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The reproductive system in both females and males is mostly dormant until the body reaches puberty. The body undergoing puberty triggers the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to be secreted by the hypothalamus. This hormone, in turn, targets the anterior pituitary and triggers the release of follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) and luteinizing hormone(LH). In the female body, FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to develop & mature and promotes the secretion of estrogen, while LH is responsible for stimulating ovulation and promoting the secretion of progesterone from the corpus luteum in the ovary.
The menstrual cycle is the monthly changes the female reproductive system undergoes to make reproduction possible.  The average duration for the menstrual cycle is 28 days. A cycle begins on the first day of menstruation. Ovulation- the release of an oocyte from an ovary occurs on day 14, marking the midpoint of the menstrual cycle. The two-week period before ovulation is called the follicular phase. The two-week period post-ovulation is called the luteal phase.
The Follicular Phase

This phase starts on day 1 of menstruation and lasts until ovulation. During this period, estrogen makes the endometrial lining of the uterus thicken up in preparation for a potential pregnancy. The secretion of estrogen creates a negative feedback loop to the hypothalamus and the pituitary, resulting in decreased secretion of FSH. Right before ovulation, however, estrogen initiates a positive feedback loop, making the pituitary extremely sensitive to the GnRH signal. This results in a surge of FSH and LH secretions,  which triggers ovulation.

The Luteal Phase

This phase starts following ovulation and lasts until the next mensuration. During this period, progesterone acts in a negative feedback loop, signaling to the pituitary to secrete less LH. This results in menstruation.

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The birth giving process is called parturition, and all events associated with parturition are commonly referred to as labour. Vaginal delivery involves the shortening and opening of the cervix, descent and birth of the fetus, and the delivery of the placenta.

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Dilation is the first stage of labour where uterine contractions and oxytocin cause the cervix to open, or dialate. During this stage, the amniotic sac breaks and the amniotic fluid is released through the vagina. This stage of labour typically lasts from 2 to 20 hours.

The cervix must be open about 10 cm for the fetus to pass through that is when the mother is fully dilated. As the cervix begins to open it is typical to notice a clear pink or slightly. Bloody dish charge from the vagina.

In this stage on parturition the mother experiences abdominal cramping and contractions that gradually become stronger and closer together.

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Expulsion is the stage where the mother will be pushing out the fetus through the cervix to the birth canal and out with the force of contractions once the cervix is fully dialated. As the fetus moves through the canal, the head rotates, making it easier for the body to pass through the birth canal. Thus stage usually lasts from 0.5 - 2 hours.

Stretching the cervix causes the posterior pituitary gland to release oxytocin, which in turn causes uterine contractions. The uterine muscles are stimulated by oxytocin both directly and through prostaglandins.

The fetus is born with a waxy or cheese like substance called vernix. It is thought to have some protective roles during fetal development for a few hours after birth.

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In this placental stage, the placenta and umbilical cord are removed from the uterus 10 to 15 minutes after the fetus is born. The expelled placenta is called the afterbirth.

Placental expulsion can bear managed actively or expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance.

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Braxton Hicks are most common in the final few weeks of pregnancy but can come as early as the second trimester. Braxton hicks are known as false labour pains these contractions are the bodies way of preparing for labour. These cause the mother to feel a slight tightness in her abdomen and tend to become stronger the closer the due date.

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At 25 weeks the fetus’ nervous system is continuing to develop and mature. At this stage the fetus is beginning to gain fat.

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At week 26 the fetus can now partially open their eyes and eyelashes have formed. The central nervous system can direct rhythmic breathing movements and control body temperature. At 26 weeks the fetus is now typically weighing 2 pounds and measures up to 14 + inches long.

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The fetus is now capable of small kicking movements, stretching and able to make grasping movments.

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At this stage the fetus now has the ability to fully open it’s eyes. The fetus may have a head of hair at this time . The red blood cells are beginning to form in the fetus’ bone marrow. The fetus is now weighing nearly 3 lbs.

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29 weeks in the fetus  has now gone through and completed majority of his or her major developments. This is the stage where the fetus now begins to gain weight more rapidly.

