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﻿﻿Hantaviruses were first discovered in 1978 in South Korea.

﻿﻿The virus was names Hantaan virus after the Hantaan river where the virus was isolated.

﻿﻿The discovery of Hantaviruses was a result of scientific efforts that began after the Korean War.

﻿﻿The virus was isolated from small infected field rodents near the Hantan River.

﻿﻿Hantavirus infection can progress to a severe disease called Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS).

https://pmc.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/articles

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Evolution:

Hantaviruses have evolved over many years in rodents. The evolution of hantaviruses is characterized by cross-species transmission and co-divergence with the host rodents. Each host rodent species has its own hantavirus species, in some cases various hantavirus genotypes have been described from multiple closely related host species.

Phylogeny:

Phylogenetic histories of the viruses are not always congruent with those of the hosts.

Suggesting that cross-species transmission has played a very big role during the hantavirus evolution. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that hantaviruses may have first appeared in bats or moles before it emerged in the rodent species.

Guo, Wen-Ping, Xian-Dan Lin, Wen Wang, Jun-Hua Tian, Mei-Li Cong, Hai-Lin Zhang, Miao-Ruo Wang, et al. 2013. "Phylogeny and Origins of Hantaviruses Harbored by Bats, Insectivores, and Rodents." PLOS

Pathogens 9 (2).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1

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Hantavirus is classified within the Bunyaviridae family. Hantaviruses are single-stranded RNA, lipid-enveloped viruses. Bunyaviridae is a family of rodent-borne, arthropod-borne, spherical enveloped RNA viruses. They have either a rodent host or an arthropod vector and a vertebrate host. There’s four genera which are Bunyaviruses, Phlebovirus, and Hantavirus, Nairovirus, which include 35 serogroups with 304 types at least and subtypes.

Is it in Bergey’s manual?: Yes.

How’s it classified?:

-Family: Bunyaviridae

-Genus: Hantavirus

-Domain: Eukaryota domain

The classification is based on antigenic and genetic properties along with their biological , ecological characteristics.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8004/#:~:text=Bunyaviridae%20is%20a%20family%20of,vector%20and%20a%20vertebrate%20host.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hantavirus

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The hantavirus virions display a round morphology with a diameter of about 120-160 nm. The virion is enveloped by a single layer envelope. This envelope surrounds 3 nucleocapsids it also has surface projections. The surface projections are spikes which are surrounded by a prominent fringe that is implanted into a lipid bilayer that is 5nm thick. Also,

the projections are 5 to 10 nm long and also they produce a grid-like structure. The nucleocapsid is elongated with helical symmetry, and the ribonucleocapsid is filamentous and 200-300nm long depending on the arrangement, A

and 2-2.5 nm wide.

Aryal, Sagar. 2021. “Hanta Virus- an Overview.” Microbe Notes. March 23, 2021. https://microbenotes.com/hanta-virus/.

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Hantavirus does not have a metabolism. Viruses done have their own metabolism. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. Therefore, they are not able to carry out metabolic processes by themselves. With that being said hantaviruses rely completely on their host cell’s machinery to produce and replicate energy.

In trophic classification since it’s a virus, hantavirus is a pathogen. Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause diseases in a host organism.

CDC. 2024. “About Hantavirus.” Hantavirus. May 13, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/about/index.html.

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As hantaviruses are a virus that can cause very severe respiratory and renal diseases in humans. And they’re transmitted through rodent droppings, urine. Hantaviruses do not possess some of the typical virulence factors.

Capsule: Hantavirus doesn’t have a capsule. Capsules are associated with bacterial pathogens more commonly.

Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses. With that being said hantaviruses do not have antibiotic resistance genes.

Toxins: Hantaviruses do not produce toxins.

Exoenzymes: Hantaviruses don’t produce exoenzymes which are normally associated with bacterial pathogens.

Immune evasion: Hantaviruses have several strategies to evade the host immune system.

Interference with Interferon Response: Hantavirus can inhibit the production and signaling of interferons, which are crucial components of the antiviral immune response.

Modulation of Host Cells Apoptosis: Hantaviruses are able to manipulate host cell apoptosis to prolong the survival of infected cells.

Antigenic variation: Hantaviruses do exhibit genetic diversity but they don’t undergo antigenic variation to the same extent as some other viruses like, influenza.

Some key virulence factors for hantavirus are…

Glycoproteins: Surface proteins that facilitate the entry of the virus into the host cells. They can bind to receptors on the surface of the host cells. This allows the virus to then fuse with the cell membrane and release its genetic material into the cell.

