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Circle of Friends - The Path to Inclusion

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Bringing Support TO the Students Just Let them Eat Cake!

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Introduction

Classroom teachers have used graphic organizers for years to help students gather, sift through, organize, and share information. Graphic organizers are appealing because they have a wide range use and adaptability for many different topics and subjects. General education teachers are familiar with common layouts for graphic organizers but may not be as familiar with how to adapt graphic organizers for students with varied learning needs. This TIPs sheet will expand on the traditional graphic organizer formats to show how they can be differentiated to meet the needs of students with the most significant cognitive disabilities through the use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL).

Evidence

Although graphic organizers are commonly used by both general education teachers and special education teachers, teachers must consider what aspects of the graphic organizer might present barriers given the diversity of student characteristics in an inclusive classroom. For example, a student with cerebral palsy and a significant cognitive disability who has an orthotic brace on her arm will need adaptations to participate when students are writing into a graphic organizer. It is not sufficient to simply pair the student with a general education peer and have her watch the peer write in the graphic organizer, but rather materials will need to be adapted so the student can actively and independently manipulate word cards or objects to place them into a graphic organizer. This could still be done with a peer but the two would be working with the adapted materials together.

In a recent evidence-based practice review by Saunders et al. (2020), graphic organizers were found to be a promising practice for use with students with significant cognitive disabilities for academic instruction in inclusive settings. In this review, graphic organizers were used to teach reading comprehension of text in subject areas such as science (Jimenez et al., 2012) and social studies (Wood et al., 2015). Although positive effects were observed in these two studies for the use of graphic organizers during instruction for students with significant cognitive disabilities, additional research is needed to promote the use of graphic organizers to a research-based practice (i.e., more participants, research teams, and geographical regions). The implication for practitioners is that graphic organizers can help students with significant cognitive disabilities show higher level thinking skills that are aligned to the complexity of the grade level academic standards.

Teachers have many variables to consider when thinking about how to design accessible graphic organizers in an inclusive classroom. Students come with various levels of performance, preferred modes of learning, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and prior experience, which can all affect how each student learns (Meyer, Rose, & Gordon, 2014). Teachers must decide, based on learner characteristics, how to implement UDL principles when designing lesson plans involving graphic organizers, so all students have access to the content through multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression. When applying the UDL framework, no student, including students with significant cognitive disabilities, should be defined by their perceived impairments and support needed to access to learning in the inclusive classroom (Hartmann, 2015). Teachers serving inclusive classrooms can think of the UDL framework as one way to address learner variability, in which a student with a significant cognitive disability is an expected part of the natural diversity and should be embraced using the teachers' skill set in universal design (Hartmann, 2015).

Definition and Examples

Graphic organizers are an instructional tool used to aid in comprehension or to organize key information. They can be used as an activity to help students retain information they've learned for a longer period of time. Students, including those with emergent literacy skills, limited English fluency, and diverse learning styles can often process information in a graphic organizer more easily than from traditional text. Graphic organizers can help students focus their thoughts for planning, decision making, and writing. They help students see connections, patterns, and relationships. They can also help students show understanding of the "big picture" from a lesson or book.

The table below describes common graphic organizers types, with the purpose and the essential feature of each. These essential features are non-negotiable. They must be present when using these graphic organizers. However, as adaptations are made to the graphic organizer, the purpose and essential feature must be kept intact. See the implementation section for how adaptations can be made to increase accessibility for students with significant cognitive disabilities.

Table 1: The Purpose and Essential Features of Common Graphic Organizers

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect chain

Problem and solution map

Fishbone diagram

Analyze a series of events or processes, potentially for a complex topic

Classifying

Web (Bubble map)

Classification table (T-Chart)

Sort or classify items into different categories

Comparing and Contrasting

Venn diagram

Compare-contrast matrix

Identify similar (overlapping) and different characteristics of items

Describing

Identify examples and non-examples of vocabulary terms/connections between vocabulary terms

Sequencing

Flowchart

Series of events chain

Cycle

Timeline

Break down important steps or events in a process or sequence

Implementation

Graphic organizers often incorporate higher level thought processes and can easily be modified for all learners using principles of UDL. Planning is key for successful implementation of differentiated graphic organizers because teachers must think ahead for all of their students to make sure they can access the content in a universal way by considering representation, expression, and engagement.

