# data[].attributes.body
Watch video on brain pop about polar region!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn more and understand better with BrainPOP's animated movies, games, playful assessments, and activities covering Science, Math, History, English, and more!

# data[].attributes.body
Watch what people are seeing in greenland!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Scientists Are Seeing Over Greenland 4K

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Why are scientists out flying over Greenland, drilling into its ice, and monitoring it from space? The answer is that they see it as a bellwether of future Earth. Scientists are sampling, drilling, and flying over this great island because they believe it may be a bellwether of future Earth.

# data[].attributes.body
Watch the greenland melting through years.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Check out www.desmogblog.com NASA has released a video showing time-lapsed animated images of Greenland's ice sheet beginning it 1979 through to 2009. Here's the NASA page explaining the details: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003700/a003720/index.html

# data[].attributes.body
We are really thanksfull for you visiting our padlet !

# data[].attributes.body
Google
Wikipedia
Wwf (world wide life found)
National geographic
Cool antarctica
NASA

# data[].attributes.body
People dump and throw rubbish in the pacific and Atlantic and they think it's no connection with the polar region pollution, but the rubbish you throw maybe travel which the water all the way to polar regions and then poor animals it them and die.

# data[].attributes.body
A interactive map about the antarctica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
National Geographic stories take you on a journey that's always enlightening, often surprising, and unfailingly fascinating.

# data[].attributes.body
Watch the time-lapse of green land ice shelves through years by NASA.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
NASA | Measuring Elevation Changes on the Greenland Ice Sheet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Since the late 1970's, NASA has been monitoring changes in the Greenland Ice Sheet. Recent analysis of data from both the ICESat satellite and an ongoing airborne mission called Operation IceBridge show us how the surface elevation of the ice sheet has changed.

# data[].attributes.body
There are 2 types of tundra, arctic tundra, antarctic tundra, alpine tundra. Tundra are flat, with no trees, arctic tundra form 100,000 years ago during the last ice age. The average temperature is below zero, sometimes under minus 90degrees. Below the tundra is a layer of soil that is frozen all year. Here is a link to the tundra.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Toggle the table of contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tundra

Area

11,563,300[1] km ² (4,464,600 sq mi)

Climate type
ET

In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра (tundra ) from the Kildin Sámi word тӯндар (tūndâr ) meaning "uplands", "treeless mountain tract".[2] There are three regions and associated types of tundra: Arctic tundra,[3] alpine tundra,[3] and Antarctic tundra.[4]

Tundra vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges, grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline. The tundra soil is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.[3] The soil also contains large amounts of biomass and decomposed biomass that has been stored as methane and carbon dioxide in the permafrost, making the tundra soil a carbon sink. As global warming heats the ecosystem and causes soil thawing, the permafrost carbon cycle accelerates and releases much of these soil-contained greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, creating a feedback cycle that increases climate change.

Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra" usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. (It may also refer to the treeless plain in general so that northern Sápmi would be included.) Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and Canada.[3] The polar tundra is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area (and the Sami in Sápmi).

Tundra in Siberia

Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from 25 to 90 cm (10 to 35 in) down, making it impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support certain kinds of Arctic vegetation, low-growing plants such as moss, heath ( Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry), and lichen.

There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very cold, dark, and windy with the average temperature around −28 °C (−18 °F), sometimes dipping as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south (for example, Russia's and Canada's lowest temperatures were recorded in locations south of the tree line). During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of seasonally-frozen soil melts, leaving the ground very soggy. The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs, and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 °C (54 °F) but can often drop to 3 °C (37 °F) or even below freezing. Arctic tundras are sometimes the subject of habitat conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of these areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan.

Vuntut National Park in Canada

Tundra tends to be windy, with winds often blowing upwards of 50-100 km/h (30-60 mph). However, it is desert-like, with only about 150-250 mm (6-10 in) of precipitation falling per year (the summer is typically the season of maximum precipitation). Although precipitation is light, evaporation is also relatively minimal. During the summer, the permafrost thaws just enough to let plants grow and reproduce, but because the ground below this is frozen, the water cannot sink any lower, so the water forms the lakes and marshes found during the summer months. There is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain. Research in Alaska has shown fire-event return intervals (FRIs) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years, with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter highland areas.[5]

A group of muskoxen in Alaska

The biodiversity of tundra is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land mammals can be found, although millions of birds migrate there each year for the marshes.[6] There are also a few fish species. There are few species with large populations. Notable plants in the Arctic tundra include blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina), lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), and Labrador tea (Rhododendron groenlandicum).[7] Notable animals include reindeer (caribou), musk ox, Arctic hare, Arctic fox, snowy owl, ptarmigan, northern red-backed voles, lemmings, the mosquito,[8] and even polar bears near the ocean.[7][9] Tundra is largely devoid of poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards.