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At 30 weeks the fetus’ toenails are now visible. The layer of soft, downy hair (lanugo) that has covered the baby’s skin the past few months begins to fall off. At this stage the fetus is now measuring 11 inches long from crown to rump and weighing about 3 3/4 lbs.

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During this stage the fetus’ pupils are now capable of changing size in response to stimulus caused by light. The fetus’ bones are beginning to harden how’re the skull remains soft and flexible.

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The fingernails of the fetus have now reached his or her finger tips. At this stage the fetus is now weighing more than 4 1/2 lbs.

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The fetus’ skin has now become more smooth and portrays more of a chubby appearance.

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At this stage the uterus becomes very crowed resulting in limited movement for fetus. Though the fetus can’t punch but still has the ability to stretch, roll and wiggle.

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35 weeks after conception the fetus now has a firm grasp. To now prepare for birth the fetus’ head might begin descending into the mothers pelvis.

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At this stage the fetus might weigh about 6 1/2 lbs. The circumference of the fetus’ head and abdomen are about the same. The fetus has now shed if not all then majority of its lanugo. (Very thin, soft, usually unpigmented, downy hair.

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The fetus’ is becoming more prominent now. For boys, the testes continue to descend into the scrotum. Fat is being added all over the fetus’ body to keep him or her warm after after birth.

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The fetus’ is at a stage where it is now quickly coming to it’s due date. The fetus should be measuring around 14 inches from crown-to-rump and weighing around 7 1/2 pounds. However healthy fetus’ come in different sizes.

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Ayyasy, M. Zhafran. “Cannabis and male fertility : A systematic review.” Journal of Advance Research in Medical &amp; Health Science (ISSN: 2208-2425), vol. 9, no. 5, 2023, pp. 15–20, https://doi.org/10.53555/nnmhs.v9i5.1664.

Brents, Lisa K. “Marijuana, the Endocannabinoid System and the Female Reproductive System.” The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 27 June 2016, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4918871/#:~:text=Overall%20findings%20from%20human%20and,the%20gonadotropins%2C%20follicle%20stimulating%20hormone.

Canada, Health. “Government of Canada.” Canada.Ca, Gouvernement du Canada, 14 Mar. 2023, www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/about.html.

Colbourne, Helen. Inquiry into Biology. Alberta Education, Specialized Services for Students with Visual Impairment, 2017.

Donaldson-Evans, Catherine. “Pregnancy.” What to Expect, 5 Oct. 2023, www.whattoexpect.com/pregnancy/.

“Marijuana Use during Pregnancy: Is It Safe?” YouTube, YouTube, 19 July 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qz4AGm5kPlQ. Accessed 22 Oct. 2023.

Pruthi , Sandhya. “Pregnancy Week by Week In-Depth.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 4 Nov. 2022, www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/pregnancy-week-by-week/in-depth/hlv-20049471.

Biology , O. Editors. (2023, April 28). Chorion - definition and examples - biology online dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/chorion

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Although marijuana can have beneficial effects on the body, it is known to have harmful effects on a developing fetus- especially when it contains high levels of Tetrahydrocannabinol (the major psychoactive component). Tetrahydrocannabinol(THC) is known to interfere with the development of the cerebral cortex of the brain- more specifically, the frontal and temporal lobes, which are involved with thinking and memory. When a pregnant woman is exposed to it, THC can rapidly travel from the mother’s bloodstream, across the placental barrier and into the fetus’ brain, resulting in a range of issues such as placental abruption, premature birth, low birth weight, birth defects, and developmental delays, and is associated with the increased risk for miscarriage and can double the risk of stillbirth. The effects of marijuana and other cannabis drugs are most severe if the exposure occurs during the first trimester. However, exposure to the drug later in pregnancy and even after birth can have a negative impact on a developing fetus/baby. As a result, it is discouraged that mothers use marijuana when breastfeeding their babies as THC could enter the baby’s body through breast milk.  Children exposed to marijuana and other substances with THC early in their lives exhibit long-lasting or permanent behavioural and neurodevelopmental issues throughout their lives.

