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Sources of information and research that can inform your investigation at Juniper Hall and Box Hill or provide a source of secondary data.

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Further reading material for the topic of Carbon than can help form investigation ideas.

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Methodology ideas, research and information. How could you adapt these ideas to suit your own investigation? Remember you aren't limited to the ideas below!

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Comprehensive list of water cycle fieldwork methods. You will undertake some of these on your visit to Juniper Hall.

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All Geography starts with someone going into the field to find out what's there. This section will help you to gather the primary data (data you collect yourself) and secondary data (data collected by someone else) that will support your analysis and conclusions.

Interception

1. Interception measurements

Interception is most easily measured by comparing rainfall underneath vegetation cover (like a woodland canopy) with rainfall where there in no vegatation cover. Place several identical rain gauges in the contrasting areas - don't just use one rain gauge per area.

You can construct a simple rain gauge from an empty plastic bottle (2 litre size works well). Remove the lid, then cut off the top third of the bottle. Invert this top section into the bottom part. Dig a hole and bury the rain gauge so that about 5cm is sticking out of the ground.

Leave the rain gauge in place for a few days when rain is forecast. Measure the amount of rain collected in each gauge at the same time each day. You could either measure the depth of water in the gauge, or pour the water into a measuring cyclinder to measure the volume.

Alternatively you can compare interception beneath and beyond an individual tree during a single rainstorm by placing several rain gauges at increasing distance from the tree trunk. Measure the depth of water in each gauge every 15 minutes during and for some time after the rainstorm. Stemflow and drip will continue after the rain has finished. Interception by buildings can be assessed by measuring the volume of water discharged by all external guttering and drainage pipes.

You may wish to use interception measurements for one tree to calculate the interception caused by an area of woodland. The simplest way to do this would be to estimate the number of trees in the woodland, and multiply accordingly. Or you could measure the size of the tree canopy, and then multiply up to the size of the woodland.

2. Stemflow measurements

Stemflow is most easily measured for a single tree. Choose a tree with a single large trunk (at least 50cm trunk circumfrence at shoulder height). Wrap split plastic tubing to encircle the tree trunk. 25mm diameter PVC tube is suitable, cut in half lengthways.

Use a wire brush to remove moss from the trunk before installing the tube, so that moss does not fall into and block the tube later.

If you are comparing several trees, position the tubing at a consistent height off the ground. Starting at shoulder height and wrapping at least twice around the trunk is practical, as you will be able to install tubing without needing a ladder.

Use silicon sealant to make a seamless seal between the trunk and the gutter. Direct the base of the tubing into a collecting vessel, such as a large sealed bucket.

Leave the tubing in place for a few days when rain is forecast. Measure the amount of rain collected in each collecting vessel at the same time each day. You could either measure the depth of water in the gauge, or pour the water into a measuring cyclinder to measure the volume.

Evaporation

3. Evaporation pans

Evaporation pans are simply open trays of water. Assuming no rainfall, any change in water level in the pan over time will have been caused by evaporation. Use several evaporation pans of consistent size, being careful to start with the same volume of water in each. If rainfall occurs, you will need to take the water input into account. Also consider water loss from the edge of the pan caused by splashing raindrops.

4. Potometers

A potometer can be used to measure the rate of transpiration by plants. This is a lab investigation, and you can find out more information at the SAPS website

If you are investigating transpiration over a particular area of vegetation, take samples of leaf shoots from the area to test with the potometer.

Soil water

5. Infiltration rings

You will need

container of water (keep this constant between experiments - 4 litres is enough)

30 cm ruler

metal / plastic tube (to be the 'infitration tube')

stopwatch

block of wood

Bang the infiltration tube into the ground until it forms a seal (using the wood and mallet to bang it in evenly and avoid affecting the results by stamping on the area of land being tested).

One person fills the infiltration tube to a standardised level (e.g. 15cm). The other starts the stopwatch, and then record the water level every 30 seconds. To maintain water pressure, person 1 should top up the infiltration tube if their water level falls below a certain point (e.g. 10cm). Person 2 should make a note of when this is done, so that it can be taken it into account when they are calculating their infiltration rate.

6. Estimating field capacity

It is possible to make estimates of field capacity by taking soil samples and running an experiment. You will need to repeat the experiment with multiple samples from each part of the drainage basin.

Take a sample of soil from the drainage basin. Find the mass of the fresh soil sample. Dry it thoroughly in an oven, taking care not to put the temperature so high that organic matter is burnt (aim for 105°C if possible). You can tell when the soil is completely dry by weighing it, returning it to the oven for 10 minutes and weighing it again, then repeating until there is no change.

Now find the mass of the dry soil.

Take a measured volume of water and pass it through the dry soil. Reweigh the soil, then deduct the dry mass. The difference between the dry mass and the rewetted mass is water that has been retained. Calculate the mass of retained water as a percentage of dry mass. This provides an estimate of perecentage field capacity, and it can be compared for contrasting areas of a drainage basin.

Runoff

7. Measuring overland flow

Overland flow can be assessed using a length of plastic guttering. Choose a 50cm or 1m long length, with both ends closed. Bury the guttering just in the soil so that the upper edge is parallel with the soil surface. Cover the open top of the gutter with a plastic cover to keep out the rain.

The guttering can be kept in place for several days, ideally during several periods of rain, with regular measurements of the volume of water collected.

8. Measuring throughflow

Throughflow can also be assessed using a length of plastic guttering. Choose a 50cm or 1m long length, with both ends closed. Dig a pit in the soil, to whatever depth you would like to investigate, and place the plastic guttering at the base of the pit.

It is even possible to dig a series of steps at different depths, and use a length of guttering at each depth to measure throughflow at different depths within the soil. An interesting investigation would be to compare throughflow at different depths of moorland soils (known as podsols) where there is a layer of humus on the surface, then a grey and sandy upper layer, and finally a clay-rich yellow and blue subsoil, possibly with a thin impermeable layer (an iron pan) present.

Cover the open top of the soil pit with a plastic cover to keep out the rain and any overland flow.

The guttering can be kept in place for several days, ideally during several periods of rain, with regular measurements of the volume of water collected.

9. River velocity measurements using a hydro-prop

River discharge is a flow in the hydrological cycle. It is measured as the volume of water passing a particular point during a particular time period, such as cubic metres of water per second. Velocity is the speed that the water is moving.

A flow-meter is a digital meter that measures the velocity of the water directly. Hold the meter above the water. Put the probe in the water. The meter will give you a reading of the velocity of the water in metres per second.

Using a hydroprop to measure stream velocity by Field Studies Council.

A hydro-prop is a metal pole with a propeller at one end. You hold the hydro-prop with the propeller facing upstream. Use a stopwatch (or timer on a phone) to measure how long it takes for the propellor to travel the distance of the rod. A formula is used to convert this time into velocity, e.g.

\(\mathsf{velocity = 0.0277 + (3.281 ÷ time)}\) (Time measured in seconds)
3.281 is the length in cm of the distance travelled by the fan along the impellor, when the rotation is considered. Each impellor is hand made to the same specification. 0.0277 is an added error supplied by the manufacturer to account for the friction between the fan and the brass impellor.
Take repeat velocity readings at each site, such as left-hand side, centre and right-hand side of the channel. Calculate the mean velocity.

Try to hold the flow-meter or hydro-prop in the same way each time that you take a measurement.

