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                                      The Power of The Tongue

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                                      The Power of The Tongue

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How the four Domains of Language connect to culture, capital, and perception.

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Artifact description

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                                                  Video Media

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                                                  Video Media

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View artifacts that represent linguistic discrimination and its results, the evolution of language, how dialect is interpreted, and how code switching can occur.

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                        Video Media Artifact #1: Results of Assumptions

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                        Video Media Artifact #1: Results of Assumptions

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While discrimination and profiling within linguistics seem similar, there is a distinction between the two, and this is my reason for including this artifact. Discrimination is the negative effect of profiling. In class, we discussed what can happen when linguistic discrimination occurs. As seen in the John Bugh video, who coined the term “linguistic profiling”, how you “sound” has a lot to do with how people view you. The negative effects are seen and played a role how many are denied housing or employment based on stereotypes associated with dialect and or accent. Those who are proficient at sounding like the American standard of English are usually given more.

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In this clip from the documentary "Do you speak American?", linguist John Baugh discusses linguistic profiling -- the practice by which someone judges someone else based on how they speak (as opposed to how they look), often as a means of discrimination.

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                           Video Media Artifact #2: Evolution

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                           Video Media Artifact #2: Evolution

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We as humans have the distinct ability to use language. As we have progressed and changed through the decades, so has our language. The language used today is completely different from the ones used previously or historically, especially when discussing the context that certain language and terms are used in. Differences can cause confusion and for that reason we must acknowledge them. Language changes across space and social groups as well, along with its variation across time. While some things are borrowed from generations before us many terms lose their usefulness. For this reason, I chose to include this clip as an artifacts.

[Yestervid]. (2015, October 12). How far back in time could you go and still
understand English? [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/8fxy6ZaMOq8

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                            Video Media Artifact #3: Language?

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                            Video Media Artifact #3: Language?

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I chose to include this clip as an artifact because it demonstrates how many confuse dialect and language. This clip also relates to the class discussion about language and culture. This video represents the inability of some to understand other dialects and how they may wrongly label them as a result. Dialect is regional, while language is distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, it’s spoken in a specific place or by a specific group of people. Cultural misunderstanding can spiral false assumptions.

[StarsAndStripes2012]. (2012, May 7). Rihanna teaches us how to do a Bajan accent [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/AlEZNwWjcVA

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Rihanna teaches us how to do a Bajan accent

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                         Video Media Artifact #4: Switch On & Off

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                         Video Media Artifact #4: Switch On & Off

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This is a continuation of code-switching and how people of a certain socioeconomic class interact in social and professional settings. In relation to class it demonstrates how class impacts code-switching. Code-switching doesn't always have to deal with the changing of two languages as this video demonstrates. It occurs through the change of tone, dialect, and or voice in a particular setting. For this reason, I chose to include this artifact.

[Will]. (2012, May 20). Beyoncé: How To Play Pool [Video File]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/RBwZ65DAmsg

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                                                       Articles 

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                                                       Articles 

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The articles presented offer an insight on how capital, biases, vocabulary, and SES play a part in the four domains of language.

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                               Articles Artifact #5: Capital

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                               Articles Artifact #5: Capital

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In relation to several class discussions, capital plays a huge part in our day to day lives. It allows us to advocate for things of our interest. It’s also used to determine one’s social position in society. Capital can occur linguistically or culturally, and for this reason, I chose to include this as an artifact. Cultural capital gives and promotes social mobility. During this course, we discussed how language and culture become obvious when people want and chose to advocate for their own political interest. When your role of capital is lower than other's, so it the power of your voice. Which is highlighted in this article.

Callen, K. (2011). Creating a World Class Safety Culture Where Two Culture
Collide. Brasil Offshore. doi:10.2118/143792-ms

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Shirese Casenave, 51, who grew up in Farragut Houses, a public housing complex that now sends many children to P.S. 307, said she recalled some of her friends being bused to P.S. 8. "They had a choice," she said.

Percentage of population that is black or Hispanic, by block

Percentage of population that is black or Hispanic.

by block

That has changed, as Dumbo has become a thriving neighborhood where condominiums regularly sell for millions of dollars. Saying that the crowding problem was urgent, the city's Education Department plans to present its proposal at the end of the month to the District 13 Community Education Council, which represents school parents in the area and has the power to approve rezonings. The department is hoping the council will vote on the proposal in time for the boundaries to take effect next year.