Due to the harsh climate of Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even though they are sometimes rich in natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, and uranium. In recent times this has begun to change in Alaska, Russia, and some other parts of the world: for example, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug produces 90% of Russia's natural gas.

Relationship to climate change

A severe threat to tundra is global warming, which causes permafrost to thaw. The thawing of the permafrost in a given area on human time scales (decades or centuries) could radically change which species can survive there.[10] It also represents a significant risk to infrastructure built on top of permafrost, such as roads and pipelines.

In locations where dead vegetation and peat have accumulated, there is a risk of wildfire, such as the 1,039 km ² (401 sq mi) of tundra which burned in 2007 on the north slope of the Brooks Range in Alaska.[11] Such events may both result from and contribute to global warming.[12]

Greenhouse gas emissions

Greater summer precipitation increases the depth of permafrost layer subject to thaw, in different Arctic permafrost environments.[13]

Carbon emissions from permafrost thaw contribute to the same warming which facilitates the thaw, making it a positive climate change feedback. The warming also intensifies Arctic water cycle, and the increased amounts of warmer rain are another factor which increases permafrost thaw depths.[13] The amount of carbon that will be released from warming conditions depends on depth of thaw, carbon content within the thawed soil, physical changes to the environment[14] and microbial and vegetation activity in the soil. Microbial respiration is the primary process through which old permafrost carbon is re-activated and enters the atmosphere. The rate of microbial decomposition within organic soils, including thawed permafrost, depends on environmental controls, such as soil temperature, moisture availability, nutrient availability, and oxygen availability.[15] In particular, sufficient concentrations of iron oxides in some permafrost soils can inhibit microbial respiration and prevent carbon mobilization: however, this protection only lasts until carbon is separated from the iron oxides by Fe-reducing bacteria, which is only a matter of time under the typical conditions.[16] Depending on the soil type, Iron(III) oxide can boost oxidation of methane to carbon dioxide in the soil, but it can also amplify methane production by acetotrophs: these soil processes are not yet fully understood.[17]

Altogether, the likelihood of the entire carbon pool mobilizing and entering the atmosphere is low despite the large volumes stored in the soil. Although temperatures will increase, this does not imply complete loss of permafrost and mobilization of the entire carbon pool. Much of the ground underlain by permafrost will remain frozen even if warming temperatures increase the thaw depth or increase thermokarsting and permafrost degradation.[18] Moreover, other elements such as iron and aluminum can adsorb some of the mobilized soil carbon before it reaches the atmosphere, and they are particularly prominent in the mineral sand layers which often overlay permafrost.[19] On the other hand, once the permafrost area thaws, it will not go back to being permafrost for centuries even if the temperature increase reversed, making it one of the best-known examples of tipping points in the climate system.

In 2011, preliminary computer analyses suggested that permafrost emissions could be equivalent to around 15% of anthropogenic emissions.[20]

A 2018 perspectives article discussing tipping points in the climate system activated around 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming suggested that at this threshold, permafrost thaw would add a further 0.09 °C (0.16 °F) to global temperatures by 2100, with a range of 0.04-0.16 °C (0.072-0.288 °F)[21] In 2021, another study estimated that in a future where zero emissions were reached following an emission of a further 1000 Pg C into the atmosphere (a scenario where temperatures ordinarily stay stable after the last emission, or start to decline slowly) permafrost carbon would add 0.06 °C (0.11 °F) (with a range of 0.02-0.14 °C (0.036-0.252 °F)) 50 years after the last anthropogenic emission, 0.09 °C (0.16 °F) (0.04-0.21 °C (0.072-0.378 °F)) 100 years later and 0.27 °C (0.49 °F) (0.12-0.49 °C (0.22-0.88 °F)) 500 years later.[22] However, neither study was able to take abrupt thaw into account.

In 2020, a study of the northern permafrost peatlands (a smaller subset of the entire permafrost area, covering 3.7 million km ² out of the estimated 18 million km ²[23]) would amount to ~1% of anthropogenic radiative forcing by 2100, and that this proportion remains the same in all warming scenarios considered, from 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) to 6 °C (11 °F). It had further suggested that after 200 more years, those peatlands would have absorbed more carbon than what they had emitted into the atmosphere.[24]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that carbon dioxide and methane released from permafrost could amount to the equivalent of 14-175 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per 1 °C (1.8 °F) of warming.[25]: 1237  For comparison, by 2019, annual anthropogenic emission of carbon dioxide alone stood around 40 billion tonnes.[25]: 1237