Nucleocapsid Protein: The Nucleocapsid protein helps in the assembly and the packaging of the viral RNA genome. Also, it plays a role in evading the hosts immune response by interfering with the hosts interferon signaling pathways.

NSs protein: Some hantaviruses produces a non-structural protein calls NSs, which can suppress the hosts immune response. This protein interferes with the hosts ability to produce interferons which are crucial in antiviral defense.

Immune evasion: Hantavirus can evade the hosts immune system by inhibiting the production of antiviral cytokines , by avoiding detection by immune cells.

Host cell interaction: Hantavirus can manipulate the host cells function to promote their own survival and replication.

Hepojoki, Jussi, Tomas Strandin, Hilkka Lankinen, and Antti Vaheri. “Hantavirus Structure – Molecular Interactions behind the Scene.” Journal of General Virology 93, no. 8 (August 1, 2012): 1631–44. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.042218-0.

Jääskeläinen, Kirsi M, Pasi Kaukinen, Ekaterina S Minskaya, Angelina Plyusnina, Olli Vapalahti, Richard M Elliott, Friedemann Weber, Antti Vaheri, and Alexander Plyusnin. “Tula and Puumala Hantavirus NSs ORFs Are Functional and the Products Inhibit Activation of the Interferon-Beta Promoter.” Journal of Medical Virology 79, no. 10 (October 1, 2007): 1527–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.20948.

MacNeil, Adam, Stuart T. Nichol, and Christina F. Spiropoulou. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome.” Virus Research 162, no. 1-2 (December 2011): 138–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2011.09.017.

Muyangwa, Musalwa, Ekaterina V. Martynova, Svetlana F. Khaiboullina, Sergey P. Morzunov, and Albert A. Rizvanov. “Hantaviral Proteins: Structure, Functions, and Role in Hantavirus Infection.” Frontiers in Microbiology 6 (November 27, 2015). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01326.

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Some key growth requirements and factors for Hantavirus are host reservoir, transmission, rodent population density, and environmental conditions. Also, human behavior and geographic distribution Hantavirus mainly relies on rodent hosts, like deer mice, and other mice and rats like cotton ones, white-footed mice. Therefore, high rodent populations densities increases the chances of human exposure to hantavirus. Any activities that are going to bring humans closer in contact with rodents will increase the transmission of hantavirus. Transmission is very important the virus is transmitted to humans through inhalation of aerosolized particles from rodent waste. Environmental conditions affect hantavirus can survive longest on cool, dry environments and it is sensitive to disinfectants as well as sunlight. As hantavirus host is rodents it is found in various regions around the world. However, certain types are more common in certain areas.

Hantavirus is sable in a neutral pH environment. Extreme pH levels can inactivate the hantavirus. Also, the presence of salts in the environment doesn’t greatly affect the survival of hantavirus. Also, hantavirus doesn’t have specific oxygen requirements. It can survive in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions as long as hantavirus remains in a viable state. With that being said hantavirus doesn’t have traditional growth requirements because it relies on a host for replication.

Hantavirus is not necessarily classified as a “-phile”, as those terms are used for organisms that thrive in specific conditions like extreme heat or high salt concentrations.

A few ways the agent could be grown is a cell culture as it is introduced into a culture of living cells. Also infection is a way to grown hantavirus because the virus will attach to and enter into the host cell. And uses the hits machinery to replicate. Also, harvesting can be used after there’s enough time for the virus to be able to replicate and the cells to be harvested. The virus particles are released from cells and then collected.

Avšič-Županc, T., A. Saksida, and M. Korva. 2019. “Hantavirus .” Clinical Microbiology and Infection 21 (April): e6–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-0691.12291.

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Genome the agent has for its genetic material:

Hantaviruses have a RNA genome. Hantaviruses have a segmented negative-sense single-stranded RNA genome. It is divided into three segments which are small (S), medium (M), and large (L). The small segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein. And the medium segment encodes the glycoproteins. Lastly, the large segment encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

Are there any plasmids?:

No hantaviruses do not have plasmids.

Are there any antibiotic resistance genes?:

Hantaviruses do not have antibiotic resistance genes. Antibiotic genes are mostly found in bacteria. Hantaviruses are RNA viruses and they do not have such genes because antibiotics are ineffective against viruses. Instead of antibiotics antiviral treatments are used as well as preventative measures.

Has the genome been mapped?:

The hantavirus genome in fact has been mapped. The researchers have sequenced the RNA segments of different hantavirus strains. This helped the understanding of their genetic makeup, the evolution and the mechanisms of infection.