But at two town-hall-style meetings this month, parents on both sides angrily accused the department of withholding information and demanded that the timeline be slowed down. During a meeting at P.S. 307 last week, residents of Farragut Houses expressed fears that their children would no longer be allowed to attend P.S. 307 and would be bused elsewhere. (Students who are already enrolled in P.S. 8 and P.S. 307, even if they do not live in the proposed zones, would not have to leave, according to the department.)

"We fought hard to build this school, and we're not just going to let people come from outside when we worked so hard and dedicated ourselves," Dolores Cheatom, a Farragut Houses resident, said at the meeting, holding her 1-year-old daughter on her hip.

She said she had "no problem working with anybody, but I'm not going to let anybody take from my daughter."

At a meeting at P.S. 8 on Monday, Dumbo residents pointed to P.S. 307's low test scores and asked what kind of training and extra resources the school's teachers would receive to make the education there comparable to that at P.S. 8. Some Dumbo parents said they were anxious about their children's being part of a racial minority in the school, while others worried that their children would not be sufficiently challenged.

"If you're doubling the classroom size, what are the plans in terms of who are you hiring?" asked Lisa McKeon, a mother of two toddlers in Dumbo. "Who's going to be training them?

"I need answers, and it's not because I want to be in P.S. 8."

A father of a 1-year-old in Dumbo, who declined to give his name, accused the department of playing down the academic challenges at P.S. 307, which he called "severely underperforming."

"I don't want to be the bad guy in the room, but no one else wants to talk about it," he said.

He added, "How does sending all Dumbo and Vinegar Hill children to the school solve P.S. 307's problems?"

A department official, Jonathan Geis, spoke up to correct him. "We are not seeing problems at 307," he said. "We are seeing and what we've heard from everyone is that it's a wonderful learning community," adding that the schools chancellor had said so.

"None of this rezoning is to fix any problems at 307," Mr. Geis added.

P.S. 307's population is 90 percent black and Hispanic, and 90 percent of the students' families receive some form of public assistance. Its state test scores, while below the citywide averages, are closer to average for black and Hispanic students, with 20 percent of its students passing the math tests and 12 percent passing the reading tests this past year. At P.S. 8, whose population is 59 percent white, with only 15 percent receiving assistance, scores are considerably above the city averages. Almost two-thirds of its students passed each test.

Andrew Lee, who lives in Dumbo and has a 4-year-old son and a daughter on the way, said he was not necessarily opposed to the rezoning but wanted to hear more from the department about how it would enhance the offerings at P.S. 307.

"We understand that that school is kind of on the upswing, all things considered," Mr. Lee said in an interview. "But is it at the level of a P.S. 8 yet? It's not really clear."

Research has found that minority students who attend integrated schools perform better academically and go on to earn higher incomes and have better health than minority students who attend segregated schools.

Gary Orfield, the co-director of the Civil Rights Project at the University of California, Los Angeles, which published a study about school segregation in New York State last year, said it was rare for a school district to take advantage of gentrification to create more integrated schools. "This is exactly the opposite of what New York has been doing for decades," Dr. Orfield said.

He said the residents who opposed the rezoning "aren't racists."

"They aren't people who don't want to be with other races and other cultures," he said. "They just don't want to be in a ghetto. They don't want to be in a school where everybody's poor and their kid is the only white kid or the only Asian kid."

While redrawing school zones are, logistically, the simplest solutions to crowding and segregation, they are usually the most politically complex and thus are done relatively rarely. A school's boundary zone can dictate neighborhood real estate values. In another part of Brooklyn, the removal of several blocks from the highly coveted P.S. 321 in Park Slope drew protests a few years ago, though in that case, those students were transferred to a new school.

In Dumbo, the Community Education Council has not said yet whether it will approve the proposal in its current form. If it does not approve a rezoning plan, the lines will stay as drawn, meaning some future kindergartners who live in the P.S. 8 zone will probably have to go elsewhere.

Weeks before a decision could be made, the reluctance that some Dumbo parents have expressed about sending their children to P.S. 307 has already produced some bitter feelings. Toward the end of the meeting on Monday, Benjamin Greene, the second vice president of the Community Education Council and a parent at P.S. 307, challenged the parents in P.S. 8's zone to visit P.S. 307 to see whether their minds might change.

"We are all parents," Mr. Greene said. "We need to start talking to one another and stop looking down on one another."