10. River velocity measurements using a float

You need at least two people for this method.

Measure 10 metres along the river bank. Make sure that you put markers at the start and finish.

Choose something brightly coloured that floats in water, such as an orange, a dog biscuit or a piece of cauliflower. Use a stopwatch to time how long the float takes to move from the start to the finish.

It's pretty likely that at some stage the float will get stuck in an eddy! Either nudge the float to move it along or abandon that reading and start again.

Remember that \(\mathsf{velocity = distance ÷ time}\)

In this case

distance = 10 metres

time = number of seconds that the float takes to get from start to finish

Take repeat velocity readings at each site, such as left-hand side, centre and right-hand side of the channel. Calculate the mean velocity.

You can measure velocity and discharge using the float method. You need a 10m tape measure, a float (i.e. something that floats and is brightly coloured, such as an orange) and a stopwatch. You also need at least two people for this method.

Measure a set distance of the river and mark the start and end points. 10 metres is a good idea - it is long enough to show interesting variation in results, and a round number also makes the maths much easier! Put the float in the water slightly upstream of the start point. Using the stopwatch, time how long it takes the float to move from the start point to the end point. Repeat this procedure at least five times, placing the float at regular intervals across the stream so that you measure velocity across the channel.

It's pretty likely that at some stage the float will get stuck in an eddy! Either nudge the float to move it along or abandon that reading and start again. The raw data that you have collected by this technique can be used to measure velocity and discharge.

11. Measuring channel geometry

Measuring stream width by Field Studies Council.

At each sample site, measure

(a) Channel width - use a tape measure or rope held across the channel from bank to bank on the water surface.

(b) Channel depth - take a number of readings at regular intervals across the channel (e.g. ¼ across,1/2 across, ¾ across) to measure the depth from the water surface to the stream bed.

Use the width and wetted depth readings to calculate the cross-sectional area.

12. Calculating discharge

To work out discharge for any particular point you first need to have calculated mean velocity and cross sectional area for each sample site.

\(\mathsf{Discharge = mean\;velocity\;\times\;cross\;sectional\;area}\)

e.g. if mean velocity = 0.96 m/s and cross-sectional area = 1.25 m ²

Discharge = 0.96 x 1.25 = 1.2 cubic metres per second (or cumecs)

Modelling the water cycle

13. Storm simulations

This is one area of Geography where you can carry out a scientific experiment. If you can get hold of some basic materials, you can easily build a model drainage basin. For this to be successful, you do need access to an area of open ground (such as a grassy field), with permission to carry out some ground disturbance, such as lifting turf and digging soil. It is not a project to carry out on someone's prized lawn or flower beds.

Using a storm simulation plot by Field Studies Council.

A model drainage basin (called a storm simulation plot) can be used as an open-air laboratory to test the link between rainfall and runoff. From your results, you should be able to draw storm hydrographs for a range of different ground surfaces.

Step 1. Building a storm simulation plot

It is helpful to choose an area of slightly sloping ground for the plot.

The diagram shows how a storm simulation plot could be constructed. You need the following materials

two 50cm lengths of plastic guttering sealed at both ends (available from DIY shops)

two blocks of wood of the same height - the exact height is not important, but they need to be high enough to hold the guttering off the ground (approx. 20cm in height will do).

a polythene sheet large enough to cover whole plot when laid out flat (at least 1m x 50cm in area)

The first stage is to prepare one of the lengths of guttering to be your 'cloud'. At roughly equal intervals along its length, drill five holes of the same diameter in the lowest point of the curved base of the guttering. The other length of guttering is your 'river channel'. Remove the seal from one of the ends.

The blocks of wood are going to be used to hold up the length of guttering with the drilled holes (the 'cloud'). They will need to be sawn into shape so that the guttering will remain in place (see diagram).

Now clear any grass or other vegetation from the land where you are going to build each plot. Lay the polythene sheet so that it covers the ground. You should aim to produce a shallow gradient of around 5-10 degrees from the top of the plot to the base. If the underlying ground surface is flat, use soil and turf under the polythene to lift it up at the 'cloud' end.

Fix the wood blocks at one end of the plot (ideally the uphill end). Place the guttering with the drilled holes (the 'cloud') on the wooden blocks. Place the second piece of guttering (the 'river channel') at the other end of the slope. Use waterproof duct tape or similar to ensure that there is a tight seal between the polythene sheet and the 'river channel'.

Step 2. Preparing the ground surface of the plot

If you have been following these instructions up to now, you should have a plot covered in a polythene sheet. To simulate different ground surfaces (e.g. tarmac, grassland, ploughed farmland, etc.) you need to place different surfaces on top of the polythene. For each surface, follow the instructions in section (iii) to collect data.

If you are short of materials and/or space, you could use the same single plot for testing two or more ground surfaces. Alternatively, you could build more than one plot, although you will need to control variables such as slope angle.

Here are some suggestions for how you can simulate different ground surfaces. For an urban surface, such as tarmac, where you are aiming to make the ground surface as impermeable as possible, use the polythene sheet on its own. For a grassland surface, dig squares of undisturbed turf from nearby, and place these on top of the polythene. For a ploughed field surface, dig soil and spread this over the polythene.

Step 3. Running the storm simulation and collecting data

You will need

a stopwatch

a measuring cylinder

a plastic jug containing 5 litres of water

at least 2 people - 1 to pour water into the 'cloud', another to operate the stopwatch and read the measuring cylinder

One person pours a set amount of water from a plastic jug into the top guttering (the 'cloud'). Try to pour water at a steady rate, and to pour along the whole length of the cloud. Start the stopwatch as soon as pouring starts.

Pouring a known volume of water into the "cloud" by Field Studies Council.

The other person uses the stopwatch first to record the initial response time, i.e. time it takes for the first drop of water to reach the 'river channel'.

Then record the water level in the measuring cylinder (in millilitres) every 30 seconds for 6 minutes from the start of pouring. Empty the measuring cylinder after every reading, and record a separate figure in millilitres for each 30 second interval. You might need to use two measuring cylinders in rotation if the water is flowing rapidly out of the 'river channel' (particularly for the urban ground surface).

Secondary data sources

1. Weather data

It is also useful to obtain weather data for the weeks before your fieldwork. The Met Office archive is an excellent place to start. It provides monthly summaries back to 1998, with links to older station data as well.

2. Drainage basin characteristics

The first place to start is the Catchment Data Explorer.

For more information about the rocks and other sediments in the drainage basin, the British Geological Survey's site Geology of Britain is a superb geographical information system.

3. Runoff data

There are several useful sources of hydrological data for the UK. The National River Flow Archive, River Level data and the Environment Agency river and sea level website may be useful.

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Method for Hydrology - Field Studies Council

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All Geography starts with someone going into the field to find out what's there. This section will help you to gather the primary data (data you collect yourself) and secondary data (data collected by someone else) that will support your analysis and conclusions.

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Our Climatological (Met) Station at Juniper Hall

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Our Climatological (Met) Station at Juniper Hall

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We have a voluntary Met Station at Juniper Hall that we submit daily recordings to the Met Office.

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The UK Met Office Weather Observation Website (WOW). WOW allows anyone to submit their own weather data, anywhere in the world.