How big is the genome?:

The hantavirus genomes are around 12,000 nucleotides in length. The S segment is about 1.8-2.1 kb in length, the M segment is about 3.7-3.8 kb in length. Lastly, the L segment is around 6.5-6.6 kb in length.

“Hantavirus - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” n.d. Www.sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/hantavirus.

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2025. Researchgate.net. 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maria_Razzauti/publication/282867889/figure/fig2/AS:285102871068673@1444985229180/Structure-and-genome-organization-of-hantaviruses-The-hantavirus-virion-o-80-120-nm-is.png.

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Direct Transmission:

Humans can get Hantavirus from contact with a infected rodent like mice and rats mostly from a scratch or bite however that is very rare.

Indirect Transmission:

Hantavirus can be transmitted indirectly to a human from inhalation of the now aerosolized virus particles from rodent feces, urine, and or saliva.

Fomites:

Fomites are objects or surfaces in which have the possibility to become contaminated with infected rodent spit, urine, and feces. Therefore, if the surface and or object is not cleaned for every use the surface and or object can spread Hantavirus to animals and humans who come in direct contact with the surface and or object. Hantavirus can be spread via touching a surface with infected rat or mouse feces, saliva or urine. After touching the surface if you touch your face you can become infected with Hantavirus.

Vectors:

Hantavirus is normally not spread by vectors such as mosquitos or ticks.

Citations:

CDC. 2024. “About Hantavirus.” Hantavirus. May 13, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/about/index.html.

“Facts about Hantavirus.” 2017. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. June 30, 2017. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/hantavirus-infection/facts.

“Hanta Virus.” 2025. Education. 2025. https://vocal.media/education/hanta-virus.

“Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome: Symptoms & Treatment.” 2022. Cleveland Clinic. December 8, 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17897-hantavirus-pulmonary-syndrome.

https://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Infection_Control/Routes/English/fomite_management.pdf

“Models for the Spread and Persistence of Hantavirus Infection in Rodents with Direct and Indirect Transmission.” 2010. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering 7 (1): 195–211. https://doi.org/10.3934/mbe.2010.7.195.

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As hantavirus is a virus it is normally diagnosed through a variety of laboratory tests versus standard biochemical tests. This is due to these laboratory tests being designed to detect the viruses presence and or the body’s immune response to the virus.

Tests that are used:

Serology Testing is a type of testing that detects IgM and IgG antibodies that the body produces in response to a having hantavirus. ELISA which is enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is used for the purpose of the testing. ELISA is a lab technique that is utilized to detect and measure antibodies , proteins, and glycoproteins as well as antigens in a biological sample.

Polymerase Chain Reaction is a test that has the ability to detect the hantavirus RNA in blood and or tissue samples.

Immunohistochemistry testing is a test that has the ability to detect the hantavirus antigens in tissue samples by using antibodies that bind to the virus.

Results they’re looking for:

IgM positive

IgG positive with rising titers

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) positive

PCR positive

The tests performed to determine if one is Hantavirus-positive can be performed at the:

CDC

State labs running the CDC-developed assay

State public health labs using other diagnostic assays

Commercial lab

CDC. 2024. “Clinician Brief: Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome.” Hantavirus. May 23, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hcp/clinical-overview/hfrs.html.

“Hantavirus Serology Blood Test in London - Order Online Today.” 2023. Blood Tests London. 2023. https://bloodtestslondon.com/products/hantavirus-serology-blood-test.

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Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome is a very serve disease that can potentially cause death. HPS affects the lungs. From 1 to 8 weeks after contact with the infected rodent is when symptoms and signs of HPS can become apparent. Some early symptoms may include muscle aches more prominently in large muscle groups like one’s hips or back, as well as fatigue as well as a fever. Around half of the HPS patients experience dizziness as well as chills, headaches and abdominal issues such as nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain along with diarrhea. Then, 4-10 days after the initial phase of the hantavirus illness the later symptoms will begin these symptoms include shortness of breath. Also, patients can experience chest tightening as fluid is filling the lungs. Most patients that contract HPS fully recover with no lasting effects after. However, sometimes some lung function may take a month or even longer to return fully.

Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome is a severe disease and can be deadly. HFRS affects the kidneys. Within 1 to 2 weeks after exposure HFRS symptoms will develop. In rare cases it may take up to 8 weeks for them to develop. The symptoms can begin suddenly these symptoms include back and abdominal pain as well as intense headaches, a fever and chills. As well as nausea and blurred vision, some people may have flushing of the face , redness and or information of the eyes. Patients with HFRS may also develop a rash. There are later symptoms that can occur these include internal bleeding, low blood pressure, and lack of blood flow. Later on patients can develop actors kidney failure which can cause severe fluid overload. HFRS can lead to long-term health complications that can include renal dysfunction, as well as hypertension, and there’s an increased risk of cardiovascular events to occur. Kidney function often comes back , some patients do experience persistent kidney problems like hematuria , a small percentage of patients can develop chronic kidney disease.