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Race and Class Collide in a Plan for Two Brooklyn Schools

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Shirese Casenave, 51, who grew up in Farragut Houses, a public housing complex that now sends many children to P.S. 307, said she recalled some of her friends being bused to P.S. 8. "They had a choice," she said. That has changed, as Dumbo has become a thriving neighborhood where condominiums regularly sell for millions of dollars.

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                                  Articles Artifact #6: Biases 

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                                  Articles Artifact #6: Biases 

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Language and culture have a huge connection. Here in the U.S English speakers are usually more privileged in terms of language. Apart of American school culture is about testing, but for ELL this can be a challenge. As discussed in this course, Standardized test are very biased towards speakers of other languages or dialects, an even towards bilingual speakers. This being my reason for including this artifact. A biased standardized test can result in ELLs and minorities being overrepresented in special education programs. Standardized tests are not created to fit ELLs native background, and hardly ever seem to take into account that as students they are not only learning material and core standards but also trying to develop proficiency in the English language.

Solano–Flores, G., & Li, M. (2006, March 20). The Use of Generalizability (G)
Theory in the Testing of Linguistic Minorities. Retrieved December 05, 2017,
from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2006.00048.x/
abstract

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Guillermo Solano-Flores is Associate Professor of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language, University of Colorado at Boulder, School of Education, 249 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0249; Guillermo.Solano@colorado.edu. His areas of specialization include educational measurement, testing of English-language learners, test development, and test review methods.

Min Li is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Washington, College of Education, BOX 353600, Seattle, WA 98195; minli@u.washington.edu. Her areas of specialization include educational measurement and classroom assessment.

Abstract
We contend that generalizability (G) theory allows the design of psychometric approaches to testing English-language learners (ELLs) that are consistent with current thinking in linguistics. We used G theory to estimate the amount of measurement error due to code (language or dialect). Fourth- and fifth-grade ELLs, native speakers of Haitian-Creole from two speech communities, were given the same set of mathematics items in the standard English and standard Haitian-Creole dialects (Sample 1) or in the standard and local dialects of Haitian-Creole (Samples 2 and 3). The largest measurement error observed was produced by the interaction of student, item, and code. Our results indicate that the reliability and dependability of ELL achievement measures is affected by two facts that operate in combination: Each test item poses a unique set of linguistic challenges and each student has a unique set of linguistic strengths and weaknesses. This sensitivity to language appears to take place at the level of dialect. Also, students from different speech communities within the same broad linguistic group may differ considerably in the number of items needed to obtain dependable measures of their academic achievement. Whether students are tested in English or in their first language, dialect variation needs to be considered if language as a source of measurement error is to be effectively addressed.

Guillermo Solano-Flores is Associate Professor of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language, University of Colorado at Boulder, School of Education, 249 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0249; Guillermo.Solano@colorado.edu. His areas of specialization include educational measurement, testing of English-language learners, test development, and test review methods.

Min Li is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Washington, College of Education, BOX 353600, Seattle, WA 98195; minli@u.washington.edu. Her areas of specialization include educational measurement and classroom assessment.

Abstract
We contend that generalizability (G) theory allows the design of psychometric approaches to testing English-language learners (ELLs) that are consistent with current thinking in linguistics. We used G theory to estimate the amount of measurement error due to code (language or dialect). Fourth- and fifth-grade ELLs, native speakers of Haitian-Creole from two speech communities, were given the same set of mathematics items in the standard English and standard Haitian-Creole dialects (Sample 1) or in the standard and local dialects of Haitian-Creole (Samples 2 and 3). The largest measurement error observed was produced by the interaction of student, item, and code. Our results indicate that the reliability and dependability of ELL achievement measures is affected by two facts that operate in combination: Each test item poses a unique set of linguistic challenges and each student has a unique set of linguistic strengths and weaknesses. This sensitivity to language appears to take place at the level of dialect. Also, students from different speech communities within the same broad linguistic group may differ considerably in the number of items needed to obtain dependable measures of their academic achievement. Whether students are tested in English or in their first language, dialect variation needs to be considered if language as a source of measurement error is to be effectively addressed.

Guillermo Solano-Flores is Associate Professor of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language, University of Colorado at Boulder, School of Education, 249 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0249; Guillermo.Solano@colorado.edu. His areas of specialization include educational measurement, testing of English-language learners, test development, and test review methods.

