# data[].attributes.body
Made by Ashley Dervaric, working individually

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article depicts images of the residents of Pompeii after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. It briefly describes what had occurred to help preserve these bodies so well, as well as the process of how the bodies were excavated.
Connection: The article relates to the course content as it depicts personal connection. While many people don't know much about Pompeii, the photographs depicting human figures contorted in pain make the viewer feel remorse, and maybe even pain themselves.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Excavations of Pompeii began accidentally in the 18th century, when builders constructing a palace for the Bourbon king discovered the lost city while digging.

The Romans honored their god of fire on the 23rd of August each year. The citizens of Pompeii celebrated Vulcan's feast day in 79 A.D. as they always did: with bonfires and festivals, hoping to win the favor of the smith-god who labored at his forge inside the mountains. Volcano is derived from the name of the Roman god, and the people who worshiped him had no idea they were about to become victims of Europe's deadliest one.

Mount Vesuvius Erupts

The eruption of Vesuvius began on Aug. 24 and continued into the next day. Residents of Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum who decided to stay put rather than flee met their ends when a blast of ash and noxious gases barreled over the city walls at over 100 miles per hour, killing every living thing in its path.

Ash from Vesuvius continued to fall over the cities until they were completely covered in layers of debris that consumed all but the tallest buildings. Ironically, although the blast destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum, it also perfectly preserved them.

The cities and their citizens remained exactly as they had that summer day in 79 A.D., frozen in time under layers of ash for over a thousand years.

The lost cities proved to be a dream come true for archaeologists, yielding a trove of in-tact artifacts that remained in near-perfect condition that had lain undisturbed for centuries. Not only had the city structure been preserved right down to the graffiti, but the excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum provided a truly unique archaeological treasure: actual Romans.

The bodies of Pompeii of Vesuvius had been covered in layers of fine ash that calcified over the centuries, forming a type of protective shell around their bodies. When the skin and tissue of these bodies eventually decayed, they left voids in the layer of ash around them in the exact shape of the victims in their final moments:

Discovery Of The Bodies Of Pompeii

Excavations of Pompeii began accidentally in the 18th century, when builders constructing a palace for the Bourbon king discovered the lost city while digging. When the remains of a young woman were found in 1777, the excavators noticed they could clearly see the outline of the rest of her body in the ash that had encased her. It wasn't until 1864 that the Giuseppe Fiorelli, the director of the excavations, came up with an ingenious idea for reconstructing the bodies.

After discovering several air pockets that indicated the presence of human remains in a street dubbed "the Alley of Skeletons," Fiorelli and his team decided to pour plaster into the voids.

They let the plaster harden, then chipped away the outer layers of ash, which left behind the cast of the volcano's victims at the time of their deaths. Many of the victims remain frozen in contorted positions, some had been trying to shield their faces with their hands, one mother was found desperately trying to shield her child.

Without the adornments of toga, tunics or any other clothing that would indicate the period during which they lived, the bodies of Pompeii seem as though they could have been from last year.

The eerily preserved expressions of horror and pain certainly transcend the centuries. The body casts are on display in the excavated city of Pompeii and they are a powerful reminder that despite the millennia that separate us, the people who lived there were as human as we are.
Find this article about the bodies of Pompeii interesting? Next, check out 35 photos of a town frozen in time by a nuclear meltdown. Then, see these haunting photos of people just before they died.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
14 Agonizing Photos Of Pompeii's Bodies Frozen In Time

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Romans honored their god of fire on the 23rd of August each year. The citizens of Pompeii celebrated Vulcan's feast day in 79 A.D. as they always did: with bonfires and festivals, hoping to win the favor of the smith-god who labored at his forge inside the mountains.

# data[].attributes.body
Description:  This article discusses how the people that lived in Pompeii had "perfect" teeth - which can be seen due to the excellent preservation of the bodies from the eruption. Their teeth are in great condition as the residents had excellent diets with few sugars, as well as plenty of fluorine in the air and water. This is because of the active volcano depositing fluorine into the city beside it.
Connection: This article relates to the course content as it shows the red flag "all natural." It tells the reader about how life in that time was better for people due to the lack of chemicals in food and healthy, natural diets. It even makes living next to an active volcano look like a good idea. But as any rational thinker would know, extra fluorine for nice teeth isn't worth the risk of said volcanoes eruption.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. rained hot, ashy death down on the people of Pompeii, the small coastal town at the base of the volcano.

However, research on the victims' bones - preserved within plaster casts made in the 19th century - shows that the volcano also bestowed great dental health upon the ancient Roman city. It came in the form of fluorine in the ground and surrounding water, not unlike the fluoride we add to our drinking water today.

But fluoridated water isn't the only reason Pompeians had fantastic teeth.

Prior to the development of agriculture and diets rich in carbohydrates, our teeth were much cleaner. Switching from hunted meat and gathered fruits to domesticated grains and cereals gave us a lot more calories with less constant labor, but it also rotted our teeth.

The Romans certainly liked their grains like us, but their diets also contained no sugar, which was still rare at the time.

