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The peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt were both polytheistic, meaning that they worshipped many gods. These peoples created monumental structures to appease their gods. These buildings served as a testament of their gods' power and would help preserve the cultures of these peoples' for all time. With the Mesopotamians, they built religious buildings called ziggurats. Ziggurats were constructed in each Mesopotamian city, and they were made to honor the main god of that city. As for the Egyptians, they built temples to honor their gods and pyramids for their pharaohs, who they viewed as divine intermediaries between the gods and mankind.

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The peoples in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed their own forms of writing. These systems of writing, cuneiform from Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics from Egypt, were utilized to keep records and contributed to the creation of literature. The literature made by these peoples tackled a variety of topics, which included the nature of human relationships, the nature of the universe, and the role of divine forces in the universe. In addition, to their development of a writing system, the people of these civilizations created number systems and came up with a number of mathematical concepts. These math concepts helped build various structures and were used to keep records as well. Some other technology created and used by Mesopotamians include the potter's wheel, bronze tools/weapons (which were made by combining tin and copper), early irrigation systems, and even looms. As for the Egyptians, some technology they made and used include early forms of ships, papyrus sheets, and even primitive forms of toothbrushes and toothpastes.

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Image of the Great Mosque of Djenné located in Mali

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Early African religious beliefs varied from place to place, but most African societies shared some common religious ideas. These ideas were the belief in more than one god, the role of diviners, and nature spirits. Ancient Africans also believed in the importance of ancestors. They had ritual ceremonies dedicated to their ancestors because they believed their ancestors had close ties with the gods, and would be able to influence, for good or evil, the lives of their descendants. Additionally, a vast majority of the art, which included music, sculptures, and paintings, from Ancient Africa were expressions of religious convictions. Lastly, it's important to note that the spread of the religion Islam greatly impacted and influenced Ancient Africa.

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In the Arab Empire, Islam was the primary religion. It was a monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad. It featured one God named Allah and offers salvation and afterlife through the submission to the will of Allah. An important aspect of this religion, was "The Five Pillars of Islam" which are the Islamic acts of faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage. Islam is not only a religion but a way of life. Honesty and justice are key values of this religion and one who follows Islam must not engage in dishonest behavior. Additionally, Muslims are forbidden to eat pork, drink alcoholic beverages, and gamble.

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Image of the Fish and Cross; Two Major Christian Symbols

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At first the Romans' religion, was very similar to that of the Greeks. They were polytheistic and had multiple gods who they believed had specific jobs or control over certain things, like crop growth or bringing the sun out. As the Romans conquered more peoples, they were exposed to other gods that were worshipped by the peoples they fought. If those peoples had fought extremely well, the Romans would adopt their gods. Over time, the Romans moved away from this polytheistic approach to religion, and they instead embraced the monotheistic religion of Christianity as their main religion since it had many similar ethical precepts, was personal, was easy to understand, and promised eternal life to all. Emperor Constantine and Theodosius the Great played a major role in making Christianity the main religion in Rome.

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The Greeks were polytheistic, meaning they worshipped many gods. They believed that the gods were involved in natural phenomena and that each god controlled different things. To honor their gods, the Greeks built many temples and they had a multitude of shrines for their gods as well. At their temples, they would worship, pray, ask for favors, and leave gifts and offerings to their gods. Additionally, the Greeks would have priests at their temples. The priests had an instrumental role in Greek religion since they helped humans communicate their hopes and wishes to the gods. They also had a role in protecting the temples, keeping them clean, and ensuring that the gods were happy.

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In China, there were a variety of religions. One of the main religions in China was Buddhism. It spread to China from India, and was created by Siddartha Gautama. Another major religion in Ancient China was Daoism, also spelled Taoism. This religion was created by Lao-Tzu in the 6th century during the Zhou Dynasty, and some beliefs from this religion include the idea of Yin and Yang and the idea that people should be one with nature. Another major religion in Ancient China was Confucianism. This religion was developed by Confucius, and it focused on treating others with respect, politeness, and fairness. It also valued honor, morality, and believed in the importance of family. Legalism, which is more of a philosophy rather than a religion, also emerged in Ancient China and was made by Han Feizi, during the Qin Dynasty.