For students who may require an adaptation to traditional graphic organizers, teachers should consider adaptations based on students' ability to perceive, engage, and respond with the graphic organizer and the content they are synthesizing with it. Providing multiple means of representation with a graphic organizer could involve customizing how it is displayed, including the use of objects or symbols. Providing multiple means of engagement involves promoting student interests, choices, and the relevance of the task. Lastly, providing multiple means of action/expression involves allowing variability in student response modes. This is especially important for students with complex communication needs. See Table 2 for suggestions for adaptations to graphic organizers for students in general, including students with significant cognitive disabilities.

Table 2. Suggested Graphic Organizer Adaptations Using Elements of Universal Design for Learning

Elements of Universal Design for Learning

Graphic Organizer Adaptations

Adaptations for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

Representation

making the graphic organizer less detailed

offering a digital version of the graphic organizer

using tactile supports to build graphic organizer (wiki sticks, hula hoops)

laminated materials for repeated instruction/experiences

Action/Expression

providing a word bank

using pre-cut out words to sort

providing all the information that needs to go in the graphic organizer on the graphic organizer

allowing the use of technology to create

using color coded index cards for sorting items into categories

providing a word bank with visual supports

offer choices other than writing in graphic organizer (dictating to a scribe, choice making, sorting words/pictures/objects, use of AAC)

having the student use color coded stickers on preprinted cards to organize by category

using larger, laminated options with Velcro

Engagement

incorporating student interest

offering choice when appropriate

allowing open notes

providing page numbers to look back in their books

having a few answers filled in already

offering examples/nonexamples

incorporating technology

appropriate prompting and reinforcement to allow student to experience success

incorporating the use of peers to build a permanent product

incorporating technology

The following are examples and descriptions on how these adaptations might be applied for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities across a range of skills.

In this example the general education teacher asks students to use a t-chart to show examples and non-examples of the value "4". General education peers are asked to write examples of "4" and "not 4" using written or drawn examples. Students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in this classroom engage with this graphic organizer by sorting pre-cut paper with examples and non-examples of the value "4" on a T-chart.

In this example the general education teacher asks students to explore properties and attributes of three-dimensional shapes by categorizing them as round, flat, or both. The majority of the class uses printed pictures of three-dimensional shapes by cutting and pasting them into their math journals where they have to draw their own Venn diagram. For students with significant cognitive disabilities, sorting tangible objects may be the best way to categorize each of the shapes.

In this example the general education teacher asks students to do a literary analysis of Moby Dick using a concept map. Some of the students in the classroom in the general education population begin to do so on a blank sheet of paper following the concept map format the teacher gives with each major headings filled out. Students with the most significant cognitive disabilities can utilize wiki sticks and preprinted cards to build a concept map.

Frayer Model. In this example the general education teacher asks students to review properties of lines and angles. The students in the classroom take the laminated cards the teacher made and copy them into their math notebooks. Students with the most significant cognitive disabilities are supported by having a more succinct definition and example graphic organizer, such as the triangle Frayer model below.

Here is an additional example video demonstration of differentiated fishbone graphic organizer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUqfwv3izO4 . This video clip shows how one teacher uses the Fishbone for first grade students by modifying it for all the students in the classroom. The adaptations include requiring less text in boxes instead of lines and opportunities to draw examples. Although a student with a significant cognitive disability is not included in this video example, the teacher could extend the modification given to the whole class by having preprinted images for placement in the modified fishbone graphic organizer.

In each one of these examples, students with the most significant cognitive disabilities were considered in the design and implementation of the adaptations within each of the traditional graphic organizer formats. It is important to note that these adaptations can be used for a wide variety of students, not just those with significant cognitive disabilities. Teachers must seek to avoid "islands in the mainstream" (Biklen, 1992, p. 148), by carefully creating adaptations that maintain the essential features of the task (see Table 1). The goal of providing adaptations to graphic organizers in an inclusive classroom for students with significant cognitive disabilities is to help them engage with the content and participate alongside their peers, not separate from them.

Summary

Graphic organizers are a flexible tool that have applications across academic content areas and populations of students with and without disabilities. General education and special education teachers can work together to match the materials and formatting to fit individual student needs; however, when planned with UDL, all students can access content through the use graphic organizers.