Min Li is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Washington, College of Education, BOX 353600, Seattle, WA 98195; minli@u.washington.edu. Her areas of specialization include educational measurement and classroom assessment.

Abstract
We contend that generalizability (G) theory allows the design of psychometric approaches to testing English-language learners (ELLs) that are consistent with current thinking in linguistics. We used G theory to estimate the amount of measurement error due to code (language or dialect). Fourth- and fifth-grade ELLs, native speakers of Haitian-Creole from two speech communities, were given the same set of mathematics items in the standard English and standard Haitian-Creole dialects (Sample 1) or in the standard and local dialects of Haitian-Creole (Samples 2 and 3). The largest measurement error observed was produced by the interaction of student, item, and code. Our results indicate that the reliability and dependability of ELL achievement measures is affected by two facts that operate in combination: Each test item poses a unique set of linguistic challenges and each student has a unique set of linguistic strengths and weaknesses. This sensitivity to language appears to take place at the level of dialect. Also, students from different speech communities within the same broad linguistic group may differ considerably in the number of items needed to obtain dependable measures of their academic achievement. Whether students are tested in English or in their first language, dialect variation needs to be considered if language as a source of measurement error is to be effectively addressed.

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The Use of Generalizability (G) Theory in the Testing of Linguistic Minorities

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Guillermo Solano-Flores is Associate Professor of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language, University of Colorado at Boulder, School of Education, 249 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0249; Guillermo.Solano@colorado.edu . His areas of specialization include educational measurement, testing of English-language learners, test development, and test review methods.

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                        Articles Artifact #7: Words, Status, Capital

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                        Articles Artifact #7: Words, Status, Capital

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Student’s ability to learn academic language relies heavily on their socioeconomic status. According to this article, there is a relation between children’s SES and what they’re able to produce in terms of words when compared amongst the different SES classes. I chose to include this artifact because it highlights how culture, SES, and language all intersect. In reference to this article, younger students who come from a higher SES family have a more expansive vocabulary than those who don’t.

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              Articles Artifact #8: Technology+Social Media=Dialect

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              Articles Artifact #8: Technology+Social Media=Dialect

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Technology has allowed for communication to happen so quickly and easily. Through technology, we're able to reach people from all other the world. This article was reviewed in class and demonstrates how technology and dialect can come together. In this article, Twitter is mentioned as being a way for how people study a language. From twitter you are able to see how people of different regions and ethnicities use and spell certain words. Internet dialect seems to be a form of language that has developed. For this reason, I included this article as an artifact.

Callen, K. (2011). Creating a World Class Safety Culture Where Two Cultures
Collide. Brasil Offshore. doi:10.2118/143792-ms

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With vast, sophisticated social networking sites, you could say the world has never felt smaller.

Many have referred to the internet being very much a "global village".

But even though we are now supposedly part of one huge web community with a shared lexicon, we still maintain characteristics specific to our locality - even when we communicate in just 140 characters.

That is according to a new study by Dr Jacob Eisenstein from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

I really think that the availability of data like Twitter is a real game-changer for how people study language.
Jacob Eisenstein, Carnegie Mellon University

He used geo-tagging to locate 9,500 users of Twitter across the US to see if, when comparing how we chat among our friends, people in the same places speak in similar ways.

His study of over 380,000 tweets revealed that even with Twitter's ultra-succinct limitations, people in Washington, for example, used different words and spellings to people in New York.

"We had a certain set of expectations going in," he told the BBC World Service's Digital Planet programme.

"We expected people would talk about the city that they live in, local sports teams, local celebrities. There were certain words that we know from spoken English that are associated with certain parts of the US.

"What surprised us was that, in addition to the sorts of words and names that we expected to see, there was a whole other class of words that seemed to have a very strong geographical affinity that we had never known about before."

Hella koo

Take "you". Almost everywhere, it is common to see it shortened to a simple "u".

However, Mr Eisenstein spotted that in urban areas of the US, a different shortening of "yu" was common. But when it came to tweeters in rural areas it was rarely seen.

Even more specifically, in New York, "uu" - meaning the same thing - was used.

Other words like "something" get similar treatment. "Somethin" is widespread, but many in the Big Apple prefer "suttin".

In Northern California, something considered "cool" is often described as "koo", but South Californians are more likely to write "coo".

North Californians are also prone to being "hella" tired, rather than just "very".