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This website provides a nice overview of drainage basins and their feedback loops. There is also a nice link at the bottom of the page for a flash resource

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Susette has a lifelong interest and practice with good physical and mental health, including the environment that sustains us all.
We know how important water is to human life and also, because of agriculture, how important it is to plant life. But what about the earth in general? How important is water to the ecological balance of the earth? What role does it play and what would happen if we were to lose it or it didn't exist?

There are already parts of the world where we can see how life would change, if there were no water. We can also see it somewhat from satellite photos of Mars, the moon, and other "dead" space bodies. And we can extrapolate from the properties of water, itself, and what we know of its effect on life.

Water is a constant reminder that life repeats. It's the only element that has a visible cycle.

Earth Without Water

Imagine earth without water. The soil, with no water in it and nothing growing on it, would be lifeless, dead, collapsed into dust, sand, clay or rock. In California's Central Valley where agriculture predominates and pulls water from the ground, this process is already beginning to happen. The earth used to be like a sponge, but where the groundwater has been sucked almost dry, like the Central Valley, the earth has collapsed and hardened. This is the process we call "subsidence."

Earth Would Look Like This:

Now imagine the air without water. Clouds provide a buffer from the heating power of the sun. Without them it would pour down with no mercy. Dry air would suck out whatever moisture it could find, wherever it could find it, and the noses and soft tissues of any being that lived would shrivel. There would be no sweet scents, since moisture is what conveys smells.

The composition of the air would change too. All the methane currently stored in ice, bogs, and the ocean, would be released, thereby increasing the heating effect of the sun. The dust in the air would be blown hither and yon, with nothing to wash it down. Temperatures would swing from extreme to extreme, getting hotter as time went on.

The ground, because it would be rock, sand, or dry earth would have nothing in or on it to blunt the heat. The sun, pouring down without mitigation, would beat on the earth and heat it up. Any carbon-based thing would burn up during the day. At night it would freeze.

There would be nothing to soften the effect of volcanoes or to put out fires. There would be no cushioning effect against earthquakes. Any rubbing of tectonic plates against each other would be magnified far beyond what it is now - the trembling would create massive rock slides and crumbling both at the site and in remote areas affected. The surface of the earth would burn and grind itself into dust. Am I exaggerating? Most likely not. The article below talks about earthquakes and the softening effect of water underground.

The Hydrologic Cycle

Water is a life giver - even a life creator. It lies at the basis of our understanding of how life works. It also lies at the basis of how we understand our own personal lives. Of the four (or five) basic building blocks of life, water is the only one with a visible cycle, which we call the hydrologic cycle. Fire has no cycle that we can see, neither do earth or air. And we don't understand spirit (the ether) enough to know if it does or not. Water is a constant reminder that life repeats.

The hydrologic cycle works as follows: From it's most usable state, water evaporates and joins the air as water vapor. When the air cools, the vapor condenses and creates clouds, which help block heat from the sun. Colonies of the ice-nucleating bacterium, P. syringae, blown into the clouds by wind, help them to precipitate and fall as rain, snow, or hail. Much of the precipitation is stored on land as groundwater and lakes, snow and ice. From there water flows to the sea, where it joins the "primordial soup" again as ocean, ready to start the cycle anew.

Here are many of the roles that water provides, both for the earth and for humans-that help produce the abundance of life we see around us every day. Without even one of these our lives would be far different.

Water Stabilizes Temperature

Water helps keep the temperature of the earth even-cooling it when it heats up and warming it when it cools down. When the temperature drops low enough, water freezes, releasing its own heat and warming the frigid air. When the temperature rises high enough, water evaporates, taking some of the heat with it and cooling the hot air. It also cools the heat of volcanoes and wildfires, via moisture released from burning vegetation, which forms clouds that cool the air and then release rain. And water in the ground cools the surface of the earth during the day and warms it at night.

Without water the air and earth would vacillate between extreme hot and extreme cold every day, everywhere, with a gradual increase in temperature as time goes on. Part of the problem with global warming could be that we are using up too much land water and throwing rain away into the sea.

Water Cushions & Softens

Just as water in a waterbed has a cushioning effect with any movement, so it also has when buried in the earth. This cushioning is good protection during an earthquake, proven in seismic studies, when the groundwater slows down seismic waves and dampens their effects.

Water also softens the soil, making it easier for rain to percolate through to refill the aquifer-the earth's underground storage space. When stored groundwater is sucked up and not replaced, the soil gradually condenses and becomes hard. Then water slides off the top, instead of being absorbed, and the earth loses its storage place and its shock protector.

The softening effect of water is also evident in the way it prepares seeds to grow. Many seeds have hard covers that keep them from growing until water is present. Water softens the seed cover enough for the little shoots to break out, then the soft soil, mixed with organic matter, provides a perfect medium for the shoots to grow into full-fledged plants.

Without water most seeds would be too hard to grow, and the ground would be too hard or sandy to absorb and hold rain. Without water storage, droughts would kill, and earthquakes would be severe.

Water Enables Transportation

Throughout the earth and the bodies of living things, water is used to transport both nutrients and wastes. On land, water transports nutrients and rich soils from the mountains to lower altitudes on the way to the sea. In the ocean, water currents disperse nutrients throughout the world.

Humans use waterways to transport goods via boats and barges. Water in plant sap and blood transports nutrients and wastes to and from cells. In the human and animal brain water transports electrical charges, which allow us to think clearly.

Without water there would be no dispersal of nutrients, electrical messages, or mass transit of goods and services that help life prosper.

Water Cleans and Breaks Down Wastes

Rain cleans whatever it passes through (air, the earth's surface, soil), which is why everything smells fresh after a rain. It carries down dirt, debris, minerals, and toxins, washing all into the sea. Once in the ocean, algae and other microbes break the debris down (except plastic) into basic food components that can be used to support life. The ocean thereby becomes a primordial soup, filled with nutrients of all kinds. From the ocean life was born.

Water also plays a cleansing role in our own bodies, as it passes through the cells of our body and transports wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys send some of the water back into our blood vessels, and the rest carries toxins to our bladder, where it collects until there's enough to let go.

Without water the earth and our bodies would be unable to break down wastes.

Water Enables Reproduction

Water is a key component of birth-the reproductive cycle of all animals mimicking the life-spawning ocean. In mammals, sperm are carried by water to impregnate the egg. Once impregnated, all nutrients in a female's body that a baby will need are carried by water (amniotic fluid) to the womb, before leftovers are distributed to the mother. Babies are born with a gush of water and are immediately fed with water that is nutrient rich. Birds produce eggs that are mostly water mixed with nutrients for the growing life inside.

Without water there would be no reproduction, hence continuation of life as we know it.

Water Provides a Home

In addition to being the soup from which life emerged, the ocean and other water bodies act as home for more life than what lives on land. Mammals, fish, birds, insects, trees, plants, algae, krill, and many other forms of life either live directly in water or are wholly dependent upon it for survival. This includes the tiny iceworms, copepods, and diatoms that inhabit trillions of minuscule tunnels in icebergs and their undersides, providing food for whales and fish that migrate to the poles to eat.

Without water life would lose its primary food source.

Water Helps Make Things

Water and carbon dioxide are the two key components of plant photosynthesis, which is how plants make their food. Bees use water to make honey, flowers use water to make nectar, trees use water to make pitch, spiders and snakes use water to make venom, and termites mix saliva with mud to make their homes.

Humans use water to make paint, dyes, inks, all kinds of drinks, and we bottle it straight. We use it for paper, fabrics, food processing, chemical compounds, and the manufacture of hundreds of other products essential to modern living.