TIPS Series: Tip #10, August 2020

The information in this Brief is not an endorsement of any identified products. Products identified in this Brief are shared solely as examples to help communicate information about ways to reach the desired goals for students.

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Reyes, E. N., Wakeman, S., & Bowman, J. (2020). The Use of Graphic Organizers in Inclusive Classrooms for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities (TIPS Series: Tip #10). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is the national technical assistance center on inclusive practices and policies. Its purpose is to create sustainable changes in kindergarten-grade 8 school and district educational systems so that students with significant cognitive disabilities can fully engage in the same instructional and non-instructional activities as their general education peers, while being instructed in a way that meets individual learning needs. TIES Center is led by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) at the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, and includes the following additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina - Charlotte, and University of North Carolina - Greensboro.

TIES Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Foundations of Inclusion | TIP #10: The Use of Graphic Organizers in Inclusive Classrooms for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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Classroom teachers have used graphic organizers for years to help students gather, sift through, organize, and share information. Graphic organizers are appealing because they have a wide range use and adaptability for many different topics and subjects.

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Introduction

Supporting students with significant communication needs who require augmentative alternative communication (AAC) use in inclusive classrooms can be challenging. However, the inclusive class is also the place with the most potential for supporting students to use all their communicative modes, including their AAC devices, because of the number of opportunities to practice communication.

Everyone benefits when we communicate well. In other words, when everyone models the use of AAC for a variety of communicative purposes, individuals better understand one another. When the school community collaborates to ensure fidelity in the implementation of communication strategies, the entire school community gains.

Evidence

The inclusive classroom has proven to be the most effective placement for supporting students who are AAC users and have complex communication challenges (Biggs, Carter, Mazur, Barnes, & Bumble, 2018; Biggs, Carter, & Gustafson, 2017; Ganz, Rispoli, Mason, & Hong, 2014; Kleinert, Kearns, Liu, Lazarus, Thurlow (2019). In inclusive classrooms there is an opportunity for everyone (e.g., teachers, paraprofessionals, peers, etc.) to model the use of AAC for a variety of communicative purposes. Peers play an especially important part in the inclusive classroom. Encouraging peers to use AAC provides a wonderful opportunity to develop relationships and increase understanding between classmates.

Definitions

Aided language modeling is modeling of the use of a student's AAC system by individuals in the environment who do not have significant communications needs.

Augmentative alternative communication (AAC) refers to communication methods (other than oral speech) used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas (Kleinert, Holman, McSheehan, & Kearns, 2010).

Core words are words (e.g. verbs, adjectives/adverbs, and pronouns) used for a variety of communicative intents (e.g. requesting - "want"; commenting - "love"; refusing "stop"). These are the words that comprise most of the content in a typical conversation. There are a relatively small set of core words, which students can successfully use in a range of communicative opportunities and interactions throughout the day.

Fringe words are nouns that are specific to persons, places, or things that are highly specific or unique to the user and/or an activity in which they are involved.

Motor planning refers to planning, and carrying out a motor activity (in this case ones that are supportive of communication) in the correct sequence.

Multi-modal communication refers to the many ways people communicate with each other, including spoken language, written language, eye-gaze, facial expressions, gestures, signs, or combinations of these.

Implementation

Multi-modal communication encourages the student to use a variety of communicative forms, for a variety of purposes. This includes the use of AAC. And, as with all learning, an increased number of opportunities to communicate results in improved communication.

Acknowledge and Attribute. To help students with significant communications needs develop new communications skills as they participate in inclusive classrooms, it is important to acknowledge and attribute meaning to any potential communicative effort even if, and especially if, the listener is not sure of the intended message. Acknowledge by specifying the communicative behavior and the intended message (e.g., "Your smile tells me you like __" Or "Yikes, crying tells me you don't want to ___; you are saying "no".) Even challenging behaviors are communicative and generally occur because other communicative signals have not been acknowledged.

Ensure Access to AAC Always and Everywhere. In order to enhance access to AAC systems, it is a good idea to have both low-tech and high-tech AAC options available. Maintenance of the symbol/word position on the array is essential for fostering motor planning.

Access to content words is also important. This enables students with significant communications needs to participate in class discussions.