Nine probable scenarios of CHgreenhouse gas emissions from permafrost thaw during the 21st century, which show an limited, moderate and intense CO₂ and ₄ emission response to low, medium and high-emission Representative Concentration Pathways. The vertical bar uses emissions of selected large countries as a comparison: the right-hand side of the scale shows their cumulative emissions since the start of the Industrial Revolution, while the left-hand side shows each country's cumulative emissions for the rest of the 21st century if they remained unchanged from their 2019 levels.[26]

A 2021 assessment of the economic impact of climate tipping points estimated that permafrost carbon emissions would increase the social cost of carbon by about 8.4% [27] However, the methods of that assessment have attracted controversy: when researchers like Steve Keen and Timothy Lenton had accused it of underestimating the overall impact of tipping points and of higher levels of warming in general,[28] the authors have conceded some of their points.[29]

In 2021, a group of prominent permafrost researchers like Merritt Turetsky had presented their collective estimate of permafrost emissions, including the abrupt thaw processes, as part of an effort to advocate for a 50% reduction in anthropogenic emissions by 2030 as a necessary milestone to help reach net zero by 2050. Their figures for combined permafrost emissions by 2100 amounted to 150-200 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent under 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) of warming, 220-300 billion tonnes under 2 °C (3.6 °F) and 400-500 billion tonnes if the warming was allowed to exceed 4 °C (7.2 °F). They compared those figures to the extrapolated present-day emissions of Canada, the European Union and the United States or China, respectively. The 400-500 billion tonnes figure would also be equivalent to the today's remaining budget for staying within a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target.[30] One of the scientists involved in that effort, Susan M. Natali of Woods Hole Research Centre, had also led the publication of a complementary estimate in a PNAS paper that year, which suggested that when the amplification of permafrost emissions by abrupt thaw and wildfires is combined with the foreseeable range of near-future anthropogenic emissions, avoiding the exceedance (or "overshoot") of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming is already implausible, and the efforts to attain it may have to rely on negative emissions to force the temperature back down.[31]

An updated 2022 assessment of climate tipping points concluded that abrupt permafrost thaw would add 50% to gradual thaw rates, and would add 14 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by 2100 and 35 billion tons by 2300 per every degree of warming. This would have a warming impact of 0.04 °C (0.072 °F) per every full degree of warming by 2100, and 0.11 °C (0.20 °F) per every full degree of warming by 2300. It also suggested that at between 3 °C (5.4 °F) and 6 °C (11 °F) degrees of warming (with the most likely figure around 4 °C (7.2 °F) degrees) a large-scale collapse of permafrost areas could become irreversible, adding between 175 and 350 billion tons of CO ₂ equivalent emissions, or 0.2-0.4 °C (0.36-0.72 °F) degrees, over about 50 years (with a range between 10 and 300 years).[32][33]

A major review published in the year 2022 concluded that if the goal of preventing 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming was realized, then the average annual permafrost emissions throughout the 21st century would be equivalent to the year 2019 annual emissions of Russia. Under RCP4.5, a scenario considered close to the current trajectory and where the warming stays slightly below 3 °C (5.4 °F), annual permafrost emissions would be comparable to year 2019 emissions of Western Europe or the United States, while under the scenario of high global warming and worst-case permafrost feedback response, they would nearly match year 2019 emissions of China.[26]

Tundra on the Kerguelen Islands.

Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the Kerguelen Islands. Most of Antarctica is too cold and dry to support vegetation, and most of the continent is covered by ice fields or cold deserts. However, some portions of the continent, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula, have areas of rocky soil that support plant life. The flora presently consists of around 300-400 species of lichens, 100 mosses, 25 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algae species, which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent. Antarctica's two flowering plant species, the Antarctic hair grass ( Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula.[34] In contrast with the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic tundra lacks a large mammal fauna, mostly due to its physical isolation from the other continents. Sea mammals and sea birds, including seals and penguins, inhabit areas near the shore, and some small mammals, like rabbits and cats, have been introduced by humans to some of the subantarctic islands. The Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion includes the Bounty Islands, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands, the Campbell Island group, and Macquarie Island.[35] Species endemic to this ecoregion include Corybas dienemus and Corybas sulcatus, the only subantarctic orchids; the royal penguin; and the Antipodean albatross.[35]

There is some ambiguity on whether Magellanic moorland, on the west coast of Patagonia, should be considered tundra or not.[36] Phytogeographer Edmundo Pisano called it tundra ( Spanish: tundra Magallánica) since he considered the low temperatures key to restrict plant growth.[36]

The flora and fauna of Antarctica and the Antarctic Islands (south of 60° south latitude) are protected by the Antarctic Treaty.[37]

Alpine tundra in the North Cascades of Washington, United States

Alpine tundra does not contain trees because the climate and soils at high altitude block tree growth.[38]: 51  The cold climate of the alpine tundra is caused by the low air temperatures, and is similar to polar climate. Alpine tundra is generally better drained than arctic soils.[39] Alpine tundra transitions to subalpine forests below the tree line; stunted forests occurring at the forest-tundra ecotone (the treeline) are known as Krummholz.

Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide. The flora of the alpine tundra is characterized by plants that grow close to the ground, including perennial grasses, sedges, forbs, cushion plants, mosses, and lichens.[40] The flora is adapted to the harsh conditions of the alpine environment, which include low temperatures, dryness, ultraviolet radiation, and a short growing season.

Tundra region with fjords, glaciers and mountains. Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen.

Tundra climates ordinarily fit the Köppen climate classification ET, signifying a local climate in which at least one month has an average temperature high enough to melt snow (0 °C (32 °F)), but no month with an average temperature in excess of 10 °C (50 °F).[41] The cold limit generally meets the EF climates of permanent ice and snows; the warm-summer limit generally corresponds with the poleward or altitudinal limit of trees,[42] where they grade into the subarctic climates designated Dfd, Dwd and Dsd (extreme winters as in parts of Siberia), Dfc typical in Alaska, Canada, mountain areas of Scandinavia, European Russia, and Western Siberia (cold winters with months of freezing).[43]

Despite the potential diversity of climates in the ET category involving precipitation, extreme temperatures, and relative wet and dry seasons, this category is rarely subdivided. Rainfall and snowfall are generally slight due to the low vapor pressure of water in the chilly atmosphere, but as a rule potential evapotranspiration is extremely low, allowing soggy terrain of swamps and bogs even in places that get precipitation typical of deserts of lower and middle latitudes.[44] The amount of native tundra biomass depends more on the local temperature than the amount of precipitation.[45]

Places featuring a tundra climate

Alpine tundra

Gavia Pass, Italy [46]

Mount Fuji, Japan[47]

Cerro de Pasco, Peru[48]

Apartaderos, Venezuela

Puno, Peru

Kasprowy Wierch, Poland

High Tatras, Slovakia

Murghob, Tajikistan

Mount Wellington, Australia

Cairn Gorm, United Kingdom

Putre, Chile

Coranzuli, Argentina

Yu Shan, Taiwan

Juf, Switzerland

Finse, Norway

Sêrxü, China

Polar tundra

Longyearbyen, Svalbard, Norway[49]

Yamal Peninsula, Russia

Iqaluit, Canada[50]

Utqiagvik, United States[51]

Hooper Bay, United States

Kerguelen Islands, French Southern Lands (France)[52]

Nuuk, Greenland (Denmark) [53]

Grytviken, South Georgia (United Kingdom)

Tiksi, Russia

Mykines, Faroe Islands (Denmark)

Hveravellir, Iceland

Tolhuin, Argentina

Campbell Island, New Zealand

1. ^ "Ecoregions". World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.

2. ^

3. ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions: Antarctica". Wild World. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011.

4. ^ Higuera, Philip E.; Chipman, Melissa L.; Barnes, Jennifer L.; Urban, Michael A.; et al. (December 2011). "Variability of tundra fire regimes in Arctic Alaska: millennial-scale patterns and ecological implications". Ecological Applications. 21 (8): 3211-3226. doi:10.1890/11-0387.1. ISSN 1051-0761.

5. ^ "Great Plain of the Koukdjuak". Ibacanada.com.

6. ^ "Where Are Arctic Mosquitoes Most Abundant in Greenland and Why?". Ecological Society of America. 4 August 2020.

7. ^ Mack, Michelle C.; Bret-Harte, M. Syndonia; Hollingsworth, Teresa N.; Jandt, Randi R.; et al. (28 July 2011). "Carbon loss from an unprecedented Arctic tundra wildfire" (PDF). Nature. 475 (7357): 489-492. Bibcode:2011Natur.475..489M. doi:10.1038/nature10283. PMID 21796209. S2CID 4371811. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012.

8. Douglas, Thomas A.; Turetsky, Merritt R.; Koven, Charles D. (24 July 2020). "Increased rainfall stimulates permafrost thaw across a variety of Interior Alaskan boreal ecosystems". npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. 3 (1): 5626. doi:10.1038/s41612-020-0130-4.

9. ^ Nowinski NS, Taneva L, Trumbore SE, Welker JM (January 2010). "Decomposition of old organic matter as a result of deeper active layers in a snow depth manipulation experiment". Oecologia. 163 (3): 785-92. Bibcode:2010Oecol.163..785N. doi:10.1007/s00442-009-1556-x. PMC 2886135. PMID 20084398.