Without water, plants and many insects and arthropods could not survive, nor would humans have developed the foods and industries we have.

Caring About Water

To humans, as creators of our own lives, water is our servant. We use it to grow crops and livestock, to cleanse and keep ourselves healthy, to stimulate ideas for products, and to transport those products. We use its cycles to remind us that our own lives also work in cycles.

But if we abuse water, like masters have a tendency to do with servants, if we don't care for it and preserve it, we will end up destroying ourselves. We need the rain forests, the swamplands, the open rivers and lakes, the estuaries, icebergs, snow tops-water in all its natural forms we need. And so does the rest of life.

If, instead of commanding it, we could conceive of ourselves as a partner or an intelligent component of water's own rain and storage cycle, it might encourage us to be more respectful of what water can do and more careful of the way we utilize it.

With water, we thrive. Without water, there is no life. We must learn to value, conserve, and take care of the water we have.

Questions & Answers

Question: I need to start a project on the importance of water. Where should I start?

Answer: Start by reading the articles referenced in other answers I've given. Then do some brainstorming. Get a paper and pen and write in the center "importance of water." Circle it. Now close your eyes and breathe deeply for a second to get centered.

What does that phrase remind you of? Draw lines out from your center circle and write single words or short phrases that come up when you think of the term "importance of water." You might write at the end of one line, "drinking." At the end of another, "keeping plants alive" and so on.

If drinking reminds you of other things, like health or blood flow or something else, draw a circle around "drinking" and add more lines out from it, putting the new words at the end of each line.

Then go back to the very center again and do the same with the next word that "importance of water" reminds you of. You'll end up with something that looks like a big spider web.

Now, look at the entire web. Do you like the way it's organized? The web helps you organize your paper. You can use it for an outline that flows naturally from the way you think. Each main word can be the title of a section, and all the words are radiating out from it can be the information that goes into that section.

Question: I need to write an essay on the essence of water, sanitation, and hygiene to human life. What are some practical examples?

Answer: Children in third world countries who are skinny and dehydrated, often with flies hovering around their eyes, are good examples of kids without access to water. You see photos of them in the news all the time. Also look up what's happening to the folks living in Flint, Michigan, who've been dealing with lead in their water for several years. There was an outbreak of Legionnaire's disease there recently, for which government officials are now being sued. Try this article, for starters: http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dr...

Question: What should I say in a paragraph that explains why water is important to the Earth?

Answer: This article you just read has several parts to it. One of the first parts talks about the effect that water has on the earth, and what the Earth would be like without it. All you have to do is summarize what you read here in one paragraph. As you summarize, you may think of a few other examples. If you do, add them, so your paragraph is original. If you're not sure about one of the examples you thought of, do a little search and see what you find. Then add that bit to your paragraph. Be sure to include links to this article and the other one (if you find one you like).

Question: How should I start an essay about water and human life?

Answer: The first paragraph of any essay should tell what you're going to write about. Essays are also more interesting when they cover some kind of controversy. So think of something about water's role in the life (or culture) of humans that creates conflict (like wars over water), that hurts people (like pollution or lead pipes that poison drinking water), or for which people have very different opinions (like how much water suppliers should charge their customers). Form the topic you choose into a question, state the opposing sides, and indicate that you'll be exploring the pros and cons of each side in the essay. The conflict is what will hook readers into reading the whole essay.

Question: How could I introduce a topic about water?

Answer: I assume you're asking about how to introduce a topic about water. That would depend on what aspect of water you want to talk about. If your topic is about water conservation, you might introduce it by mentioning how important conservation is and how hard it is for a person (or business) to convince themselves to use less water. If it's about how the human body needs water, you might start by imagining what would happen if a body didn't get enough water (like I did with this article about the earth's need for water). Many writers wait until after they've written the article to summarize what they said and use that for an introduction.

In case you're not sure what topic to write about, here is a list of possibilities: https://owlcation.com/humanities/Topic-Ideas-for-W...

Question: What is the importance of the hydrosphere?

Answer: Hydro means water. Sphere refers to the environment. So the hydrosphere is the oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, clouds, rain, everything to do with the earth's supply of water. That should answer your question. Without it we wouldn't have life.

Question: I need to write an article about water in the earth and how it can be replenished. How do I start?

Answer: This article I wrote about the water cycle should help, both with how groundwater is normally replenished, and some things that humans have been doing that block replenishment. It will give you the basic knowledge you can build on.

https://hubpages.com/stem/Reading-a-Water-Cycle-Di...

After reading it, you can use these essential keywords to search for more information: "groundwater," "aquifer," "groundwater replenishment."

Question: How is water used in construction?

Answer: The obvious answer is that water is used to clean tools and equipment. But it's also used to make concrete, which is used for sidewalks, the foundation flooring for most buildings, structural walls in office buildings, and even rooftops in some countries. Most construction includes the use of water-based glues and paints. Road construction includes water to make asphalt. Any structure made of concrete uses water (bridges, dams, street sidewalks). These are only some examples. There are many others.

Question: I want to write an argumentative essay about how wasting water is dangerous for life, how should I write it?

Answer: An argumentative essay shows two points of view: one that you strongly believe (or want to check out), the other showing the opposite, with you refuting it. You're basically arguing in favor of a concept or point of view. For example, let's say you believe there's not enough water on the planet to waste it the way we are. You would:

1--Write down your proof that there's not enough to waste, including examples of how we're wasting it.

2--Then you write that the President of Nestle Corporation says there's plenty of water available and no one is wasting it. Why does he think that way and what is his proof?

3-You conclude by refuting his argument and stating your case more strongly.

Here is an article I just wrote about how to write an argumentative essay. (Thanks for the suggestion.) https://owlcation.com/humanities/How-to-Write-an-A...

Question: Why do we need water in our everyday life and how long can we go without it?

Answer: Why we need water is answered in the article and subsequent questions people have asked. How long can we go without it? Anywhere from two days to a week. In hot weather, shorter. If you exercise a lot or work a physically strenuous job, shorter. If you're sedentary, longer. If you eat a lot of food with lots of liquid in it, like watermelon or grapes, longer (since they provide some of the water we need). There are lots of factors involved, including size, diet, climate, and more.

Question: I'm doing research on why we need to drink water. Can you pls give me some water characteristics?

Answer: I've written an article on the roles water plays in keeping our bodies healthy. This may provide you with the answers you seek. Let me know if you still have questions after you read it:
https://discover.hubpages.com/education/The-Health...
Question: What would happen if there was no water?

Answer: We'd have a completely different world and would not exist as humans--our bodies consist of 60% water, after all. If life exists without water, we don't know it, because we don't know what to look for. It would be too different from the life we know.

Question: I need to write a five paragraph essay on why water is important to human existence. Where should I start?

Answer: You're a human. Why is water important to you? If there was no water anywhere at all, would you or your friends exist? How, or why not?

After you've answered the questions above, take each of your answers and explain what you mean in two or three sentences. Each answer with its explanation will be one paragraph. (Then, you'll have to choose the best ones, because this method should give you more than five paragraphs.)

Question: My topic is "water is a source of life and death." I get the answer for "life," but I don't get the answer about "death." Can you tell me what the sources of death from water are?

Answer: Sounds like they want you to show the role that water plays in keeping things alive, or making the earth come alive again when it looked dead before, like in my second photo-focusing on how water creates life. Then they're asking you to contrast it with how people are killed by water-like in hurricanes, floods, skidding on black ice, ski accidents, or by drowning.