Most interestingly, said Dr Eisenstein, these are variations that do not simply reflect written versions of existing dialect. Rather, these seem to be online-only accents.

"There are certainly things that we're seeing in Twitter that would be very hard to bring into your speech."

A further example is in acronyms. Popular since the early days of web-speak, phrases like "lol" - laugh out loud - become less popular in places like Washington DC, where 'lls' - the long form of which is unpublishable here - is widely used as well.

"There are a number of other abbreviations like that, most of which involve profanity, unfortunately, but that are very geographically specific."

Internet dialect

In the UK, David Crystal, language expert and honorary professor of Linguistics at Bangor University, brought together his study of the use of language on the internet in a book, Internet Linguistics.

He believes that the type of language used on Twitter relates more to a person's ethnicity rather than geographical location.

"The tweets I've seen aren't very regional distinctive," he said.

We're able to do things on a much larger scale. We're going to scale it up to 100,000 to look at the UK as well as the United States.
Jacob Eisenstein

"It's a bit early days yet to see dialects starting to appear," said Prof Crystal. "The one thing about internet language, people join it and what quickly evolves is an 'internet dialect' as it were."

"I suppose the first thing you notice is whether it's British or American in the sense that British spelling will be used. Although there is quite a lot of deviant spelling on the internet, I saw, on the whole, a great deal of standard English spelling."

He adds that when Twitter changed its page to ask "What's happening?" rather than "What are you doing?", people began to adapt their language to suit the new question.

"'What's happening?' means it has become much more of a news service over the past few months," he said. "As a result, when you take a collection of tweets, what you get, over half the time these days, is advertisements and news reports which is much more related to the sort of language you'd get in a newspaper or on the BBC or things like that."

Youthful spontaneity

Prof Crystal said that stronger dialect intricacies could be found on Facebook, rather than Twitter. He puts this down to the younger age of the typical Facebook user.

"As a result you don't get that immediate, young, youthful spontaneity that you see so clearly on Facebook."

"You can tell immediately, 'oh here's a group of kids from Liverpool'," he said. "That's not so easy to find out on Twitter."

Digital Planet

Digital Planet is the weekly technology programme broadcast from the BBC World Service

It is broadcast on Tuesday at 1232GMT and repeated at 1632GMT, 2032GMT and on Wednesday at 0032GMT

Listen to Digital Planet Download as a podcast Discuss on Facebook More from BBC World Service
Dr Eisenstein noted that the dialects he observed in Twitter use did not exist so prominently in blogs. This could be because blogs present a more formal approach to communication, thus making language more homogenised across the entire web.

For this reason, most studies of dialect in the past have relied on face-to-face interviews rather than written communication. Mr Eisenstein said he was excited about the possibilities for researching dialect that technology offers.

"I really think that the availability of data like Twitter is a real game-changer for how people study language.

"There's a lot of richness you can get by doing a personal interview in terms of finding out someone's life story, and exactly how their location effects the way that they speak.

"On the other hand, we're able to do things on a much larger scale. We're going to scale it up to 100,000 to look at the UK as well as the United States.

"It's something that you could really apply throughout the world."

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With vast, sophisticated social networking sites, you could say the world has never felt smaller. Many have referred to the internet being very much a "global village". But even though we are now supposedly part of one huge web community with a shared lexicon, we still maintain characteristics specific to our locality - even when we communicate in just 140 characters.

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                                                           Images

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The these comics and images you can the symbolism and power that language holds when code switching, linguistically profiling, through digital literacy,  and perception.

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                             Image  Artifact #9: Code-switching

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                             Image  Artifact #9: Code-switching

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Code-switching can occur in different forms, settings, and purposes. Code-switching has many benefits. During this course, we’ve discussed “language disability or learning difference?” I chose to include this as an artifact because it represents how code-switching can be a positive thing for students and not a disability. Code-switching usually occurs when people want to fit in. It’s  a great tool that fosters convenience when trying to communicate because it makes words that are not available in some language better for expressing ideas. Code-switching also has the unique ability to allow you to match your language to the listener's ability to process, which makes it beneficial for the listener as well. Although code switching mainly occurs orally it can happen in writing as well.  For this reason, I chose to include this as an artifact.

