manning (1992) argue that institutions in the US continue to operate from a monocultural, mainstream view based on Eurocentric cultural norms.

This too lies as one of my main concerns: Contemporary scholars have begun to look at the mission of HSIs (Contreras, Malcolm, & Bensimon, 2008) and have focused specifically on the impact HSIs have on HIspanic student enrollment and completion rates.

“They knew what the problems were, they just didn't have really good spokespeople to bring them higher education issues up or the resources and infrastructure to make it substantive” (pg. 7)

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The articles draws from interviews within nineteen policy makers, congressional staffers, and community advocates in order to address their motivations for establishing this designation

One of the major challenges include the lack of political infrastructure for advocating Asian American issues in education.

AAPI designation was first introduced to Congress five years earlier as HR 4825 by Rep Robert Underwood , but did not actually become a designation until the President signed the CCRAA.

In June 1999, the White house initiative on AAPI was formed, and in 2001 the commission issued an interim report that recommended the creation of a federal designation for AAPI serving institutions and organizations to expand the capacity of these groups to better serve the AAPI community

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Curriculum Empowers Community

TCUs have turned the balance of power around by placing control of their programs and curricula in the hands of AIs and ANs themselves

The community-based nature of TCUs promote entrepreneurship or small business ventures

Pavel (1997) described caring relationships among TCU faculty, staff, and students that were distinguished by honesty and sincerity as well as by interactions of an encouraging and comforting nature

Curriculum Facilitates Healing

OLC has embarked on a collaborative effort with four other community organizations, to bring multiple forces together to develop healthy communities. This community wide approach incorporates a belief that to achieve and sustain wellness, each community must create its own definition of health and its own vision of itself as a healthy community.

To carry this vision forward, we much address the interplay among various forces, including those of a “political, economic, environmental, spiritual, mental, and physical nature (Demarest, 1999, p. 27). By addressing these interconnected forces holistically, harmony and balance can be achieved.

By closely interlinking curricula with community, TCUs create environments that promote collective empowerment, revitalize culture and language, and facilitate community healing.