Question: I need to write about how water affects photosynthesis. I don't have a clue about the topic and none of the sites I've been to explain it well. How do I start?

Answer: I wrote an article about that too, so you can start here:
https://hubpages.com/education/How-Plants-Obtain-W...
Question: What is the Importance of water to human activity?

Answer: Think of all the things you do during the day. How many of them required water? Did you wash anything? Use it for cooking? Drink anything with water in it? Now take those three activities and apply them to restaurants and coffee shops. Do they use water for the same things? Now apply them to manufacturing and other types of human activities. Then ask yourself, what would they do if they didn't have water? Write everything down as you go and you'll have your answers.

Question: Where should I start if I want to write a report on water coolers?

Answer: Do a search on DenGarden.com for "water cooler." DenGarden is a Hubpages affiliate site for all articles about homes, inside and out. All the articles are vetted and are high quality. I have many articles on that site about fixtures that use water (like dishwashers, showers, irrigation systems, etc.), but not one about water coolers. Others do, though.

Question: How do I prepare a file on the wastage of water?

Answer: In the U.S. a file would be a collection of information, with links to sites that answer your question on water wastage. If that's what you're doing, then choose several keywords that directly address your topic--like "water wastage" or "wasting water." Look through the links that come up with something interesting. Write a little paragraph summary and add the link to your document.

Then look for another interesting article that says something different and do the same. You'll probably start thinking of additional keywords you can try. For each article, you find and like, write a summary paragraph and add the link.

Question: What is water?

Answer: H2O-Two hydrogen atoms linked with one oxygen atom. It creates a liquid to which other chemicals can be added, modifying its attributes for particular uses. It's also a carrier for cells in our bodies (and those of other living organisms) that need to be transported elsewhere in the body. This article will show you what water does for plants: https://hubpages.com/education/How-Plants-Obtain-W...

Question: I am busy with an article on water and was wondering, who is the authour of this article?

Answer: Susette Horspool, who has a background in water conservation and calls herself "Watergeek" on this site. She also has a masters degree in sustainable development.

Question: What is the composition of water?

Answer: Water is made up of two parts oxygen and one part hydrogen. The atoms cling together naturally, in this configuration, to become water--whether solid, liquid, or gas. The oxygen and hydrogen can be separated, but then they're not water anymore.

Question: I want to write a paragraph on the cost of water. How should I proceed?

Answer: That's a big one. You'll have to limit your topic to write just one paragraph. You might search the "cost of water to homeowners," then look for a study that compares what water suppliers charge in different parts of the country. You could do the same sort of search on "cost of water to commercial enterprises" (or agriculture or institutions or the military), which will give you different results from what water suppliers charge homeowners. Or you could do a search on "cost of producing water," which will give you information on building and maintaining dams, pipelines, and other water supply infrastructure.

Question: What is the importance of water to life in general?

Answer: Your answer will depend on how you look at it. You can look at water's qualities and how they serve life, or you could look at life and what it would be without water. It also depends on how much detail you want to go into. For example: Look at the main quality of water-it's liquid. What do liquids do? They transport things. They soften things. They cushion things (and more). What other qualities does water have? Answer each one for a general look at water.

If you want to go more detailed, then you could ask: What does water transport? Big things like trees and houses in floods, down to tiny things like cell wastes, food, and oxygen. In what situations, i.e. who or what benefits most and when? And do the same thing with each of your more general questions.

Question: What is the importance of water in our homes?

Answer: How do you use water at home? What would your home be like without it? No toilets (you need water to flush), no laundry, no dishwashing, no showers, dirty floors, and kitchen counters. What else? How would you get water to drink or cook with?

Question: I want to start a project on treating sewage water. I need powerful and trustworthy websites to search through. Can you help me?

Answer: Let's see what I can find . . . here's a site from West Africa that has great information on sewage treatment that is easy to understand.
http://eschooltoday.com/pollution/water-pollution/...
North Dakota is a state in the US that has a lot of farms and rural homes. Here is a reliable source of information for home sewage treatment systems by ND State University.
https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/home-farm/ind...
YouTube is always a good resource. Here's a fun video you could use from Australia, if your project is an online one.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8isr9nSDCK4
Here's a video for small, on-site sewage treatment.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XgEPTntzSWQ
And, of course, there's always Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage
Hope this helps.

Question: I need to write a summary with whatever article I find. What should I do to summarize this article?

Answer: The title implies a question, does it not? You could start your summary by rephrasing the title into its real question. Then look for the subheadings that answer the question and write them together into an answer-just the titles. That will be good for a few sentences. Some of the subheadings won't fit in, so then you take those and make another single sentence out of each one. Now go back and read what you have. It will probably make some sense, but not read very smoothly. So then you write a little more, wherever it's needed, for your summary to make sense and read well.

Question: I need to write an essay about water resources. I don't know what to put. Can you help me with facts?

Answer: If you look up the word "resources," you'll see that it means anywhere humans find water that we can use. If you look up the earth's water cycle, you'll discover earth's water resources. Add to that man's ability to reclaim water, and you have seven main sources of water: The ocean, lakes and streams, groundwater, snow and ice, water vapor (in the air), grey water, and reclaimed water. Now write a paragraph description of each--where it comes from, what it can be used for, how humans access it--and you have your essay. Check out this article for the water cycle: https://hubpages.com/stem/Reading-a-Water-Cycle-Di... this one for a manmade source: https://hubpages.com/stem/The-Emerging-Industry-of... and this one for how grey water works: https://hubpages.com/home-improvement/Home-Waste-W...

Question: What is a mammal?

Answer: A mammal is a living being that has warm blood (ours is 98.6º F), hair or fur on their bodies (incl. whales and dolphins at birth) instead of feathers or scales, produces live young (not eggs), and where females feed the young with their own milk.

Question: What is a hydrosphere?

Answer: Hydro means water. The sphere is the whole of a part of life distinguished by a similar characteristic-in this case, water. So the hydrosphere is the total amount of water found on earth, no matter where it's found: Under the ground, on top of mountains, in the air, or in the ocean, plus lakes, rivers, and streams. Of this entire amount of water, hydrologists estimate that only 2.5% is fresh water, most of which is frozen.

Question: What is a list of books or things called?

Answer: There are different names, depending on the list. If you are writing a paper and you're listing all the documents (or videos) from which you got your information, you could call it "Sources." If your list is all books you can call it "Bibliography" (Biblio means books in Latin). If your list is primarily to give the reader more information about whatever your paper covers, then call it "References" (relates to referrals, i.e. you are referring these documents to the reader for more info).

Question: I'm doing research on why we have to drink water. What are some characteristics of water?

Answer: I've provided a link to an article on why our bodies need water in my answer to another question. Here's one on how to drink more water that also might have some answers for you.
https://remedygrove.com/supplements/Good-Health-Ha...
Question: I need to write a paragraph on why water is important. Where should I start?

Answer: One paragraph? There's not enough room in one paragraph to write much, so you'll need start by choosing what aspect of water you want to focus on--how it feeds life, how it helps the earth, or perhaps you could borrow something from here:

https://hubpages.com/education/How-Plants-Obtain-W...

Question: I need to start a project on the importance of water, where should I start?