Encourage AAC Use by the Student Without Requiring It. The many forms of multi-modal communication (e.g., eye-gaze, facial expressions, gestures, signs, or combinations of these) makes it easy for an AAC user to communicate intents. The conversation can be expanded by modeling on the individual's device or using a separate picture symbol array on a folder, lanyard, or tablet to model asking a question or confirming the student's communication. It is important however, to use the student's preferred mode (e.g. facial expressions, eye-gaze, gestures, signs, etc.) while encouraging and modeling but NOT requiring them to use the device.

Model, Model, and Model More. Aided language modeling is a highly effective AAC intervention strategy. Modeling slows down the partner's speech so the student has time to process the partner's message. Individuals are often not aware of how fast they speak. Not only is this helpful for students using symbol and word arrays or speech generating devices (SGD), but also for students who use oral speech but need to work on vocal production. Using core words on lanyard, classroom poster, or speech generating device will be helpful.

Wait Expectantly. Waiting for the student to initiate or respond encourages participation and improves communication. This is especially important if a motor response is required. Some students may need up to 30 seconds to process the request and execute a response. Some students may need even more time.

Teach Everyone. Everyone who interacts with a student with significant communications needs should be taught how the student communicates. This includes teaching professionals, parents, paraprofessionals, and especially peers. Teach them to recognize all the communicative forms the student uses. With the appropriate permission, video clips of the student communicating can be a very helpful tool to share with others to help them learn how a student communicates. Teach everyone to use AAC with the student for a variety of communicative purposes.

Summary

Successfully including a student with significant communication needs in a general education classroom requires a team. This team includes all the Ps - professionals, parents, and peers. It is especially important to include peers. This team expects communication, attributes meaning, ensures access to AAC, encourages AAC use but does not require the student to use it, and waits an adequate amount of time for the student to respond. Everyone benefits when we better understand one another, and when multi-modal communication is the norm in a classroom.
PrAACtical AAC Project Core
TIPS Series: Tip #4, January, 2020

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Kearns, J., & Kleinert, J. (2020). Successfully using communication practices in the inclusive class (TIPS Series: Tip #4). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is supported through a cooperative agreement between the University of Minnesota (# H326Y170004) and the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. The Center is affiliated with the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) which is affiliated with the Institute on Community Integration (ICI) at the College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota. The contents of this report were developed under the Cooperative Agreement from the U.S. Department of Education, but do not necessarily represent the policy or opinions of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Readers should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

The National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) leads the TIES Center partnership. There are six additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North-Carolina-Charlotte, and University of North Carolina-Greensboro.

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Communicative Competence | TIP #4: Successfully Using Communication Practices in the Inclusive Class

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Supporting students with significant communication needs who require augmentative alternative communication (AAC) use in inclusive classrooms can be challenging. However, the inclusive class is also the place with the most potential for supporting students to use all their communicative modes, including their AAC devices, because of the number of opportunities to practice communication.

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TIES TIPS | Communicative Competence | TIP #1: How Peers Can Support AAC Use by Students with Significant Communication Needs

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During this course Educators will learn about developing grade aligned literacy lessons for story-based lessons to improve students’ comprehension outcomes. In the last 2 weeks of Phase 1, the teachers can begin the Phase 2 training. Educator teams can work through each module together or individual…

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Using Graphic Organizers to Support Students with Disabilities

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National Center on Health, Physical Activity and Disability (NCHPAD)

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Universal Design for Learning in Physical Education

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Intensive Interventions for Students Struggling in Reading & Math 

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Interactive Learning Sites for Education

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Interactive Learning Sites for Education

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Young children enjoy learning about the scientific method and how the world works. Students will be engaged in many experiments to learn science first hand. Children should be encouraged to think like a scientist. Becoming an observant person and noticing the world around you is such an important skill for life. No matter the age we can always learn something new about our world.

Students will be learning about electrical circuits, weathering and erosion, animal and plant adaptations, along with studying transportation systems and devices that operate on or in land, water, air, and space.

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Young children enjoy learning about the scientific method and how the world works. Students will be engaged in many experiments to learn science first hand. Children should be encouraged to think...

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The most important thing you can do to help your child in math this year is to focus on mastering all math facts as quickly as possible. In the elementary grades we will be learning 2-digit addition, subtraction, multiplication and long division before the end of 5th grade. Please use the following links to find resources to help your child become success with many math concepts.