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In Ancient India, two of the world's major religions were created: Buddhism and Hinduism. Hinduism came from the religious beliefs of the Aryan people, who settled in the northern plains region of India. One of the major beliefs of Hinduism was the idea of reincarnation. This concept helped justify the strict and fixed caste system. As for the religion of Buddhism, it emerged in sixth century BCE in north India and was the creation of a man named Siddartha Gautama. Gautama came up with this religion after he had "awakened" and saw the world in a new way. This religion that he had created would come to compete with Hinduism.

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The main technology developed in Ancient Africa, was the practice of agriculture. The rise of agriculture in this region allowed for many early civilizations to pop up and thrive. Some of the early civilizations that came to be through the mastery of agriculture include Egypt, Kush, and Axum. Aside from being excellent at agriculture, the peoples of Ancient Africa were skilled at making wood carvings. They also knew how to make sculptures. The carvings and sculptures made by this civilization were an important part of the culture. Furthermore, this civilization also worked with metal, specifically working with iron (evidence of iron production dating to around 500 BCE was found recently in the area just north of the Niger and Benue rivers).

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Image of a painting of Arab Scholars in an Observatory

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The Arab Empire made various contributions to technology. These people contributed to engineering by constructing dams, irrigation canals, waterwheels, pumps, aqueducts, and cisterns, due to the lack of water in their region. The people of the Arab Empire also made advances in mathematics. They contributed to geometry, trigonometry, and also developed a number of algebraic concepts. Aside from these developments, the people of the Arab Empire also contributed to medicine by creating important medical literature, like "The Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina that would be used by many doctors for hundreds of years. Furthermore, this civilization also studied astronomy extensively with the observatories that they built. Using their knowledge of astronomy, they made celestial globes showing the positions of the stars and planets in relation to the Earth and developed tools like the quadrant and astrolabe.

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The Romans were great engineers and contributed many advancements in technology. They developed aqueducts to move water into Roman cities and also harnessed the power of water in their mills and mines. Aside from this, the Romans even made early versions of toilets and devised both indoor plumbing systems and sewer systems. Additionally, the Romans developed an expansive road system in their empire. These roads helped with trade and military movement. Furthermore, the Romans also created structures like arches to strengthen the structures they built in their empire, and they also developed concrete. The Romans also developed the political institutions of a republic and had a senate.

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Image of the Pythagorean Theorem devised by Greek Mathematician Pythagoras

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The Greeks contributed and made many advancements in science, math, and technology. In math, the Greeks contributed the Pythagorean Theorem, which was discovered by Greek mathematician Pythagoras. As for science, a Greek doctor named Hippocrates, also called the “Father of Western Medicine” was a pioneer of medical science. His writings also helped to create the code of medical ethics known as the Hippocratic Oath. The Greeks also contributed to Astronomy, through the Greek astronomer, Aristarchus, who claimed that the sun was at the center of the universe and that Earth circled the sun. Eratosthenes was another astronomer who added to our understanding of our planet by concluding that Earth is round. The Greeks also devised plumbing, urban planning, and came up with the organization system of city-states, or polis, and came up with the concepts of oligarchies and democracy.

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First of all, not much is known about ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian thinkers or philosophers. There are not many records regarding or detailing important thinkers or philosophers from these civilizations. However, there are still some important thinkers from these civilizations. For Mesopotamia, a major thinker was the ruler Hammurabi. Hammurabi was an instrumental thinker because he created the Code of Hammurabi, which is one of the world's earliest codes of law. Some defining traits of this code include the severe punishments listed for crimes and the principle of retribution (ex. "eye for an eye"). As for Egypt, an example of an important thinker was the vizier Ptahhotep. He was a vital thinker due to the fact that he created The Maxims (sometimes called The Teachings) of Ptahhotep, which is the earliest large piece of Egyptian literature that was available to scholars today. This book was filled with proverbial sayings and it taught lessons regarding humility and faithfulness in doing one's duties.

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Image of an Ancient Chinese Bronze Vessel

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In Ancient China, many technological advancements were made. These advancements happened especially during the Shang dynasty, which reigned from 1600 to 1046 BCE. This dynasty contributed much to technology developing a lunar calendar and making their own system of writing. They also pioneered working with metals. They specifically came up with advanced skills for making bronze vessels, which were decorated and mainly used to store wine. The Shang also created an organized system of government. Aside from the contributions made by the Shang, a major concept was established by the Zhou Dynasty: the Mandate of Heaven. This concept gave kings a divine right to rule, and this mandate was related to the cycle of dynasties in China.