10. ^ Schuur, E.A.G., Bockheim, J., Canadell, J.G., Euskirchen, E., Field, C.B., Goryachkin, S.V., Hagemann, S., Kuhry, P., Lafleur, P.M., Lee, H., Mazhitova, G., Nelson, F.E., Rinke, A., Romanovsky, V.E., Skiklomanov, N., Tarnocai, C., Venevsky, S., Vogel, J.G., and Zimov, S.A. (2008). "Vulnerability of Permafrost Carbon to Climate Change: Implications for the Global Carbon Cycle". BioScience. 58 (8): 701-714. doi:10.1641/B580807.

11. ^ Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Scheffer, Marten; Lade, Steven J.; Fetzer, Ingo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Crucifix, Michel; Cornell, Sarah E.; Barnosky, Anthony D. (2018). "Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (33): 8252-8259. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.8252S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1810141115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6099852. PMID 30082409.

12. ^ MacDougall, Andrew H. (10 September 2021). "Estimated effect of the permafrost carbon feedback on the zero emissions commitment to climate change". Biogeosciences. 18 (17): 4937-4952. Bibcode:2021BGeo...18.4937M. doi:10.5194/bg-18-4937-2021.

13. ^ Hugelius, Gustaf; Loisel, Julie; Chadburn, Sarah; et al. (10 August 2020). "Large stocks of peatland carbon and nitrogen are vulnerable to permafrost thaw". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (34): 20438-20446. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11720438H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1916387117. PMC 7456150. PMID 32778585.

14. Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211-1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.

15. Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam; Koven, Charlie; Leshyk, Victor; Lawrence, David; Loranty, Michael M.; Mauritz, Marguerite; Olefeldt, David; Natali, Susan; Rodenhizer, Heidi; Salmon, Verity; Schädel, Christina; Strauss, Jens; Treat, Claire; Turetsky, Merritt (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 47: 343-371. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847.

16. ^ Dietz, Simon; Rising, James; Stoerk, Thomas; Wagner, Gernot (24 August 2021). "Economic impacts of tipping points in the climate system". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (34): e2103081118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11803081D. doi:10.1073/pnas.2103081118. PMC 8403967. PMID 34400500.

17. ^ Natali, Susan M.; Holdren, John P.; Rogers, Brendan M.; Treharne, Rachael; Duffy, Philip B.; Pomerance, Rafe; MacDonald, Erin (10 December 2020). "Permafrost carbon feedbacks threaten global climate goals". Biological Sciences. 118 (21). doi:10.1073/pnas.2100163118. PMC 8166174. PMID 34001617.

18. Longton, R.E. (1988). Biology of Polar Bryophytes and Lichen. Studies in Polar Research. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-25015-3.

19. ^ Elliott-Fisk, D.L. (2000). "The Taiga and Boreal Forest". In Barbour, M.G.; Billings, M.D. (eds.). North American Terrestrial Vegetation (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55986-7.

20. ^ "The tundra biome". University of California Museum of Paleontology.

21. ^ Körner, Christian (2003). Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-00347-2.

22. ^ Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jürgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rubel, Franz (2006). "World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated". Meteorol. Z. 15 (3): 259-263. Bibcode:2006MetZe..15..259K. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130.

23. ^ "Tundra". geodiode.com.

24. ^ Keuper, F.; Parmentier, F.J.; Blok, D.; van Bodegom, P.M.; Dorrepaal, E.; van Hal, J.R.; van Logtestijn, R.S.; Aerts, R. (2012). "Tundra in the rain: differential vegetation responses to three years of experimentally doubled summer precipitation in Siberian shrub and Swedish bog tundra". Ambio. 41 Suppl 3(Suppl 3) (Suppl 3): 269-80. doi:10.1007/s13280-012-0305-2. PMC 3535056. PMID 22864700.

25. Valerio Giacomini, ^ La Tundra del Gavia, Pubblication out of commerce for Stelvio National Park authority, 1975

26. ^ "Tundra". Mindat.

27. ^ "Utqiagvik, Alaska tours". Alaska Collection.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Tundra Area 11,563,300[1] km 2 (4,464,600 sq mi) Climate type ET In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons.

# data[].attributes.body
Here are some people who video some polar bear in arctic.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Visualization of the ice and snow covering Earth's northern and southern polar regions

Northern Hemisphere permafrost (permanently frozen ground) in purple

The polar regions, also called the frigid zones or polar zones, of Earth are Earth's polar ice caps, the regions of the planet that surround its geographical poles (the North and South Poles), lying within the polar circles. These high latitudes are dominated by floating sea ice covering much of the Arctic Ocean in the north, and by the Antarctic ice sheet on the continent of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in the south.

Definitions

The Arctic has various definitions, including the region north of the Arctic Circle (currently Epoch 2010 at 66°33'44" N), or just the region north of 60° north latitude, or the region from the North Pole south to the timberline. The Antarctic is usually defined simply as south of 60° south latitude, or the continent of Antarctica. The 1959 Antarctic Treaty uses the former definition.