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Teratogen: any agent or factor that causes abnormality or malformation in the developing fetus as a result of exposure during pregnancy.

Marijuana is a slang term for the dried flowers, leaves, stems and seeds of the cannabis plant. Cannabis can be taken by smoking, vaporizing, drinking/eating cannabis-infused foods/drinks, and applying cannabis oils directly onto the skin for localized effects.

Medical marijuana is legally used in Canada to treat various conditions, including epilepsy, nausea, loss of appetite, chronic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Some pregnant women use medicinal marijuana and other cannabis products to find relief from hyperemesis gravidarum (morning sickness) that usually occurs during the first trimester of pregnancy.  Others use it as a substitute for prescription medications to help with mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, and insomnia.

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At this stage, the fetus is around 7.4cm long (about the size of a peach). By the fourth month, the bones of the skeleton begin to form, the brain develops rapidly, and the nervous system begins to function. The fetal legs continue to grow and develop, and the mother begins to feel movement. The heartbeat of the fetus is now strong enough to be detected by a stethoscope. The fetus' scalp hair pattern also begins to form. Moreover, the fetus may start to suck its thumb, strengthening and filling out the cheek and jaw muscles.

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At this stage, the neck begins to lengthen, allowing the head to stand more erect. The fetus reaches about 12 cm in length and 110 grams in weight. The eyes begin slow movements, and the ears are near their final developmental stage. The skin becomes thicker. The limb movements become more coordinated and can be detected by an ultrasound exam but are too light to be felt by the mother. The fetus' digestive system may begin activity and start to produce meconium- the waste that makes up a baby's first bowel movement after birth.

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Lactation begins as early as a few weeks into the second trimester of pregnancy. Milk production generally begins between week 16 and 22. Lactation is the process of making and secreting milk from your breast. This milk is secreted through your mammary glands, which are located in your breasts. The 3 stages of breast milk: colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk. Colostrum is the first form of breast milk that is released by the mammary glands after giving birth. Colostrum is usually golden yellow in colour. The pregnancy hormones (like progesterone) produced by the placenta prompt your body to start creating colostrum between 12 and 18 weeks of pregnancy.

A series of hormonal events, which begin when you’re pregnant trigger the lactation process. That process is called lactogenesis. Lactogenesis is the process of developing the ability to secrete milk and involves the maturation of alveolar cells.

Stage 1 lactogenesis: Begins around the 16th week of pregnancy and lasts a few days until after you give birth

Estrogen and progesterone rise and cause your milk ducts to grow in number and size.

your nipples darken and areolas become larger

your Montgomery glands secrete oil to lubricate your nipple

your body begins making colostrum

Stage 2 lactogenesis: this stage starts about 2 or 3 days post partum

- Once your baby and placenta are delivered, a sudden drop in your estrogen and progesterone causes the hormone prolactin to take over

Prolactin is a hormone that produces milk

You’ll notice milk production increases dramatically

Your breasts are of engorged

Stage 3 lactogenesis: This describes the rest of the time you lactate

Generally continues as long as milk is removed from your breast

The more milk is removed, the more milk you body makes to replace it

There are two hormones that directly affect breast feeding:

- prolactin : which promotes milk production

- oxytocin: triggers the “let down” reflex or moves the milk

A number of other hormones, such as oestrogen, are involved indirectly in lactation

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At this stage, the fetus is more active in the amniotic sac. It continues to develop into a more recognizable human baby. For example, the ears which were previously part of the neck become properly positioned on the sides of the head, and the eyes, which were on the sides of the head move to the front. The fetus also begins developing toenails.

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The fetus' ears begin to stand out on the sides of the head, and it may begin to hear sounds. The eyes begin to face forward. The baby's digestive system also starts functioning at this stage of pregnancy. The fetus' genitals also begin to form.