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There were many technological discoveries and advancements made in Ancient India. Ancient Indians were pioneers of metallurgy, the practice of working with metal. This civilization knew how to mix metals and create alloys. Ancient Indians also helped develop the modern number system that we use today. Additionally, they made early medicines by blending plants and minerals. Aside from this, this civilization also knew much about astronomy, created a strong central government, and had many artistic accomplishments. The societal construct of the caste system also originated in Ancient India. In the rigid caste system, there was no such thing as upward mobility. Whatever class a person was born into, was the class that they would remain in for the rest of their lives.

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The main important thinkers from Ancient India were Siddartha Gautama and Aśoka. Siddartha Gautama is notable for his creation of the spiritual philosophy of Buddhism. Buddhism would later spread around the world and become a major religion. As for Aśoka, he is considered an important thinker because he was able to adopt Buddhist ideals during his rule which allowed for his empire to reach its height during his rule. His wise use of these ideals also solidified his reputation as the greatest ruler in the history of India. Some other philosophers from Ancient India include Chanakya, Adi Shankara, and Nagarjuna to name a few.

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In Ancient China, there were a number of important philosophers and thinkers who impacted Ancient Chinese civilization. One such thinker was Confucius, who was born in 551 BCE. He was responsible for creating the influential philosophy of Confucianism, and he is famous for his many sayings, like "Forget injuries, never forget kindnesses." Another major philosopher from China was Lao-Tzu, who was born in 571 BCE. He is notable for creating the religion of Daoism, also spelled as Taoism, and known for writing the Tao Te Ching which contained his beliefs and philosophy. Lastly, another important thinker from Ancient China was Han Feizi, also known as Master Han Fei. He was responsible for creating the school of thought known as Legalism and was known for the essays he wrote about autocratic government.

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For important thinkers, the Greeks had a number of influential philosophers who all thought critically and rationally about the nature of the universe. Socrates was a major Greek philosopher, who questioned everything. He believed that real knowledge was in everyone. He created the Socratic Method, which used a question and answer format to promote reasoning and critical thinking in his students. Another major thinker, was Plato, who was a student of Socrates. He established a school called the Academy. He wrote "The Republic" to discuss his ideas about government, which included rejecting democracy as a form of government and having 3 groups for society: wise Philosopher-Kings to rule, warriors to defend, and then the masses driven by their desires. Lastly, a third influential Greek thinker was Aristotle, who was a student of Plato. He studied at the Academy, focused on observation and investigation when analyzing things, and wrote about various subjects. Like Plato, he also thought about the best form of government and wrote about these governments in his "Politics". He considered monarchy, aristocracy and constitutional government as good structures for government, but thought constitutional government would work best for the vast majority of people.

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In the Roman Republic, there were many important thinkers and philosophers. One influential Roman thinker was Pliny the Elder (real name Gaius Plinius Secundus) who was born in the year 23 CE. He is notable for creating an early form of the encyclopedia known as the Naturalis Historia, which became a model for modern-day encyclopedias. Another major Roman philosopher was Lucius Annaeus Seneca (also known as Seneca the Younger) who was born in 4 BCE. He is known for his tragic plays (like "Medea" and "Phaedra") that would later inspire writers like Shakespeare and was also important because he tutored Emperor Nero. Lastly, another significant Roman thinker was Saint Augustine, who was born in 354 CE. He is remarkable because his of many writings which influenced Christianity and Western philosophy. Some of his most famous works include "Confessions" and "On Christian Doctrine".

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Image of a statue of the scholar Al-Khwarizmi

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In the Arab Empire, there were a number of important thinkers. One such thinker, was the prophet Muhammad who founded the religion of Islam. The religion that he founded would become one of the world's major religions and would spread all across the globe. Another influential thinker from the Arab Empire, was Al-Khwarizmi, who was born in 780 CE. He is notable for his contributions to algebra, being known as the "Father of Algebra", and is also known for his work in other areas of study like trigonometry, astronomy, and geography. Lastly, another important thinker from the Arab Empire was Al-Kindi. He was an Arab philosopher who studied Aristotle's works and was known for the many works that he wrote regarding philosophy. In fact, many people regard him as the "Father of Arab Philosophy."

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Due to very few written records, there is limited amount of information available regarding early African society and important thinkers and figures from this civilization. Despite this, one of the documented and influential figures from Ancient Africa was Mansa Musa. He was a powerful king who came from the trade state of Mali. He is notable for the massive impact he had on Mali. He doubled the size of this trade state and established the capital of Timbuktu which became a major center of Islamic learning and culture. Mansa Musa was also remembered for the fact that he was a faithful Muslim who made a pilgrimage to Makkah. Aside from Mansa Musa, another important figure from Ancient Africa was Muhammad Ture, who helped the Songhai Empire reach the height of its power.