Answer: Sounds like you're doing more than just writing a report. I would start by reading through this article (as you have) and others, just to get a feel for which type of water use interests you the most. Water has many important uses and you don't need to cover them all. As you're reading, think of which users might provide the best graphics, cause you'll want to illustrate your project somehow-maybe even make a little diorama or video. You could, in fact, have a diorama be the entire project, with a written piece that explains what the diorama shows (or audio accompanying a video) and why it's important to know. Good luck.

Question: What are the uses of water resources in human life?

Answer: That's a good question. I thought I'd covered it in the articles and in prior answers, but "water resources"? That would imply human use of seawater, freshwater, ice, rain, dew, fog, snow-each of which would have its own use/s. For example, snow as a water resource provides walls for igloos, fresh cold water to drink, warmth in a snowstorm, and many forms of recreation (snowball fighting, snow sculptures, sledding, skiing). Each of the other resources has its own uses. That's all worth another article (lol).

Question: I have to write a paragraph on what is the importance of water on earth. Where should I start?

Answer: Try imagining rivers as the lifeblood of the earth. How do they feed its plants, animals, and humans?

Question: What is the solution to water pollution?

Answer: There's no one solution. Prevention is one, of course. Forming teams to clean up the sides and even the middle of rivers works for solid materials-trash and junk. Solar technologies are starting to be used to clean up chemicals from freshwater sites. And humans are discovering that nature has solutions, like mushrooms, that can be used. You can find descriptions of many of these solutions in the article "Water Pollution Solutions-Cleaning it Up," linked here: https://soapboxie.com/social-issues/Potential-Solu...

Question: I need to start an essay about the significance of water to life. Can you help me?

Answer: I can't write it for you, so the best way to start is to ask yourself, "If there was no water, would there be life as we know it? Why not?" Take notes about how water affects different aspects of life-your personal health, family life, your community, business, etc. Your answers to that question show the significance of water.

Then you'd start your essay with a general sentence about what you discovered and how you discovered it (e.g. by asking this question). Give a sentence that contrasts with it (e.g. With water life is like [this . . .], but if there was no water, then . . .) Then you can start going into details about the need for water in different areas of life.

Question: When it's hot, why is it important to drink lots of water?

Answer: A body sweats when it's hot-to cool the flesh so it won't burn, to cool itself down if it's been exercising, and to release excess toxins. It works because sweat is water that evaporates and takes heat with it. Because sweat is water, you need to replace it by drinking water, so your body doesn't run out. The more you sweat, the more water you need to replace.

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on April 02, 2020:

You should find the answer in this article about how water affects the human body. Throughout the article it talks about what water does for the cells. You can do a [control-F] find on the word "cell" to help you locate specific information. https://discover.hubpages.com/education/The-Health...

carson on April 02, 2020:

I have to write the importance of water molecules in cell

Can you guide me?

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on December 16, 2019:

@manpreet-Thank you for reading. If you have a question, please use the Q&A inbox above. There may be others who want to know the same thing, and they won't find the answer in the comments section, but they will in the Q&A section. Thank you.

manpreet on December 16, 2019:

I have to write a story on the topic " story of water"

what do I write?

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on August 19, 2019:

Thanks, Ekisa, and good luck with your studies!

Ekisa on August 15, 2019:

Thanks iam a student doing environmental health big up I have liked the page.

salih mussa on May 19, 2019:

es of mammals grow inside a bubble filled with nutritious

water called the amniotic sac.water have been many people who have drink and washed so agricultural products.Water is a life giver - even a life creator. It lies at the basis of

our understanding of how life works

Nomallia on May 11, 2019:

Hooo good information

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on March 20, 2019:

Hi Hejumacla--There's a question and answer section just above these comments where you can have your question answered. Please key in your question there. Thanks for reading.

HEJUMACLA OBOKO on March 19, 2019:

Hi everyone,

I'm a student proposing my topic on groundwater potential map.I want to know more why groundwater is important and what techniques i may require to start with?

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on February 20, 2019:

Thanks nextprotips, I'll check it out. And in return you might like this article I wrote about the body's many uses of water: https://discover.hubpages.com/education/The-Health...

nextprotips from New York on February 20, 2019:

Great article man. Water is the most important element in our life. We can't live a single day without it.

Recently i have written a blog post which is relevant to your topic . it's about The warning signs that your body is lacking water . You may like this article.

Here is the article link : https://nextprotips.com/12-warning-signs-that-your...

And keep writing good articles for us. Thank you

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on January 10, 2019:

True, wassup. I lived in Lancaster CA in the Mojave Desert for six years as a teenager, then another 12 years in later life. There are some beautiful things about living in a desert, but most of those require at least a little water . . . like roadrunners and jackrabbits, Joshua trees and manzanita bushes, and the few farms that grew deep-root crops. Now I live where there is enough water to have tall trees and green neighborhoods. We still get coyotes, which I love, and I do miss the roadrunners, but this place is preferable to the desert. On the other hand, to live in a wasteland????

wassup on January 10, 2019:

huh, imagine living in a desert

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on October 11, 2018:

You're welcome!

haider prince on October 10, 2018:

it was very helpfull and in detail.it helped me complete my presentation thanks

dhruva1234 on October 01, 2018:

thanks i can complete my presentation

ma7bo0ba__416 on September 18, 2018:

so good....totally have learned how important and amazing water is.

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on September 06, 2018:

@Mr. Happy--Yes, I have heard that water has memory, but don't know much more than that. I should look it up. Yes, and I have lived in a desert and it is the way you describe it. Thanks for reading, Mr. Happy, and commenting in such an interesting way!

Mr. Happy from Toronto, Canada on September 05, 2018:

"Imagine earth without water." - That's a really ugly sight: bare rocks everywhere, sand, stone, all hard perhaps minus the sand and dust found in some spots. I think my lips are starting to crack just writing about it. And I think I see some grass in that photo You have. Without water, those would not even be there.

"Fire has no cycle that we can see, neither do earth or air. And we don't understand spirit (the ether) enough to know if it does or not. Water is a constant reminder that life repeats." - This is a fascinating observation. Very, very interesting - I will look into this and I might be back.

"We're only just getting the hang of the recycling portion." - Sadly, yes lol

"Without water the air and earth would vacillate between extreme hot and extreme cold every day" - I've never been in a desert but I suppose that is why they say that in deserts it is very cold at night and very hot during the day.

"Bees use water to make honey" - Haha! I love honey but I didn;t know this. I actually stopped reading and had to look into it. Very interesting, it seems that they indeed do use water to make honey. Thanks for sharing that bit.

"Without water, plants and many insects and arthropods could not survive, nor would humans have developed the foods and industries we have." - "Many"? Would it not be fair to say that there would be no living Being, without water? Like, nothing/nobody.

So, You got an amazing article here. Thank You so much for putting it together. I love Water! That's why I came to read this. Have You heard that water has memory? Just curious.

Alrighty, You have a good one and thanks again for your writing. Cheers!

Dsjan on August 08, 2018:

Nice

srinivas on June 26, 2018:

Good info really useful . Atleast now onwards people should know the value of water

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on June 08, 2018:

Hi Dinaya--I have answered your question already with one of the questions asked above. Plus the whole article is about why water is important to life. What I suggest now is that you learn proper punctuation. Your comment is what we call a run-on sentence, where words follow words and you can't tell where one thought begins and where it ends. Learn how to capitalize letters and use punctuation (periods, commas) and you will improve your writing skills tremendously.