At the site of hantavirus infection, many types of immune cells are recruited. These immune cells are macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells. Also, T cells and B cells.

Hantavirus infection elicits both cell-mediated and a humoral immune response. The humoral response involves B cells producing antibodies that can neutralize the virus and recognize infected cells for them to be destructed. However, the cell-mediated response involves T cells, more specifically cytotoxic T cells which directly kill the infected cells. And helper T cells which support the overall immune response by releasing cytokines and aiding the B cells in producing antibodies.

Lastly, hantavirus infections primarily only trigger immune responses targeted to the virus itself, there have been some studies exploring the potential links to autoimmunity, however it’s not a well-established characteristic of hantavirus.

Citations:

CDC. 2024. “About Hantavirus.” Hantavirus. May 13, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/about/index.html.

“Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome: Symptoms & Treatment.” 2022. Cleveland Clinic. December 8, 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17897-hantavirus-pulmonary-syndrome.

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Koehler, Felix C, Veronica Di Cristanziano, Martin R Späth, K Johanna R Hoyer-Allo, Manuel Wanken, Roman-Ulrich Müller, and Volker Burst. 2022. “The Kidney in Hantavirus Infection—Epidemiology, Virology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Management.” Clinical Kidney Journal 15 (7): 1231–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfac008.

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The CDC utilizes enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay also known as ELISA to identify IgM antibodies and to diagnose hantavirus. This testing method is utilized to diagnose both HFRS and HPS. PCR testing and RT-PCR , immunohistochemistry is also utilized.

The standards to report hantavirus-positive cases are based on the national case definition, that includes clinical symptoms and diagnostic results like IgM positive , IgG positive with rising titers. Also, Immunohistochemistry positive and PCR positive.

Citations:

CDC. 2024. “Clinician Brief: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS).” Hantavirus. May 31, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hcp/clinical-overview/hps.html.

Dewan, Pandora. 2024. “Deadly Rat-Borne Virus Spreading in US—What Are the Signs?” Newsweek. August 5, 2024. https://www.newsweek.com/deadly-rat-virus-spreading-us-symptoms-1934728.

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There is no specific treatment for the hantavirus infections. Even with there being a large number of studies that had taken place to identify as well as to develop antiviral therapies and vaccines to prevent and treat the Hantavirus infection. However, as of right now there isn’t a WHO or FDA approved vaccine and or therapies for the patients.

A treatment option for hantavirus is that if the virus does get caught early , the patient who is infected with hantavirus may receive medical care in an intensive care unit and they will likely improve. However, the treatment in the ICU will most likely include intubation and oxygen therapy, as well as fluid replacement and lastly the use of medicine to support there blood pressure. Also, sometimes antiviral drugs are used to treat other strains of hantavirus and associated infections. However, there hasn’t been large trials ran to prove them to work.

Therefore, there are medications and oxygen treatments that can aide in symptom relief/treatment. However, there is no exact hantavirus treatment.

Bibliography

American Lung Association. 2022. “Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) Symptoms, Causes and Risk Factors.” Www.lung.org. November 17, 2022. https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/hantavirus-pulmonary-syndrome/treatment.

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CDC. 2024. “About Hantavirus.” Hantavirus. May 13, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/about/index.html.

Dheerasekara, Kalpa, Saranga Sumathipala, and Rohitha Muthugala. 2020. “Hantavirus Infections-Treatment and Prevention.” Current Treatment Options in Infectious Diseases12 (4): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40506-020-00236-3.

Ph.D, Dr Priyom Bose. 2023. “Urgent Call for Improved Diagnostics, Treatments, and Vaccines against Deadly Hantavirus.” News-Medical. April 30, 2023. https://www.news-medical.net/news/20230430/Urgent-call-for-improved-diagnostics-treatments-and-vaccines-against-deadly-Hantavirus.aspx.

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Hantavirus outbreaks are linked to an increase in rodent population. Many things can contribute to an increase in the rodent population such as environmental changes. Humans can get hantavirus from inhaling dust or air that has been contaminated by the saliva, urine and or feces of an infected rodent. Hantavirus infection can be caused if contaminated dust or material gets into broken skin or mucous membrane like an eye, such as eating or drinking contaminated food and or water that’s tainted by an infected rodent.