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The most important thing you can do to help your child in math this year is to focus on mastering all math facts as quickly as possible. In the elementary grades we will be learning 2-digit...

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Language arts is a term used to include all areas of communicating in English whether written or spoken. In school the subject areas include reading, spelling, language, grammar, and writing. Your child will be learning specific rules for identifying and using all of the parts of speech including: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and interjections.

Your child receives a separate spelling, reading, and language arts grade. The language arts grade focuses on assessing your child's understanding of writing and speaking in proper English. Weekly grammar skills, writing stories, reports, and speeches are all included in the language grade.

Please click on the links below to find many helpful resources.

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Language arts is a term used to include all areas of communicating in English whether written or spoken.

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Reading is a gift. It opens up so many opportunities for life long learning. I hope the resources linked below will help in opening up the gift of reading for your students. If you are currently using the Reading Wonders or Scott Foresman 4th grade reading series, you may want to explore the resources linked below. You can also find a treasure trove of links to reading skills taught in all elementary schools.

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Visit these resource sites to help your students open and enjoy the gift of reading!

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"national geographic" kids "nat geo kids" "nat geo" ng ngk education edutainment children parents safe video digital playlists

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Nat Geo Kids makes it fun to explore the world with weird, wild, and wacky videos featuring awesome animals like sharks, tigers and lions, cool science, funny pets, and more! Come back every week for new videos!

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includes lesson ideas, materials, essential elements, etc.

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Kindergarten Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 MJ 6 MJ 7 Pre-Algebra MJ 8 Algebra 1 Algebra 1a Algebra 1b Geometry Algebra 2 Mathematics for Data and Financial Literacy Mathematics for Liberal Arts

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 Modifications for ELA--Various resources

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 Modifications for ELA--Various resources

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Mission: To provide resources that facilitate the teaching and learning of access points.

Vision: All students living independent and fulfilling lives.

BEESS Discretionary Project

The Access Project is funded by the State of Florida, Department of Education, Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services (BEESS) through federal assistance under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B.

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Mission: To provide resources that facilitate the teaching and learning of access points. Vision: All students living independent and fulfilling lives. BEESS Discretionary Project The Access Project is funded by the State of Florida, Department of Education, Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services (BEESS) through federal assistance under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B.

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Link to Modified Materials for Social Studies

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Link to Modified Materials for Social Studies

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Link to lesson ideas, materials and other resources for modifying social studies.

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Happy Learning is a new channel with educational videos for kids of all ages, in which parents, teachers and students can find complementary contents to their own curricular ones. We educate by entertaining, we teach in a fun way and open the gates for our children to discover the wonderful world of knowledge, helping them grow their curiosity and desire to learn.

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Introduction

Grading is the most widely used way to evaluate students' academic progress. Teachers in inclusive classrooms must carefully consider the grading process to provide fair and equitable grades for the range of students in their classrooms. The basis for grading is often dictated by school or district policies and can vary by school level (i.e., elementary, middle, high school). Grading can be based on rubrics, a point system, a completion checklist, or a combination of these. Teachers often calculate grades by determining the earned points out of the total possible points or by assigning weights to assignments based on the length or complexity of the assignment (Brooksher, 2017). The purpose of this TIPS is to share grading considerations and potential adaptations for grading to provide fair and accurate grades for students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Links to additional TIPS in the grading series are provided at the end.

Grades are recorded and reported in a variety of formats. Electronic formats, learning management systems, or school information systems may be used for reporting grades. Understanding how to navigate the grading process for students with significant cognitive disabilities can be complex. A foundation of a strong grading system is to identify the purpose of the grade in a fair and equitable grading system (i.e., what is the intended meaning of the grade). Establishing what a grade "means" for a student leads to increased student, parent, and teacher satisfaction in an inclusive classroom (Munk & Bursuck, 2004). Grading requires a collaborative process to determine both what is being graded and how it is being graded.