The two polar regions are distinguished from the other two climatic and biometric belts of Earth, a tropics belt near the equator, and two middle latitude regions located between the tropics and polar regions.

Polar regions receive less intense solar radiation than the other parts of Earth because the Sun's energy arrives at an oblique angle, spreading over a larger area, being less concentrated, and also travels a longer distance through the Earth's atmosphere in which it may be absorbed, scattered or reflected, which is the same thing that causes winters to be colder than the rest of the year except in tropical regions.

The axial tilt of the Earth has the most effect on climate of the polar regions due to its latitude. However, since the polar regions are the farthest from the equator, they receive the weakest solar radiation and are therefore generally frigid year round due to the earth's axial tilt of 23.5° not being enough to create a high maximum midday declination to sufficiently compensate the Sun's rays for the high latitude even in summer, except for relatively brief periods in peripheral areas near the polar circles. The large amount of ice and snow also reflects and weakens of what weak sunlight the polar regions receive further, contributing to the cold. Polar regions are characterized by extremely cold temperatures, heavy glaciation wherever there is sufficient precipitation to form permanent ice, short and still cold summers, and extreme variations in daylight hours, with twenty-four hours of daylight in summer, and complete darkness at mid-winter.

Circumpolar Arctic region

North polar region polar bears

There are many settlements in Earth's north polar region. Countries with claims to Arctic regions are: the United States ( Alaska), Canada ( Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut), Denmark ( Greenland), Norway, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, and Russia. Arctic circumpolar populations, though small, often share more in common with each other than with other populations within their national boundaries. As such, the northern polar region is diverse in human settlements and cultures.

Antarctica and the Southern sea

South polar region penguin

The southern polar region has no permanent human habitation as of now. McMurdo Station is the largest research station in Antarctica, run by the United States. Other notable stations include Palmer Station and Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station (United States), Esperanza Base and Marambio Base ( Argentina), Scott Base ( New Zealand), and Vostok Station (Russia).

While there are no indigenous human cultures, there is a complex ecosystem, especially along Antarctica's coastal zones. Coastal upwelling provides abundant nutrients which feeds krill, a type of marine Crustacea, which in turn feeds a complex of living creatures from penguins to blue whales.

References

Further reading

Victor, Paul-Émile. Man and the Conquest of the Poles, trans. by Scott Sullivan. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963.[ISBN missing ]

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The polar regions, also called the frigid zones or polar zones, of Earth are Earth's polar ice caps, the regions of the planet that surround its geographical poles (the North and South Poles), lying within the polar circles.

# data[].attributes.body
What is polar region?
What are the non-living things and living things there?
How do humans impact on the ecosystem?

# data[].attributes.body
Polar Region includes Arctic and Antarctic. The Arctic polar region surround North Pole, the Antarctic polar region surround South Pole. The polar region are the coldest places on Earth, during summer they get 24 hours of sunlight, during winter they get 24 hours of dark.The polar region cover almost 20 percent of Earth.

# data[].attributes.body
A diagram of the food chain in polar region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Human Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the Environment, scientific bases, tourists and tourism, fishing and fisheries, mining, oil exploration, and other potential perils

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Further inland, rubbish was often dropped down a crevasse or just left where it was. In the harsh Antarctic environment, even large items such as empty oil drums can be blown by the wind for miles from where they were originally dumped so spreading the problem.

# data[].attributes.body
Animals and ecosystem diagram let you understand it very quickly.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
lee jac,group leader/wiki writer

mikhail-al-fayed,reasearcher

jia sheng, reasearcher

benjamin lee, reasearcher/wiki writer

There are two regions in the polar region, the Arctic and Antarctic. One of the ways to distinguish the two different regions is that Polar bears live in the arctic, not the Antarctic, and penguins live in the Antarctic, but do not live in the Arctic.

The polar regions, covering almost 20 percent of our planet, play a very big role in the physical, chemical and biological operation of the whole Earth system and contains major biological and mineral resource .Massive areas of thick ice cover the Arctic(North Pole) and the Antarctic(South Pole) and they are the coldest habitats in the world. Since the temperature hardly goes above freezing in either area, the land and the sea of the north and south pole are frozen most of the year.

At both the North pole and the South pole, in summer the sun does not set and in the winter, it does not rise. Survival in these habitats is very difficult. The plants and animals developed amazing and unique methods for surviving and living in the cold and frigid temperatures of the north and south pole.
Polar Regions and the Global Climate System:
Polar regions are an very important influence on the global climate system. Climate system will be the greatest in polar regions.

The temperature, salinity and circulation of the ocean is influenced strongly by polar dynamics.