Dinaya Madhurya on June 08, 2018:

I learn I lot about water it's really good and awesome I wish you could answer all my questions right now please tell me how to write why is water important to life I am in grade 7

Actual Gaming on May 16, 2018:

AWESOME

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on April 19, 2018:

When they first started doing it they didn't know they were. When they realized it, it wasn't a big deal, because the ocean was so vast that they figured their pollution would just blend in. Eventually everyone's pollution started accumulating and disturbing ocean life. Then they all had to find (what felt like) viable excuses. A few people stopped. The rest thought one of two things: Why should I when all these big businesses are doing much more than I am? On the big business end it was, "We don't have the money to make the adjustments we need to." Then the government got involved, due to pressure from those who acknowledged the danger, and they started fining the big companies, which then helped them save money by filtering their wastes before discarding. Actually, I've written another hub about this very topic. Here's the link: https://soapboxie.com/social-issues/Water-Pollutio...

Malika on April 19, 2018:

why do people even pollute the ocean?

Gerald Munashe Dube on October 17, 2017:

this is the best hub. i also cant imagine life without water because water is life. thanks to the creator who made it to be abudant.

huzaifa on September 25, 2017:

real good information about water helped me learn alot

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on August 30, 2017:

Yes. Leonardo da Vinci said, "The driving force of all life is water." And David Bowie said, "I'm an instant star. Just add water and stir." (lol)

The more we appreciate water and treat it well, the more we'll have access to in perfect balance.

Yassin Hassan on August 30, 2017:

God's great sincerity, as he said in his book "Have those who disbelieved not considered that the heavens and the earth were a joined entity, and We separated them and made from water every living thing"

Karina on May 29, 2017:

I love this article . It is full of information.

Houda on November 27, 2016:

I love this article it's full of information thank you very much

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on June 13, 2016:

That's true . . . for ALL of life too, not just us.

AOS Products from new Delhi India on June 13, 2016:

Without water you can't think about of Life, its fully combination of Hydrogen and Oxegen that most useful for lives.

Arun Dev from United Countries of the World on July 24, 2015:

H2O is really important. Because of H2O we, humans, are able to discuss about its importance :-). There would be none to discuss about it if there was no water.

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on January 20, 2014:

Thanks Jen and biochemi - When I first started writing hubs about water, people were wondering how long it would last. But the more I wrote, the more I found to write about. As you recognize, the water is so essential to life and healing, that there pretty much isn't any without it.

biochemi on January 19, 2014:

Well biochemically water is the life. If you look at the glucose molecule u can see there is six OH and H groups ( which represents water molecule) are attached to six carbon atoms in one is to one ratio. Simply we can say glucose or even fructose and all the sugars in similar way are the hydrates of carbon and therefore called as carbohydrates. In the same way lipids (in fact fatty acids) and amino acids also contain OH and H groups attached to carbon. All these indicate the importance of water molecules in life. Life cannot exist without water.

Jen Card on January 23, 2013:

Watergeek, Thank you for this educational hub. I knew some of what you mentioned but was enlightened by so much more! Thank you. Water is an element of life that will in time show us who is the boss! There is an amazing book by Masaru Emoto "The True Power of Water" you might enjoy. It tells how there is a life force within water itself. It also shares the abilities that water possess and when we connect with water as a "partner" (as you mentioned) the healing is amazing! Thank you again for this informative article. I look forward to viewing more of your work. ~Jen

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on January 13, 2013:

I've been wondering, also, how much our lack of regard for water on this planet has contributed to climate change (both warming and cooling). It's something I'm exploring now with a book I'm writing. More info in hub form coming up!

Linda Bilyeu from Orlando, FL on January 12, 2013:

I could not imagine life without water. Heck, there wouldn't be life without water! Excellent hub! Well researched and laid out.

Stanley Soman from New York on December 30, 2012:

I like how you contrasted with a void of water to give us a meaning of the importance of water.

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on December 17, 2012:

Thanks Lilly - I have started writing about the role of water in our bodies too - maybe that will wake people up. Thanks, also, for your dedication to this great work.

Lori J Latimer from Central Oregon on December 13, 2012:

This is a topic dear to my heart, I have dedicated my life to human rights, and environmental activism. As you are aware the two are often entertwined. I agree not many are willing to change their thinking to care for it. Most people do not want to know the hard realities. Write on!

Susette Horspool (author) from Pasadena CA on December 12, 2012:

I hope so, Lilly. There are a lot of people who know how important water is, I think, but not many who are willing to do something to care for it. Thanks to both of you for reading and commenting.

Lori J Latimer from Central Oregon on July 12, 2012:

Thank you for writing this Hub. Water is life, and perhaps awareness will cause earthlings to take better care.

whonunuwho from United States on June 26, 2012:

Good hub...imagine the atmosphere of Mars and you would have a pretty good idea of what the planet would be like without water. Water is the essence of all earthly life forms and without it, we ,and all other living thing would perish.

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Water is the basic element of nature. It covers 70% of the earth's surface. It provides life, eases out heat, drains harmful substances and mediates many day-to-day works. Water needs to be replenished, purified and circulated again and again so that it can perform its functions.

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The 11 cities most likely to tun out of drinking water:

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The 11 cities most likely to tun out of drinking water:

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Cape Town is in the unenviable situation of being the first major city in the modern era to face the threat of running out of drinking water.

However, the plight of the drought-hit South African city is just one extreme example of a problem that experts have long been warning about - water scarcity.

Despite covering about 70% of the Earth's surface, water, especially drinking water, is not as plentiful as one might think. Only 3% of it is fresh.

Over one billion people lack access to water and another 2.7 billion find it scarce for at least one month of the year. A 2014 survey of the world's 500 largest cities estimates that one in four are in a situation of "water stress"

According to UN-endorsed projections, global demand for fresh water will exceed supply by 40% in 2030, thanks to a combination of climate change, human action and population growth.

You might also be interested in:

It shouldn't be a surprise, then, that Cape Town is just the tip of the iceberg. Here are the other 11 cities most likely to run out of water.

1. São Paulo

Brazil's financial capital and one of the 10 most populated cities in the world went through a similar ordeal to Cape Town in 2015, when the main reservoir fell below 4% capacity.

At the height of the crisis, the city of over 21.7 million inhabitants had less than 20 days of water supply and police had to escort water trucks to stop looting.

It is thought a drought that affected south-eastern Brazil between 2014 and 2017 was to blame, but a UN mission to São Paulo was critical of the state authorities "lack of proper planning and investments".

The water crisis was deemed "finished" in 2016, but in January 2017 the main reserves were 15% below expected for the period - putting the city's future water supply once again in doubt.

2. Bangalore

Local officials in the southern Indian city have been bamboozled by the growth of new property developments following Bangalore's rise as a technological hub and are struggling to manage the city's water and sewage systems.

To make matters worse, the city's antiquated plumbing needs an urgent upheaval; a report by the national government found that the city loses over half of its drinking water to waste.

Like China, India struggles with water pollution and Bangalore is no different: an in-depth inventory of the city's lakes found that 85% had water that could only be used for irrigation and industrial cooling.

Not a single lake had suitable water for drinking or bathing.
Will Cape Town be the first city to run out of water?
3. Beijing

The World Bank classifies water scarcity as when people in a determined location receive less than 1,000 cubic metres of fresh water per person a year.