Evidence

Research has been conducted on grading practices for the majority of students in classrooms (McMillan, 2001; McMillan et al., 2002), but research is lacking on grading practices for students with disabilities, especially for students with significant cognitive disabilities (Jung, 2009; Jung & Guskey, 2010) in inclusive settings. In a survey of teachers working in K-12 inclusive classrooms (Kurth et al., 2012) results showed (a) general and special education teachers use different practices and have different preferences for grading students with low-incidence disabilities; (b) general and special educators reported differences in their level of comfort and training for grading, with special educators feeling more prepared to grade these students; (c) elementary teachers were more likely to accept modified work than secondary teachers; and (d) secondary teachers reported using modifications to instruction less frequently than elementary school teachers.

Two Types of Grading

Common Grading System

A common grading system involves teachers assigning letter grades to students based on percentage of points earned toward accuracy on an assignment. Grades are typically reported as A, B, C, D, or F. In this grading system, a student cannot pass a course with a grade of F, or failing. Work habits such as participation, effort, and attendance may factor into the points system and account for a portion of the total letter grade.

Standards-Based Grading

Standards-based grading involves teachers grading students based on specific academic learning standards and assigning a grade based on student mastery on the standards (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006). Grades often are reported as 4 (advanced), 3 (proficient), 2 (basic), and (1) below basic. A rubric is used to describe the performance at each level. Behaviors such as responsibility, work habits, and attentiveness are rated separately. Standards-based grading is recommended for use at all grade levels and with students with disabilities (O'Connor, 2009).

Implementation

Implementing a fair and equitable grading system for students with significant cognitive disabilities in an inclusive classroom should be based on both quality considerations and the focus of the learning criteria.

Four Quality Considerations for Grading

The William & Mary Training & Technical Assistance Center (2015) outlined four quality considerations for grading within the inclusive classroom. These included (a) grades are accurate, (b) grades are meaningful, (c) grades are consistent, and (d) grades are supportive of learning. The authors suggest that these conditions must be in place for all students in inclusive classrooms. For more information about the four quality grading considerations see: Inclusive Grading and Progress-Monitoring Practices

Three Types of Learning Criteria

Effective grading focuses on establishing clear standards for how learning is measured across three main categories. High-quality grading and reporting for all students consider how graded items fit into three types of learning criteria: product, process, and progress (Jung & Guskey, 2010). Teachers should report grades in each learning criteria category separately to eliminate the possibility of having one grade reflect a combination of the types of evidence (Jung & Guskey, 2010). Having information aggregated by each category can help inform intervention decisions (Jung & Guskey, 2007).

Table 1. Product, Process, or Progress

Adaptations for Grading

The practice of making grading adaptations is not a new practice, but within an inclusive classroom, teachers must ask, "what does the grade mean?" Teachers must use a systematic approach when making decisions on how to adapt grading for students. Research suggests that grading adaptations may be a solution for students with disabilities who have a history of low or inaccurate grades, and could result in improvement in mastering general education standards (Silva et al., 2005). Grading adaptations require teachers to use informed judgment in a systematic way to address students' individual strengths and needs. Silva et al. (2005) identify five types of grading adaptations that involve basing all or part of a student's grade on the following criteria: (a) progress on IEP objectives, (b) improvement over past performances, (c) performance on prioritized content and assignments, (d) use of process and effort to complete work, and (e) modified weights and scales.

Table 2 lists possible adaptations to grading and cautions for their use provided by Silva et al. (2005). To these, added here are suggestions for how to implement the adaptations in academics for students with significant cognitive disabilities.

Table 2. Adaptations to Grading with Academic Examples

Focusing heavily on process can lead to low-quality products

A portion of a student's grade can come from using editing strategies, such as revising sentences to add a capital letter at the beginning and punctuation at the end each sentence.

Focusing heavily on process can lead to low-quality products

A portion of a student's grade on a classwork assignment can come from effort on homework by measuring on the number of attempted problems on a homework assignment.

Adaptations to grading are possible regardless of which learning criteria are used as measurement: product, process, or progress. For example, if a student with a significant cognitive disability has an IEP goal of, "Given new vocabulary terms, the student will use those terms in context correctly 8 out of 10 words over three consecutive units", IEP objectives can be measured within a product (i.e., completed portfolio for a science unit on life cycles), in a process over time (i.e., homework and quizzes on life cycles), or progress (i.e., a comparison of pre-test and post-test scores on life cycle standards).