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Fertilization is the joining of the male sperm(a haploid) and the female ovum(another haploid) to form a zygote(a diploid). This process occurs in the female's fallopian tubes(oviducts) within 24 hours of ovulation- the release of an oocyte from the ovary.
The head of the sperm contains a structure called the acrosome, which has enzymes that help the sperm digest through the egg's corona radiata and zona pellucida. Many sperm work together to break through these layers of the egg until only one sperm enters and fertilizes the egg. The entry of the sperm into the egg causes depolarization that prevents other sperm from entering the ovum. Once fertilization occurs, the 23 chromosomes from the sperm combine with the 23 chromosomes from the ovum to produce a zygote that has 46 chromosomes. Starting at this point and continuing for the next three months, estrogen and progesterone are released by the corpus luteum to provide nutritional support for the developing embryo.

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Within 30 hours after fertilization, the cell begins to divide
in a process called cleavage. Cleavage is the process of cell division without the entanglement of individual cells. throughout this stage, the size of the zygote stays constant at about 0.1 mm. The zygote divides through mitosis to become two smaller cells, and each of those two cells divides to become two new cells, resulting in 4 cells. This process continues until the zygote reaches 16 cells. When the zygote reaches 16 cells, it becomes a morula. Cleavage occurs a such a rapid rate that individual cells do not have time to grow before they are divided. At the end of this stage, the morula has the same overall size as the initial zygote, just with smaller cells within it.

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Once the morula reaches the uterus, it begins to fill fluid that diffuses out of the uterus and becomes a blastocyst - a nearly hollow ball of cells. The blastocyst consists of two types of cells: trophoblast and embryoblast. The trophoblast will develop into a chorion, a part of the placenta that provides nutrients and oxygen and removes waste from the developing embryo. The embryoblast will develop into the embryo itself.

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The blastocyst attaches to the endometrium inside the uterus. The trophoblast secretes enzymes that digest some tissues and blood vessels of the endometrium so the blastocyst can firmly embed into the uterine lining. This is called implantation.

Ectopic pregnancy(tubal pregnancy) is a condition that can occur at this stage of pregnancy. This is when implantation occurs outside of the uterus. In most cases, surgery is required to remove the embryo/fetus.

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The mother misses her first menstruation. The trophoblast secretes human chorionic gonadotropic hormone(hCG), which, like LH, maintains high levels of estrogen and progesterone for the endometrium. This helps the corpus luteum maintain secreting progesterone and estrogen for the first trimester. HCG is detected by pregnancy tests, making it one of the first indicators of pregnancy. The blastocyst develops into an embryo.

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Gastrulation takes place in week 2 of the first trimester and marks the start of morphogenesis. There are 3 primary germ layers. Through morphogenesis, cells in a particular germ layer differentiate and develop into specific organs and organ systems.
ectoderm(outer primary germ layer)

The ectoderm is the outermost germ layer and is the first layer to form from a fertilized egg. The functions of the ectoderm include hormone regulation by the adenohypophysis, acting as a barrier against external involvement, and homeostasis. The ectoderm develops into:
- outer skin (epidermis) and associated structures (hair, nails, sweat glands, mammary glands)
- Nervous tissue and sense organs
-pituitary gland
- adrenal medulla
- eye lens

Mesoderm (middle primary germ layer)

The middle germ layer is the mesoderm it develops into:
- dermis of skin
-cellular lining of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, body cavities
-muscle tissue
-connective tissue (including bone, cartilage,blood)
-Adrenal cortex
-hear
-internal reproductive organs
-kidneys and uterus
-spleen

Endoderm (inner primary germ layer)

This is the inner germ layer it develops into:
- Cellular lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary bladder, urethra
-liver (most)
Gallbladder
-pancreas
-thymus
Tonsils (partial)
-parathyroid glands
- thyroid glands

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This week initiates the process of neurulation. A thickened band of mesoderm cells develops along the back of the embryonic disk and forms a rod-like structure called the notochord. The notochord will form the skeletal framework. Cells along the surface above the notochord begin to thicken. Folds develop on each side of the groove and fuse to form a tube called the neural tube. The neural tube will later develop into the brain and spinal cord. The formation of the neural tube,  neurulation, marks the beginning of organ formation. Soon after neurulation begins, a reddish bulge that contains the heart forms, and by the 18th day, the heart begins to beat.
This stage also begins the development of extraembryonic membranes- the allantois, the amnion, the chorion, and the yolk sac.