A continued emergence and re-emergence of pathogens represent an ongoing threat to populations. Hantaviruses and other associated human diseases considered to be confined to Eurasia. However, the occurrence of an outbreak in 1993-1994 in the Southwestern United States which had led to a big increase in their study among virologists worldwide. Two significant outbreaks were documented in the last century which have brought Hantavirus to the world’s attention. Over 3,000 United Nations forces contracted the HFRS during the Korean War in 1950-1953 . The second outbreak HCPS in 1993 in the Four Corners area of the United States. Hantavirus associated diseases such as hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Asia, and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in South and North America as well as nephropathia epidemica In more recent years, around 200,000 people around the world are affected by hantavirus and hantavirus associated illnesses annually. This is associated with a case fatality of 1-15% for HFRS, 0.1-1% and up to 40-60% for HCPS.

Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome in South And North America has a mortality rate that can be as high as 30-40%. Also, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Asia and Europe has a mortality rate that varies and it generally ranges from less than 1% and up to 15% this varies depending on the specific virus and medical care. Morbidity rates vary by region as well as outbreak however overall both HCPS and HFRS are relatively rare diseases.

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome became a nationally notifiable disease in 1995 , it is now reported through the Nationally Notifiable Disease Surveillance System also known as the NNDSS. It is reported when a fever is present in a patient with laboratory-confirmed evidence of the hantavirus infection. Both HPS and non-pulmonary hantavirus infections are reported.

Citations:

Afzal, Samia, Liaqat Ali, Asfa Batool, Muhammad Afzal, Nida Kanwal, Hassan, Muhammad Safdar, Atif Ahmad, and Jin Ok Yang. 2023. “Hantavirus: An Overview and Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Infection.” Frontiers in Microbiology 14 (October). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1233433.

CDC. 2024. “Clinician Brief: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS).” Hantavirus. May 31, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hcp/clinical-overview/hps.html.

Hjelle, Brian, and Fernando Torres-Pérez. 2010. “Hantaviruses in the Americas and Their Role as Emerging Pathogens.” Viruses 2 (12): 2559–86. https://doi.org/10.3390/v2122559.

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The case study I decided to look into was one titled Case Study: How Evie Survived Hantavirus.

Hantavirus rarely occurs in the U.S. east of the Mississippi River. However, experts at Cincinnati Children’s encountered a shocking case of the disease in 2022.

July of 2022, a 14-year-old healthy female, named Evie. She was from North Dakota. Evie developed a headache, fever, abdominal pain as well as malaise. A couple days later after Evie’s condition got worse. She began to experience nausea, shortness of breath and some other symptoms. She got an evaluation and treatment at an urgent care located in Cincinnati. A chest X-ray that was done on the patient and the X-ray showed signs of pneumonia, Evie was sent to Cincinnati Children’s, where she was experiencing acute respiratory distress and was admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Upon 24 hours after admission Evie decompensated, which then progressed to acute respiratory distress syndrome with septic shock along with multi-system organ failure. Along with that Evie experienced a 9 minute cardiac arrest that required CPR. Evie was then placed on ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation). The ECMO device supported Evie during the time that the clinicians were racing to stabilize her.

Those apart of bringing this case study together said that Evie’s age was a unique feature of the case. Less then 10% of HPS (hantavirus pulmonary syndrome) cases occur in children ages 0 to 12 years old, or in adolescents 13 to 18 years old. Also they shared that HPS can be associated with a high fatality rate of 35% across all age groups. However, for children the progression from the start of symptoms to clinical deterioration in children who get HPS is shorter progression than in adults. The change that Evie experienced within those 24 hours really shows the dramatic nature of the infection. It was also mentions that clinicians must keep a high suspicion of HPS in any pediatric patient who demonstrates fulminant respiratory failure and possible rodent exposure west of the Mississippi River.

After a full recovery Evie is back to running and dreaming of being a nurse she has since returned to Cincinnati Children’s to meet those on her care team that helped save her life.

Citations:

Helper, Assignment. 2023. “The Ethics of Using Case Studies in Academic Assignments.” MakeMyAssignments Blog. November 13, 2023. https://www.makemyassignments.com/blog/the-ethics-of-using-case-studies-in-academic-assignments/.

Science Blog. 2025. “Case Study: How Evie Survived Hantavirus - Research Horizons.” Research Horizons. March 12, 2025. https://scienceblog.cincinnatichildrens.org/case-study-how-evie-survived-hantavirus/.