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Code switching (also code-switching, CS) is the practice of moving back and forth between two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language at one time. Code switching occurs far more often in conversation than in writing. It is also called code-mixing and style-shifting. It is studied by linguists to examine when people do it, such as under what circumstances do bilingual speakers switch from one to another, and it is studied by sociologists to determine why people do it, such as how it relates to their belonging to a group or the surrounding context of the conversation (casual, professional, etc.)

Examples and Observations

"Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985). First, people may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language (but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches). Second, code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native languages) to formal situations (using the second language). Third, code-switching is used to exert control, especially between parents and children. Fourth, code-switching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group). Code-switching also 'functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)." (William B. Gudykunst, Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. Sage, 2004)

"In a relatively small Puerto Rican neighborhood in New Jersey, some members freely used code-switching styles and extreme forms of borrowing both in everyday casual talk and in more formal gatherings. Other local residents were careful to speak only Spanish with a minimum of loans on formal occasions, reserving code-switching styles for informal talk. Others again spoke mainly English, using Spanish or code-switching styles only with small children or with neighbors." (John J. Gumperz and Jenny Cook-Gumperz, "Introduction: Language and the Communication of Social Identity." "Language and Social Identity." Cambridge University Press, 1982)

African-American Vernacular English and Standard American English

"It is common to find references to Black speakers who code switch between AAVE [African-American Vernacular English] and SAE [Standard American English] in the presence of whites or others speaking SAE. In employment interviews (Hopper & WIlliams, 1973; Akinnaso & Ajirotutu, 1982), formal education in a range of settings (Smitherman, 2000), legal discourse (Garner & Rubin, 1986), and various other contexts, it is advantageous for Blacks to have code-switching competence. For a Black person who can switch from AAVE to SAE in the presence of others who are speaking SAE, code switching is a skill that holds benefits in relation to the way success is often measured in institutional and professional settings. However, there are more dimensions to code switching than the Black/white patterns in institutional settings." (George B. Ray, "Language and Interracial Communication in the United States: Speaking in Black and White." Peter Lang, 2009)

"The tendency to reify code switching as a unitary and clearly identifiable phenomenon has been questioned by [Penelope] Gardner-Chloros (1995: 70), who prefers to view code switching as a 'fuzzy-edged concept.' For her, the conventional view of code switching implies that speakers make binary choices, operating in one code or the other at any given time, when in fact code switching overlaps with other kinds of bilingual mixture, and the boundaries between them are difficult to establish. Moreover, it is often impossible to categorize the two codes involved in code switching as discrete and isolatable." (Donald Winford, "An Introduction to Contact Linguistics." Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)

Code Switching and Language Change

"The role of CS, along with other symptoms of contact, in language change is still a matter of discussion. ... On the one hand, the relationship between contact and language change is now generally acknowledged: few espouse the traditional view that change follows universal, language-internal principles such as simplification, and takes place in the absence of contact with other varieties (James Milroy 1998). On the other hand, ... some researchers still downplay the role of CS in change, and contrast it with borrowing, which is seen as a form of convergence." (Penelope Gardner-Chloros, "Contact and Code-Switching." "The Handbook of Language Contact," ed. by Raymond Hickey. Blackwell, 2010)

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Code switching (also code-switching, CS) is the practice of moving back and forth between two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language at one time. Code switching occurs far more often in conversation than in writing. It is also called code-mixing and style-shifting.

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                            Image  Artifact #10: I knew you from "hello"

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                            Image  Artifact #10: I knew you from "hello"

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Many people assume the ethnic backgrounds of others from their first “Hello” while on the telephone. This is a form of linguistic profiling and it often connected to linguistic discrimination. I chose to include this as an artifact because it represents an implication of language and dialect and how is play a role in linguistic profiling. It relates to class because it highlights how profiling occurs. Although the U.S has a wide range of both cultural and language diversity, there are still members of our society who hold more language security than others. Linguistic profiling has a deep connection to race and economic class. Your social characteristics are assumed based on various auditory cues and more specifically on dialect and accent.

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Linguistic profiling: The sound of your voice may determine if you get that apartment or not - The Source - Washington University in St. Louis

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Many Americans can guess a caller’s ethnic background from their first hello on the telephone. Can the sound of your voice be used against you?However, the inventor of the term “linguistic profiling” has found that when a voice sounds African-American or Mexican-American, racial discrimination may…

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                                    Image Artifact #11: Digital 

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                                    Image Artifact #11: Digital 

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The term “literacy” is usually associated with reading and writing, but it can be much more. Having the things such as ipads, laptops, and books into the classroom open up a new window for literacy. Language forms can be included in technology (digital literacy), this form of literacy expands the ability of its users. Students are able to grow in technical skills and cognitively. Language is not the only thing that is evolving but the way in which we can access material is rapidly evolving as well. Learning and literacy don't always have to come in the form of a book, paper, and pencil. This relates to our class because it shows how language forms can be included in technology. For this reason, I chose to include this artifact.