Organisms and ecosystems exhibit unique adaptations to extreme the harsh environment of the arctic

The Arctic Region
The arctic ecosystem has a unique complex food web that is made up by its distinctive plankton, animal species, and environmental factors. Carbon cycles through the web from atmosphere to seawater back. Carbon dioxide is taken up phytoplankton and algae from seawater and and transforms into the organic carbons of their tissue. Then it flows through successive levels of eating animals that convert their prey's carbon into their own tissues or into sinking fecal pellets. Carbon dioxide escapes back along the way to the atmosphere through the organisms respiration.

A MAP OF THE NORTH POLE( arctic)
The Chain and Web of Life in the Arctic
Despite the harsh ,cold, frigid conditions, the Arctic Ocean is teeming with wildlife. the Great Polar bears roam the Arctic ice and swim the Arctic seas. Supporting these top predators is a ecosystem that includes plankton, fish, birds, seals, walruses and whales. At the center of the food web , supporting all this wildlife is phytoplankton and algae that produce organic materials using energy from the sun by making food ( photosynthesise) by using chrorophyll.

(Ursus maritimus)
Polar Bear

The polar bear is a bear native largely within the arctic circle,

Glacous Gull (Larus hyperboreus)

A large gull that breeds at arctic regions of the northen

hemesphere and the atlantic coasts of Europe
Secondary consumers of the Arctic food web

A small auk, the only member of the genus Alle, breeds on the islands in the high arctic

Eider duck (Somateria mollissima) A large sea duck (50 -75 cm) that is distributed over northen coast of Europe and

A very large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms.

Decomposers of the Arctic region consists of bacterial, the main decomposers, mosses, lichen, fungi, liverworts and earthworms. Things take a long time to decompose as there are only short window temperatures warm enough to allow activities
These are some decomposers in the arctic food web
Liverworts are typically small, usually from 2-20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long, and are therefore often overlooked.

lichens are composite organisms consisting of a fungus and a photosynthetic partner.

The antarctic seas are extremely productive because of the phytoplankton that is growing abundantly and very fast during the long extended daylight of summer and feeds gigantic and huge populations of krill. Krill are shrimp-like crustaceans, and are the most important animals in this huge ecosystem, as they are food for the top predators, the whales. Animals that are soft and transparent called salps also feed with the krill on phytoplankton in summer and forms big populations that may replace the entire krill population which is bad for the whales as they will have to search harder for other food as their diet consist of krill and almost nothing else for some species of whales which may include fish squid and zooplankton . Winters have very little light, so the phytoplankton will not grow ,the temperature is cold and humid, the whales will migrate, but a complex food web links a great variety of ocean animals other than the whales.
This is the map of the south pole( Antartica)
The antarctic sea is full of life from the tiny and small microscopic algae to the slightly bigger shrimplike crustaceans, the krill that are important to large predators that depend on them. the antarctic ocean is one of the most abundant oceans on earth, and its different cycles of production is tied to the change of different seasons. The thick areas of ice is important to the antarctic ecosystem as microscopic, single-celled algae are trapped inside the ice as it forms and grows on the underside of the ice . Young krill live under the ice all winter and the algae provides the only food for them. In Spring, the sea ice will melt, releasing all the algae that have been trapped for a long period into the water. The thing that will happen next is a bloom or population explosion of phytoplankton in the water. Animals like krill consume this huge food supply and multiply to suprisingly amazing levels. The krill which are rich in protein and fat, are food for large animals at the top of the food chain, including whales.

Tertiary Consumers of the Antarctic Food Web
The killer whale (Orcinus orca), also referred to as the orca whale or orca, and less commonly as the blackfish,

The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) is a species of baleen whale. One of the larger rorqual species, adults range in length from 12-16 metres

Great skua
The Great Skua (Stercorarius skua) is a large seabird in the skua family Stercorariidae. In Britain, it is sometimes known by the name Bonxie, a Shetland name

The Razorbill (Alca torda) is a colonial seabird that only comes to land in order to breed. This agile bird chooses one partner for life

Leopapd seal (Hydrurga leptonyx)
to as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic (after the southern elephant seal).
Producers of Antarctic food web The Antarctic Food Web

Decomposers of Antarctic region

Decomposers in an Antarctic consist of bacteria, fungi and worms.

These are some decomposers of the Antarctic region

Every species in the world is dependent on each other for survival,

and because all of us are a part of the food chain. One of

the most well-known yet hostileregion of the world is the polar region.

The polar region is the coldest part in the world and is actually barely conducive for

life forms to survive. Despite the fact that the Polar region is not really a condusive enviroment

, it still has many plants and animals living there.

The animals living there have adapted themselves to the harsh and frigid conditions.There are

many various and differnt polar plants and animals that have adapted to the enviroment and so there are

many symbiotic relationships where two organisms are involved.

In nature this can be parasitism or mutualism.

