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Ames’ theories of knowledge is based on “Created findings -- researcher is a ‘passionate’ participant within the world being investigated” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, Table I). More specifically, Ames’ holistic research approach and direct interactions with teachers, students, and families allows her to investigate these Andean villages not only as a researcher, but also as a passionate participant.

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Teacher Interviews: conducted to ask teachers about patterns of attendance among girls.

Family Interviews: allowed Ames to observe the interactions between children and their families in and out of the school environment.

Student Interviews: administered to girls who had dropped out of school in second or third grade.

Attendance Records: showed the difference between enrollment and attendance before and after the school visits.

Classroom Observations: designed to help Ames evaluate whether or not the school could possibly be promoting exclusion, as well as identify reasons why students who attended regularly, students who attended irregularly, students who dropped out, and students who did not graduate to the next grade level.

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The ontology of the interpretivist paradigm believes that “world and knowledge are created by social and contextual understanding” (Anderson, 2013, Slide 22). Ames is able to strengthen her knowledge of Andean educational inequalities through first-hand social interactions with the teachers, students, and families in Las Chulpas, Abracancha, Las Lomas, and San Juan.

According to Lincoln, Lynham, and Guba (2011), constructivism is based on the belief that “our individual personal reality -- the way we think life is and the part we are to play in it is -- self-created. We put together our own personal reality” (p. 102). Ames’ own educational and research experience has had a direct impact on how she perceives the schooling experience for these Andean students, which is the foundation of the constructivist paradigm. Furthermore, she understands and identifies that there are a plethora of factors that play a role in the exclusion of girls in these schools. Overall, Ames’ sense of reality stems from the belief that there are multiple realities surrounding each issue.

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Ames uses a combined approach of both quantitative and qualitative data collection in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the causes of educational exclusion and gender inequalities in four Andean villages.

Ames’ research team consists of six qualified professionals (one general coordinator, one research coordinator, one fieldwork coordinator, and three regional research assistants).

As the fieldwork coordinator, Ames visited the four villages and utilizied mixed methods to “facilitate a better understanding of the relationship between variables” (Morrison, 2007, p. 31).

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Ames' research mainly utilizes the interpretivist/constructivist paradigm.

According to Morrison (2007), "the starting point for interpretive researchers is to operate within a set of distinctive principles regarding what it means to conduct educational research with people” (p. 24). The use of interpretivism allows researchers to immerse themselves within the living and/or working environment of their subjects. With that said, interpretivism directly connects with Ames' research, as she grounds herself in the educational experiences of the students living in Andean villages through the use of multiple school visits, classroom observations and teacher, student, and parent interviews in order to investigate gender inequalities.

Furthermore, "the constructivist paradigm assumes a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a subjectivist epistemology (knower and respondent co-create understandings), and a naturalistic (in the natural world) set of methodological procedures" (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 13). Ames' research fits the constructivist paradigm because it multiple realities and understandings are developed within the natural world.

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Ames does an excellent job of incorporating visuals into her research in order to help readers understand her methodology.

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Although not explicitly stated in her chapter, readers can infer that her research questions are as follows:

1. How has gender parity been achieved in Peru's primary education, but not secondary education?

2.  Which factors contribute to gender inequity in Peru's education system?

3. How do the economic conditions of Peruvian students affect their school experience?

4. How do the social and cultural expectations of girls and boys impact their school attendance?

5. How do "certain school practices strengthen rather than counteract drop-out and school failure among girls"? (Ames, 2005, p. 150).

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1. "To investigate the causes and dimensions of educational exclusion of rural girls in Andean areas of Peru" (Ames, 2005, p. 149)

2.  To identify the factors causing gender inequities among Andean primary schools.

3. To examine the "fragile relationship between students and the school, due to precarious economic conditions in which the students live" (Ames, 2005, p. 150).

4. To analyze the impact that different social and cultural expectations of girls and boys have on students' school attendance and drop-out rates.

5. To gain an understanding of why some children within these four villages do not attend school.

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Ames, Patricia. (2005). "When Access is not Enough: Educational Exclusion of Rural Girls in Peru," in Sheila Aikman and Elaine Unterhalter, Eds. Beyond Access: Transforming Policy and Practice for Gender Equality in Education. Oxfam GB.

Anderson, Terry. (2013). Research Paradigms: Ontology's, Epistemologies & Methods. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya

Denzin, Norman and Yvonna Lincoln. (2011). "Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research," in Denzin and Lincoln, Eds. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage.

Lincoln, Yvonna, Susan Lynham and Egon Guba. (2011). "Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions, and Emerging Confluences, Revisited," in Denzin and Lincoln, Eds. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative
Research. London: Sage

Morrison, M. (2007). What do we mean by educational research?’ In M. Coleman & A. Briggs, Eds. Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management. London, England: Paul Chapman Publishing.

N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.) (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 191-215). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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When access is not enough: educational exclusion of rural girls in Peru (Ames, 2005)

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When access is not enough: educational exclusion of rural girls in Peru (Ames, 2005)