Process for Adapting Grading

Table 3 is an adapted version of Munk and Bursuck's (2004) outline for implementing grading adaptations for students with disabilities. The original steps have been adapted to be used with a students' collaborative team to plan for effective grading for students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive settings. The process starts with a meeting between the general education teacher and special education teacher, prior to meeting with parents. Next, the team will implement the plan and review its effectiveness. Table 3 includes an example of the team using some of the adaptations from Table 2.

Table 3. Grading Adaptation Implementation Process

Description

Example for a Student with a Significant Cognitive Disabilities in Inclusive Elementary Science Class

General education teacher and special education teacher meet to clarify purpose of classroom grades (i.e., what does the grade mean?)

Is it reflection of accuracy of content? Work effort? Progress toward standard? All of those things? Is the purpose different for students with disabilities?

The teachers discuss that the purpose of grading in the inclusive science class is to reflect both accuracy of content, work effort, and progress toward standards.

Select an adaptation that meets the mutual agreement for the grading purpose and addresses the grading problem previously identified

Summary

Grades for all students should be meaningful and informative for teachers, students, and parents. Research evidence supports the use of standards-based grading for students with disabilities (Jung & Guskey, 2007; Muñoz & Guskey, 2015; O'Connor, 2009). When teachers are grading students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive classrooms, a multifaceted approach is needed. Teachers must first determine what the purpose of grading is and then decide what adaptations may be needed for making the grade meaningful for the student. R

TIPS Series: Tip #11, August 2020

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Reyes, E. N., Wakeman, S., & Thurlow, M. (2020). Grading for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms (TIPS Series: Tip #11). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is the national technical assistance center on inclusive practices and policies. Its purpose is to create sustainable changes in kindergarten-grade 8 school and district educational systems so that students with significant cognitive disabilities can fully engage in the same instructional and non-instructional activities as their general education peers, while being instructed in a way that meets individual learning needs. TIES Center is led by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) at the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, and includes the following additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina - Charlotte, and University of North Carolina - Greensboro.

TIES Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Foundations of Inclusion | TIP #11: Grading for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms

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The purpose of this TIPS is to share grading considerations and potential adaptations for grading to provide fair and accurate grades for students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive classrooms.

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Introduction

Standards-based grading and report cards align with a standards-based curriculum to provide an accurate appraisal of student progress or performance. They achieve the primary purposes of grading and reporting grades, which include that grades are accurate, meaningful, consistent, and support the learning process (O'Connor, 2009). Standards-based grading is a recommended grading practice for students with disabilities in inclusive classes (Jung, 2012; Jung & Guskey, 2015). This TIPS sheet provides guidance on how to provide fair and accurate grades for students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive settings. It also addresses ways to report standards-based grades for students with significant cognitive disabilities.

Evidence

Research is lacking on grading practices for students with disabilities, specifically for students with significant cognitive disabilities in inclusive settings. However, standards-based grading and reporting practices are recommended for all students with disabilities because of the direct connection to the curriculum standards. This connection between the content standards and the grading and reporting process improves accuracy, consistency, and meaningfulness (Jung, 2012; Jung & Guskey, 2015). Standards-based grading practices are recommended for use at all grade levels provided that they are aligned with grade-level content standards and performance expectations (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; O'Connor, 2009; Wormeli, 2006). Content standards are related to curriculum and achievement standards refer to statewide assessment performance. These are not the same. Content standards should have foundational alignment to the grade-level standard.

Implementation

Standards-based grading involves assigning grades based on mastery of specific learning standards (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006). It communicates specific meaningful performance information against established standards and can be used for "diagnostic and prescriptive purposes" (Guskey & Bailey, 2001). One of the major benefits of using standards-based grading is that teachers can identify strengths and areas of need for each skill within a content area. Effective reporting of student performance focuses on the description of how the student performs on an explicit set of skills such as how the student sets up an addition word problem (Jung & Guskey; 2010). Example 1 illustrates a standards-based grading report card for reading in second grade.

A rubric is used to describe student performance. The number of levels in a rubric can be used across content areas, although the description of what each number means may differ. The rubric used in Example 1 has three levels of performance; the same three levels can be used across multiple content areas.

Sample Standards-based Grading Rubric

3 = Meets grade-level standard and can apply key concepts independently. Demonstrates processes and skills.

2 = Approaching the grade-level standard, requires some support to demonstrate key concepts, processes, and skills.

1 = Progressing toward the grade-level standard with on-going intensive support or modifications.