Mutualism is a relation where two different organisms benefit from each other.

One of the most well-known polar plants is lichens.

Lichen is a organism that is usually made up of a fungus and a green algae.

The algae is makes food( photosynthesise) in nature and so, reduces

carbon dioxide into sugars that provides the fungus with food as well.

Parasitism is a relation between two different organisms where one organism

benefits whereas the other one gets hurt or recieves nothing in return. One of the

tundra facts is that parasitism is seen in the polar

Parasitism is usually seen in cases of liver tapeworm cysts. The liver

tapeworm cysts likes to stay and grow in the body of various animals.

These tapeworms will then feed on the food that is eaten by these animals,

which leads to malnutrition in the animals body, that is in the animal which the tapeworm is living in.

The polar region receives very little sunlight because of the very low amount of radiation.

The polar region either receives darkness for one entire day because of the earth's tilt, or sunlight for a short period of time.
Temperature
The temperature in july is about from 10 degrees to about minus 10 degrees

In january it ranges about from forty degrees to about 0 degrees

in december and november ( winter ) the temperature can drop below 0 degrees

The water in the antarctic consists of two types, salt and fresh water.

Most of the fresh water is frozen within the massive areas os ice and

the salt water is the only water that is not frozen but dangerous to drink

Most of the water that are unfrozen are saltwater

The tundra of the polar region contains almost one third of the world's soil bound carbon

The quality of air in the polar region is more than enough to sustain life. But because

of global warming, the ice is melting and the wildlife of the polar region are losing

thier habitats.

the ph level is about<5.4 for the polar region
http:/thejuxtaposition.blog.com/2012/03/22/hig_price of a canadian polar bear pelts
http:/www.earthrangers.com/wildwire/omg/_animals/the trendy arctic fox
http/gjln1249.wordpress.com/animals/mammals/killerwhales
Done by Lee Jac (Leader and Writer) Mikhail Al -Fayed (Researcher) Jia Sheng (Researcher) Benjamin (Researcher and wiki writer) Include the links of all websites you obtained information from to complete your ecology wiki. For example: Wild World @ nationalgeographic.com ( http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html )

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
lee jac,group leader/wiki writer mikhail-al-fayed,reasearcher jia sheng, reasearcher benjamin lee, reasearcher/wiki writer There are two regions in the polar region, the Arctic and Antarctic. One of the ways to distinguish the two different regions is that Polar bears live in the arctic, not the Antarctic, and penguins live in the Antarctic, but do not live in the Arctic.

# data[].attributes.body
Links about the polar region.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life in the planet's polar regions can be incredibly difficult. Bitterly cold winds whip across the landscape. Winter temperatures can reach deep into the negatives, and the winter night can last for months. But these seemingly barren landscapes are home to a rich diversity of wildlife-both on land and under the sea surface-that has evolved to survive these harsh conditions.

# data[].attributes.body
In the polar region there is full of tiny animals. KRILL is one of the most important animals of the polar region, all of the large animals depend on them. All of the animals in the ecosystem are important, if one the the animals died, for example seals, the polar bear might die. But because human is changing the environment so lots of animals are endangered.

# data[].attributes.body
People impact the polar regions, such as hunting over there, and destroying the environment. A lot of people also go to there to explore and watch the animals.
It cause a big impact through out the polar regions.

# data[].attributes.body
Pollution and threat to the polar region

# data[].attributes.body
People are building dams in the polar regions, some of the animals are die because of different sort of problems.
Also the envioument can be destroyed because the fishes and all the animals can't move because they are blocked

# data[].attributes.body
Every year, polar regions had change. The human impact had cause the ice melted in polar regions.
The human impact had cause different species die and extinct. People do different hunting activities, that cause different problems to the envioument and animals

# data[].attributes.body
It is a very strong plant and it's structure is a flower on the top, Normally very strong mostly grew in polar regions and cold places.

# data[].attributes.body
Support any format, online.

# data[].attributes.body
Available on the newest Keynote

# data[].attributes.body
Beaches, Snow, Ice floes, Rockyout crops.

# data[].attributes.body
Jingcheng ,Yuan, Maggie

# data[].attributes.body
Ice shelves are a  huge sheet of land that is made up with only ice.

# data[].attributes.body
Polar region still have pollutions even it's a long way from large cities, but people dump and throw rubbish and deadly toxic wastes into the ocean and it flow easly to the polar regions.

The oil is one of the big part of the pollutions, too.

# data[].attributes.body
An edge of a huge sheet of ice or stone.

# data[].attributes.body
Non-Living things in Antactica

# data[].attributes.body
Moss is a kind of simple plants that live on rocks

# data[].attributes.body
The living things in Antarctica

# data[].attributes.body
Welcome to the Polar Region information board!