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Amnion

The amnion is a transparent, fluid-filled sac that forms from the cells of the embryonic disk and surrounds the embryo during pregnancy. The amnion is penetrated with only the umbilical cord. The amniotic fluid serves to allow free fetal movement, cushion the embryo, and protect it against physical shocks, trauma and fluctuating temperature. The amniotic fluid also serves as a source of nutrients, hormones and antibodies, as well as a repository for water products produced by a developing fetus. It plays a critical role in the development of organs and body systems (i.e. the lungs and the respiratory system).

Yolk Sac

The yolk sac- also known as the umbilical vesicle,  is a small sac attached to the abdominal area of the embryo. It is the site for the initial formation of blood cells in the embryo and plays a role in the development of the circulatory system. It also contributes to the formation of the digestive tract.

Allantois

The allantois is the foundation of the umbilical cord. It helps regulate gas and liquid exchange. By the second month after conception, most of the allantois degenerates while the remnant tissue develops into the urinary bladder.

Chorion

The chorion is the external membrane that encloses all other extra-embryotic structures and the embryo. The chorion plays a key role in the exchange of blood and gases between mother and fetus, helps to eliminate fetal waste and develops into the fetal part of the placenta. The placenta is a flat, circular organ by which the embryo/fetus is anchored to the uterine wall. The placenta is rich in blood vessels and serves to provide oxygen and nutrients to the developing embryo. The placenta will not fully develop until at around 10 weeks after fertilization.

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Week four is the beginning of rapid development, growth, and differentiation. At this stage, the embryo is about 0.6 cm long from crown to rump. The embryo’s major organs, i.e. the lungs and kidneys, begin to take shape and undergo patterning. Small limb buds also appear, marking the beginning of limb development.

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At this stage of pregnancy, the embryo is about 1.3 cm long. Relative to its body, the embryo now has a very large head.  The eyes are now open, though they don't yet have eyelids or irises. Cells in the brain continue to differentiate rapidly. Depressions on the head that will later become nostrils appear. Limb buds that appeared in the previous week continue to develop and become more paddle-shaped.

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The embryo is now 1.4 cm long from crown to rump. The brain continues to develop rapidly. The limbs lengthen and flex slightly. The fingers begin to form. The gonads begin to produce hormones that help develop the external genitalia. Small, shell-shaped swellings -which will later form into ears- develop. The upper lip and the nose also begin to form while the trunk and the neck begin to straighten.

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The arms are now beginning to grow and develop as the elbows are now visible. As well as toes and eyelids begin to form. Though the fetus’ head is quite large, it still has a poorly formed chin. By week seven, the embryo reaches 1.6- 1.8 cm from crown to rump.

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A caesarean section often known as a C-section is used to deliver a fetus through a surgical incision made in the abdomen and uterus.

Common reasons for C-sections are issues with labour progression (prolonged dilation or opening of the cervix), fetus is in distress, prolapsed umbilical cord, carrying more than one fetus.

A mother with a sexually transmitted infection, such as herpes, or a mother with a small pelvis may also have her fetus delivered by C-section to protect her self and the fetus from injury and infection.

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Now, the rate of growth of the fetus begins to slow down. Soon, a white, creamy biofilm called vernix caseosa begins to voter the fetus. The vernix caseosa protects the fetus' delicate skin from abrasions, chapping and hardening that can result from exposure to amniotic fluid. If the fetus is female, the uterus and vaginal canal form.
The mothers breasts.

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The fetus is now around 1.6 cm long and weighs about 320 grams. At this stage, the fetus' movement becomes quicker. The fetus becomes more sensitive to sounds or motions. It also begins to sleep and wake regularly.

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At this stage, the fetus' skin becomes covered in fine hair called lanugo. The lanugo helps prevent the vernix caseosa from sliding off the fetus' skin. The sucking reflex also begins to develop, preparing the fetus for breastfeeding after birth.