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Both Mesopotamians and Egyptians engaged with foreign peoples in a variety of different ways. These peoples both excelled in agriculture and, as a result, often had surpluses of crops. These crops were traded to foreign peoples and trading allowed Egyptian and Mesopotamian cities to grow and prosper. The trade that both Mesopotamians and Egyptians were involved in, allowed these civilizations to gain new ideas and products from other peoples. Additionally, both Mesopotamia and Egypt were subject to many invasions from different groups. Mesopotamia was especially vulnerable to invasion since it wasn't surrounded by any natural features to protect it, and although Egypt was invaded numerous times, it had more natural features protecting it from enemies in comparison to Mesopotamia.

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Image of the Huns Invasion of the Gupta Empire

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Ancient Indians made contact with a variety of foreign peoples. This civilization interacted with other groups primarily through the invasions they faced. One such invasion that the Ancient Indians experienced, was from the Huns. The Huns attacked Ancient India in the late 5th century and their invasion reduced the power of the Gupta Empire which was dominant during this time period. Another foreign group that went to India, were the Portuguese, who sailed across the Indian Ocean to reach India at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Lastly, India was also able to spread its religions, of Buddhism and Hinduism, to foreign lands like China and the region of Southeast Asia.

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Although Ancient China was "virtually isolated" from the rest of the world for some time, it still made contact with other groups of people. This interaction came mainly in the form of conflict. The Ancient Chinese often fought off nomadic peoples along the northern frontier. Although the Ancient Chinese were mostly able to drive these nomadic peoples away, they struggled against the Xiongnu, who were a group of warriors that often invaded northern China. Aside from interacting with other peoples through fighting, the Ancient Chinese also traded with other civilizations via the Silk Road. China traded items like silk cloth, tea, and porcelain to foreign lands. The Chinese benefited from this trade as they were able to obtain unique products, ideas, cultures, and inventions from other places.

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The Ancient Greeks interacted with a variety of foreign groups. In the 5th century BCE, they first made contact with the Persian Empire who they fought during the Persian Wars. This set of wars briefly brought the Greeks together, and they emerged victorious against the Persian Empire. Another instance where the Greeks interacted with a foreign group of people happened in 338 BCE. During this year, the Greeks experienced an invasion from the Macedonians, who were led by Philip II, and this invasion led to the end of Greek freedom. Aside from interacting with foreign groups through war and conflict, the Greeks also spread their culture throughout the Middle East, impacting and influencing that region.

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Image of Romans fighting the Carthaginians (Punic Wars)

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Much of the Romans' interactions with foreign peoples came in the form of the wars they fought. The Romans first fought the Carthaginians, during the three violent Punic Wars and emerged victorious. They also clashed with the Macedonians in the east, eventually taking over Macedonia and various Greek states. Towards the later years of the Roman Empire, the Romans also experienced invasions from foreign peoples, and the western half of the empire was conquered by Germanic invaders who installed Odoacer, one of their chieftains, on the throne. Aside from the conflicts they had with foreign peoples, Rome also interacted with different groups via trade. The Romans traded with those from Spain, France, the Middle East, and North Africa and were able to gain many unique goods from trade.

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The Arab Empire interacted with a variety of foreign peoples and societies. The primary way they made contact with these groups was through trade. The Arab Empire renewed a trade route from West Africa to East Asia, and this trade helped many people succeed and prosper. Some of the groups that the Arab Empire traded with include China, India, and the Byzantine Empire. They transported goods via ships and also camel caravans. Aside from trading goods, the Arab Empire also spread the ideology of Islam to other places like Africa and parts of Asia. The Arab Empire also influenced foreign societies by bringing codes of law and a written language to societies that lacked those aspects.

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Ancient Africans interacted with many groups of people. The main way that Ancient Africans had contact with foreign people was through trade. The peoples from Ancient Africa traded with peoples from the Mediterranean region and those from across the Indian Ocean. The Ancient Africans also made contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century. It was during this time period that the Portuguese came in fleets by the coast of West Africa searching for gold and slaves. Once the Portuguese had passed the southern coast of Africa by 1500, they aimed to control the Indian Ocean trade which greatly threatened the Ancient Africans.