In 2014, each of the more than 20 million inhabitants of Beijing had only 145 cubic metres.

China is home to almost 20% of the world's population but has only 7% of the world's fresh water.

A Columbia University study estimates that the country's reserves declined 13% between 2000 and 2009.

And there's also a pollution problem. Official figures from 2015 showed that 40% of Beijing's surface water was polluted to the point of not being useful even for agriculture or industrial use.

The Chinese authorities have tried to address the problem by creating massive water diversion projects. They have also introduced educational programmes, as well as price hikes for heavy business users.

4. Cairo

Once crucial to the establishment of one of the world's greatest civilisations, the River Nile is struggling in modern times.

It is the source of 97% of Egypt's water but also the destination of increasing amounts of untreated agricultural, and residential waste.

World Health Organization figures show that Egypt ranks high among lower middle-income countries in terms of the number of deaths related to water pollution.

The UN estimates critical shortages in the country by 2025.

5. Jakarta

Like many coastal cities, the Indonesian capital faces the threat of rising sea levels.

But in Jakarta the problem has been made worse by direct human action. Because less than half of the city's 10 million residents have access to piped water, illegal digging of wells is rife. This practice is draining the underground aquifers, almost literally deflating them.

As a consequence, about 40% of Jakarta now lies below sea level, according to World Bank estimates.

To make things worse, aquifers are not being replenished despite heavy rain because the prevalence of concrete and asphalt means that open fields cannot absorb rainfall.

6. Moscow

One-quarter of the world's fresh water reserves are in Russia, but the country is plagued by pollution problems caused by the industrial legacy of the Soviet era.

That is specifically worrying for Moscow, where the water supply is 70% dependent on surface water.

Official regulatory bodies admit that 35% to 60% of total drinking water reserves in Russia do not meet sanitary standards

7. Istanbul

According to official Turkish government figures, the country is technically in a situation of a water stress, since the per capita supply fell below 1,700 cubic metres in 2016.

Local experts have warned that the situation could worsen to water scarcity by 2030.

In recent years, heavily populated areas like Istanbul (14 million inhabitants) have begun to experience shortages in the drier months.

The city's reservoir levels declined to less than 30 percent of capacity at the beginning of 2014.

8. Mexico City

Water shortages are nothing new for many of the 21 million inhabitants of the Mexican capital.

One in five get just a few hours from their taps a week and another 20% have running water for just part of the day.

The city imports as much as 40% of its water from distant sources but has no large-scale operation for recycling wastewater. Water losses because of problems in the pipe network are also estimated at 40%.

9. London

Of all the cities in the world, London is not the first that springs to mind when one thinks of water shortages.

The reality is very different. With an average annual rainfall of about 600mm (less than the Paris average and only about half that of New York), London draws 80% of its water from rivers (the Thames and Lea).

According to the Greater London Authority, the city is pushing close to capacity and is likely to have supply problems by 2025 and "serious shortages" by 2040.

It looks likely that hosepipe bans could become more common in the future.

10. Tokyo

The Japanese capital enjoys precipitation levels similar to that of Seattle on the US west coast, which has a reputation for rain. Rainfall, however, is concentrated during just four months of the year.

That water needs to be collected, as a drier-than-expected rainy season could lead to a drought. At least 750 private and public buildings in Tokyo have rainwater collection and utilisation systems.

Home to more than 30 million people, Tokyo has a water system that depends 70% on surface water (rivers, lakes, and melted snow).

Recent investment in the pipeline infrastructure aims also to reduce waste by leakage to only 3% in the near future.

11. Miami

The US state of Florida is among the five US states most hit by rain every year. However, there is a crisis brewing in its most famous city, Miami.

An early 20th Century project to drain nearby swamps had an unforeseen result; water from the Atlantic Ocean contaminated the Biscayne Aquifer, the city's main source of fresh water.

Although the problem was detected in the 1930s, seawater still leaks in, especially because the American city has experienced faster rates of sea level rise, with water breaching underground defence barriers installed in recent decades.

Neighbouring cities are already struggling. Hallandale Beach, which is just a few miles north of Miami, had to close six of its eight wells due to saltwater intrusion.

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The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water

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Cape Town is in the unenviable situation of being the first major city in the modern era to face the threat of running out of drinking water. However, the plight of the drought-hit South African city is just one extreme example of a problem that experts have long been warning about - water scarcity.

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How does slope & rainfall intensity change runoff & infiltration

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How does slope & rainfall intensity change runoff & infiltration

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after the intiial diagrams some useful findings to help develop your thoughts.

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Complete this worksheet before you arrive at Juniper Hall, using the Padlet and StoryMap.

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Have a look through this StoryMap before arriving at Juniper Hall, to get locational context for your fieldwork.

If you are collecting you NEA data at Juniper Hall, you can begin to think about what and where you could investigate.

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Water and Carbon: Juniper Hall and Box Hill

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An Introduction to your A-Level Water and Carbon fieldwork

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some ideas for what could be measured...

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The process of infiltration is affected by many different factors. Important factors are the following: (i) Soil Texture and Structure:

It is already made clear that the water cannot continue to enter soil more rapidly than it is transmitted downward. The conditions at the surface, therefore, cannot increase infiltration unless the transmission capacity of the soil profile is adequate.

The continuity of non-capillary or large pores provides easy paths for percolating water. If the subsoil formation has coarse texture the water may infiltrate into the soil so quickly that no water will be left for runoff even if rainfall is quite heavy. On the contrary clayey soils after soaking some water in the initial stages of the rainfall may swell considerably. It makes the soil almost watertight and infiltration may get reduced to practically negligible extent.
(ii) Conditions at Soil Surface:

Even if the subsoil has excellent under drainage but at the surface soil pores are sealed due to turbid water or by in wash of fine soil particles it may prevent entry of water into the soil and infiltration rate will be low.
(iii) Soil-Moisture Content:

When the soil is fairly dry the rate of infiltration into the soil is quite high. The infiltration rate diminishes as the soil-moisture storage capacity is exhausted. After this infiltration rate equals transmission rate. The rate of infiltration in early phases of a rainfall will be less if the soil pores are still filled from previous rain storm.
(iv) Type of Vegetative Cover:

Vegetative cover affects surface entry of water significantly. The vegetation or mulches protect the soil surface from impact of rain drops. The lengthy and extensive root system penetrate the soil and increases its porosity. Organic matter from crops promotes a crumbly by structure and improves soil permeability. Forest canopy protects soil surface whereas row crops provide less protection to soil.
(v) Soil Temperature:

If saturated soil mass gets frozen due to severe low temperature it becomes nearly impermeable. It affects the infiltration.
(vi) Human Activities on Soil Surface:

If the soil surface gets compacted due to construction of roads, operation of tractors and other farm implements and machinery the porosity of the soil is decreased. As a result bigger pores are almost eliminated making soil impermeable. It reduces the infiltration rates appreciably.

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What are the factors affecting infiltration?

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Answer (1 of 2): Factors Affecting Infiltration: The process of infiltration is affected by many different factors. Important factors are the following: (i) Soil Texture and Structure: It is already made clear that the water cannot continue to enter soil more rapidly than it is transmitted dow...

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Juniper Hall Infiltration Data 02/07/2018

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Juniper Hall Infiltration Data 02/07/2018

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Juniper Hall Infiltration Data 20/12/2018

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Juniper Hall Infiltration Data 20/12/2018