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Effect on the female reproductive system:
The use of marijuana during pregnancy can disrupt the menstrual cycle by suppressing the release of hormones involved in regulating female reproduction. THC inhibits the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which affects the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and prolactin. These hormones are essential for maintaining the menstrual cycle, including promoting follicle maturation, stimulating the production of estrogen and progesterone, and inducing ovulation. The disruptions caused by marijuana use can lead to reduced progesterone levels, which are necessary for supporting pregnancy. Studies have shown that smoking 1 gram of marijuana in a single session can suppress LH during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, potentially terminating early pregnancies. Additionally, marijuana use can decrease circulating levels of progesterone and FSH, which may result in abnormal ovulatory cycles and infertility.

Effect on the male reproductive system:
Research also suggests that marijuana and other cannabis drugs play a role in the well-being of the male reproductive system. Cannabis is found to reduce sperm count and concentration, leading to abnormalities in sperm forms & DNA fragmentation, reduced sperm volume, motility & viability, and inhibiting the sperm's capacitation- a requirement for spermatozoa maturation & fertilization as well as its fertilizing capacity. Tests performed on animal models have shown that cannabis may cause testicular atrophy, reduced libido and sexual function, but these results have not yet been replicated in human studies. Studies of hormonal changes in men who use cannabis also suggest that the drug is linked to lowered luteinizing hormone levels, which can result in lowered testosterone levels.

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a 2D ultrasound (inset) contrasted with a 4D ultrasound of a fetus after 20 weeks of development

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At this point in pregnancy, the fetus is about 1.9 cm long from head to buttocks and weighs about 460 grams. The fetus begins to grow facial hair; its hair and eyebrows are now visible. Brown fat is called brown adipose tissue (BAT). The BAT converts chemical energy (calories) into heat. If the fetus is a male, the testes begin to descend.

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The fetus begins to exhibit rapid eye movements. It might begin to hiccup, causing jerking movements in the womb. Ridges on the palms and soles of the feet also form. These ridges will later create the foundations for unique fingerprints and footprints.

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The fetus’ skin is wrinkled. The blood in the fetus’ capillaries is visible, making the fetus’ translucent skin appear pink-red. By the end of week 22, the external skin becomes more opaque.

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The baby begins to respond to familiar sounds and movement. The fetus spends extended amounts of time asleep in rapid eye movement (REM), when the eyes move rapidly even though the eyelids are closed.

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The fetus is about 2.3 cm long and weighs around 820 grams. At this point, the lungs begin to produce surfactant, a substance that coats the air sacs in the lungs. The surfactant helps the air sacs inflate and prevents them from collapsing or sticking together when they deflate.

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The embryo’s head has now become more round, and the eyelids and external ears continue to develop. The fetus is at a stage where it can now bend his/her elbows and has lost the webbing on their toes and fingers. At the end of week eight, the embryo is considered a fetus.

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Week nine is when the fetus’ face is broad and eyes become widely separated. At this stage the fetus’ head is still making up half of its length. The red blood cells have started forming in the fetus’ liver. Buds for future teeth are beginning to appear. By the end of this week the fetus’ external genitalia will start developing into a penis or a clitoris and labia majora. By week nine the fetus is now measuring around 2 inch long from rump to crown and weighing nearly 8 grams.

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The finger nails of the fetus are now beginning to sprout and the face has become further developed. At this stage the fetus might be measuring around 2 1/2 inches long from rump to crown and weighing nearly 14 grams.

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Week eleven the fetus is now beginning to make urine and release it into the surrounding amniotic fluid. Your baby also swallows some amniotic fluid. At this stage the fetus’ bones are hardening especially the skull and longer bones. The fetus’ skin is still thin and transparent, but will begin to thicken soon.

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The fetus’ neck has now become more defined and red blood cells are forming in the fetus’ spleen. Within the next free upcoming weeks the fetus’ sex will become apparent. At this stage the fetus is measuring nearly 3 1/2 inches long from crown to rump and weighing about 45 grams.

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The fetus has begun to grow at a more rapid pace now. The bone development continues and will soon be visible on ultra sound images. The fetus’ scalp hair pattern is also forming.