For example: A student scoring a "3" for the requirement of "Using basic skills to read fluently" consistently demonstrates grade-level expectations and independently applies key concepts and skills." A score of "1" indicates the student is progressing toward the standard but still requires intensive supports.

When a grading rubric includes a "below standard level" that indicates "no progress even with support," best practice suggests that there should have been communication about performance and appropriate supports provided well before the report card is delivered.

Report cards may also contain an evaluation of work behaviors such as responsibility, work habits, attendance, and homework. These should be rated separately so that teams and families can determine where additional supports are needed - for academic content or for work behaviors such as organization, work habits, or motivation. Example 2 shows a report card on work behaviors using a 3-level rubric.

A three-level rubric is used to describe student performance on each work behavior. The rubric used in Example 2 has three levels of performance.

Sample Rubric for Work Behaviors

3 = Demonstrates consistency and independence.

2 = Requires occasional support and reminders.

1 = Often requires support and reminders.

Grading Prerequisite and Foundational Skills

When a student with the most significant cognitive disabilities is working on prerequisite or foundational skills related to a grade-level standard, grading and reporting should be adapted to include the specific prerequisite or foundational skills. The prerequisite or foundational skills should represent those approved under the state's alternate assessment program and, as much as, be possible directly related to the specific grade-level content standards. In addition to the specification of the standard, the grading rubric may be adapted to more clearly communicate specific learning outcomes. Grades of a student's progress on prerequisite and foundational skills may also be provided in a separate progress-monitoring report. An example of a possible rubric for these skills is:

Sample Rubric for Prerequisite and Foundational Skills

3 = Student meets prerequisites [foundational] skills related to the grade-level standard and can apply key concepts independently. Student demonstrates processes and skills.

2 = Student is approaching the prerequisites [foundational] skills of the grade-level standard. Student requires some support to demonstrate key concepts, processes, and skills.

1 = Student is progressing toward the prerequisites [foundational] skills related to the grade-level standard, with on-going and intensive support or modifications.

Reporting progress on IEP goals that may be unrelated to the content standard should occur in regular progress reports that may be separate from report card grading. Example 3 is a completed Standards-based Report Card for a student working toward grade-level standards who does not have an IEP that also includes work behavior grading. Example 4 is for a student who has an IEP and is working on Foundational Standards aligned as closely as possible to grade-level standards.

Standards-based Grading for Middle School

The primary principles of standards-based grading and reporting are similar at middle school in that the grade is directly related to the content standards. Reported letter grades (e.g., A, B, C, D, F) are based on weighted classroom assignments and summative classroom tests. Classroom assignments generally are rated using a rubric with a 1 - 5 scale, while classroom tests typically are reported in terms of the percent of correct responses. Of course, retakes of assignments, along with learning labs and peer-based tutoring assistance, are generally available and can contribute to revised scores. The combination of the information from the two sources (classroom assignments and classroom tests) results in a percentage-based score. Grades can be based on where the percentage falls within a range of percentages assigned to a grade. The same reporting process should be followed for students with significant disabilities and ensure the reference to the content standard is clear, with the percentage based on the performance expectations for students with significant cognitive disabilities.

Summary

Grades for all students should be meaningful and informative for teachers, students, and parents. They should accomplish the purposes for which grading is intended, ensuring that the report is accurate, meaningful, consistent, and supportive of future learning (O'Connor, 2009). Standards-based grading is an effective grading practice for all students, including those with the most significant cognitive disabilities, because of the clear linkage to the standard.

TIPS Series: Tip #12, August 2020

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Kearns, J. F., Taub, D., & Thurlow, M. (2020). Standards-based grading and report cards in inclusive elementary and middle schools​ (TIPS Series: Tip #12). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is the national technical assistance center on inclusive practices and policies. Its purpose is to create sustainable changes in kindergarten-grade 8 school and district educational systems so that students with significant cognitive disabilities can fully engage in the same instructional and non-instructional activities as their general education peers, while being instructed in a way that meets individual learning needs. TIES Center is led by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) at the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, and includes the following additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina - Charlotte, and University of North Carolina - Greensboro.

TIES Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Foundations of Inclusion | TIP #12: Standards-based Grading and Report Cards in Inclusive Elementary and Middle Schools

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