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8 Essential Digital Literacy Skills That Students Need

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What was once called typing class is now known as technology class. Gone are the days where computer class was spent playing Oregon Trail and creating word processing documents. The networked world in which students exist demands an education that prepares students to produce and consume information in a variety of formats.

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                                    Image Artifact #12: Am I right? 

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                                    Image Artifact #12: Am I right? 

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I chose this article because it demonstrates cultural perception and cultural interactions. This picture also connects to class when discussing what we perceive to be a cultural identification but it can easily fall under the category of assumptions. We perceive people to act or be a certain way based on their dressed or how they physically look. This pic also demonstrates just how important it is to understand or be informed of one's cultures before we began to make assumptions. For these reasons, I chose to include this artifact.

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I can still picture a colleague of mine in the Paris office coming out of a meeting with a prospective German client in a wild panic :

"I have no idea whether it went well"

"Why is that?"

"The strangest thing just happened at the end of my presentation: they banged repeatedly on the table, every single one of them!"

"Don't worry then, it went well!"

Still, he was shaken and went back into the meeting not as confident as when the day started.

When in a formal presentation, Germans traditionally knock on the table with one hand as if to applaud. It's their way of appreciating what has been said to them. If one does not know that, it can be quite a strange experience, a surprising one to say the least.

This short episode highlights 2 things: on one hand, the presenter not knowing what to expect from his audience, and on the other hand the audience acting the way they would back home, not considering how this may affect the presenter.

A simple case of not understanding cultural differences. With a little bit of awareness, an uncomfortable situation can be avoided on both sides.

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I can still picture a colleague of mine in the Paris office coming out of a meeting with a prospective German client in a wild panic : "I have no idea whether it went well" "Why is that?" "The strangest thing just happened at the end of my presentation: they banged repeatedly on the table, every single one of them!"

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                                   Image Artifact #13:On the map

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                                   Image Artifact #13:On the map

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Language contributes to the discussion of profiling, as a continuation I chose to add in this image. We've centered have centered a lot of our discussion this semester around language profiling. Pronunciation and dialect were heavily covered, as well as accents. The image shows the perception that many have of people from Southern states. The image can also connect to the conversation about who we speak or predicts others speak due to their region/geographic location. For this reason, I chose to add this artifact.

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Southern Dialect Cartoons and Comics - funny pictures from CartoonStock

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Southern Dialect funny cartoons from CartoonStock directory - the world's largest on-line collection of cartoons and comics.

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                                      Image Artifact #14: Accents

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                                      Image Artifact #14: Accents

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I chose to include this artifact because is highlights individuality. In relation to class, we discussed accents and how they exist throughout the language. I interpreted this comic as showing how we may all speak English but sound different due to our accents. We all have accents, and there is someone that we all sound "different", appreciation and acceptance helps to rid the judgment that comes from having a different accent. For this reason, I chose to include this artifact.

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I'm English, and have a skanky Hull accent. "Eeee, reet good I tell thee!"
HK is Australian, and has an Australian accent. "By crikey! I'm gonna jump on that crocodile!"

Heh, it's funny how some people can be speaking exactly the same language, but still cannot understand each other because of accents. Amazing, yes!

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I'm English, and have a skanky Hull accent. "Eeee, reet good I tell thee!" HK is Australian, and has an Australian accent. "By crikey! I'm gonna jump on that crocodile!" Heh, it's funny how some people can be speaking exactly the same language, but still cannot understand each other because of accents.

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                      Image Artifact #15: Power of the Tongue

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                      Image Artifact #15: Power of the Tongue

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As a class, we’ve all shared, collaborated together, given personal/ideas on how reading, writing, listening and speaking help to develop language. We’ve been able to look at language implications, profiling, and discrimination, and capital plays a role in our language development. Moving forward as learners and individuals we are now able to see how we can help rid the bias and negative components that live within these four domains of language. We all have something to add to the conversation of language development, and for this reason, I’m choosing to add in the artifact.