"They have really good teeth - they ate a diet that contained few sugars, and was high in fruit and vegetables," said Elisa Vanacore, an orthodontist who led the CAT scan on 18 of the bodies, said in a September 2015 press conference.

The granulated sugar we known today was developed in 5th century India, by crystallizing the juice from sugar cane, and it became wildly popular in Europe when new world colonization set up giant sugar plantations in the Caribbean.

And it wasn't just (unintentional) preventative care that gave Pompeii its great teeth.

Long before the volcano buried Pompeii in ash, it deposited fluorine into the environment - the element used to make fluoride, and which many nations currently add to drinking water to prevent tooth decay.

"The initial results also show the high levels of fluorine that are present in the air and water here, near the volcano," Vanacore said during the press conference.

The people of ancient Rome (and Pompeii) didn't eschew dental care, either.

While they didn't have well stocked pharmacies full of toothpaste, they did clean their teeth with frayed sticks and abrasive powders made from ground-up seashells, pumice, and hooves. In the case of Pompeii, they even had some extra chemical help from fluorine in the pumice.

So if you don't trust the government fluoridating your water, you may be get some dental benefits by moving next to an active volcano. Vesuvius is probably do for an eruption, too!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The same volcano that obliterated Pompeii also gave its victims fantastic teeth

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. rained hot, ashy death down on the people of Pompeii, the small coastal town at the base of the volcano. However, research on the victims' bones - preserved within plaster casts made in the 19th century - shows that the volcano also bestowed great dental health upon the ancient Roman city.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This video outlines the overall tragedy of Pompeii - from the initial explosion and life right before, how the residents likely died, discovery and excavation, and even robberies that are happening in present day.
Connection: This video depicts the red flag "mystical energy." While the destruction and loss of lives is terribly sad, it did most likely come with a warning. It states that the people of Pompeii were holding a festival the day before the eruption - one to honor the god "Vulcan." This is the god of fire and volcanoes, and the signs of the impending eruption were taken as signs of the happiness of Vulcan instead. If it wasn't for their such strong faith in gods - or even the poor timing of the eruption - residents of Pompeii may have lived.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Worst Part Of Pompeii's Destruction Isn't What You Think

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article shows the graffiti in Pompeii, and says that it is equivalent of social media in society today. Friends wrote messages to each other on walls, news was posted, and other various messages.
Connection: A reason for belief that is depicted in this is agenticity. People have assigned an overall use and meaning to this graffiti due to the fact that it cannot be disproved of simply. They believe that it was the major form of communication between residents and not simply graffiti, therefore giving it a higher meaning than it may have.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Pompeii was an ancient Roman city located near Naples, Italy, which was buried under 20 feet of volcanic ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. Largely preserved under the ash, the excavated city offers a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried, providing extraordinarily detail to archaeologists today. Even now, after almost 2,000 years, researchers are still making stunning finds, including revealing how this ancient civilisation expressed themselves.

Channel 5's new series "Ancient Mysteries" revealed how more than 12,000 inscriptions have now been discovered in Pompeii.

The narrator said in October: "In the commercial heart of Pompeii, there are still the faint traces of how everyday Romans took the law into their own hands.

"Rebecca Benefiel is an expert in deciphering ancient messages written on countless walls across the Roman world.

"These messages are the Romans talking and sometimes shouting to each other.

" News advertisements , messages between friends, it was the ancient equivalent of billboards, broadcasting and social media all rolled into one."

It was the ancient equivalent of billboards, broadcasting and social media all rolled into one

Ancient Mysteries

"News. advertisements, messages between friends, it was the ancient equivalent of billboards, broadcasting and social media all rolled into one."

Dr Benefiel explained how these signs have been key to understanding ancient Romans.

She said: "Ancient graffiti lets us know about the thoughts of the people who lived through the Roman Empire.

"Because we can see how people were communicating.

"There are more than 12,000 inscriptions written on the walls of Pompeii.
READ MORE: Pompeii experts probe mystery 'ancient safe' found intact 2,000 years after disaster
"They have information that people wanted to get out to the city.'"

The narrator went on to discuss one inscription in particular, detailing: "On the side of a former tavern, Rebecca has spotted the faint outline of an ancient message.

"Having meticulously mapped out the inscription, it reveals that thieves once roamed these streets."

Dr Benefiel was surprised by the amount offered, claiming the owners must have really wanted justice.

She continued: "The inscription was right here, next to the entrance to the tavern.

End of the world: How archaeologist discovered 'real Maayan doomsday'[VIDEO]Mayan DISCOVERY: How find in ancient city 'reveals creation story'[CLAIM]Egypt: How 'greatest archaeological find of all time' stunned expert[REVEALED]

"It said: 'A bronze vessel has gone missing from this shop, if someone will bring it back, they will be given a reward of 65 sesterces'.

"65 sesterces was a lot of money.

"A day's wages would be two to three sesterces, so 65 was a big reward."

The revelation comes after experts probed a mystery "ancient safe" found intact in a place known as "Room 10" during the same series.

This house was discovered in the Eighties with a group of bodies plastered in jewellery, alongside another that appeared to be completely stripped of their possessions.

Now, archaeologists believe they may have solved the mystery, after finding a safe which could have been ransacked when disaster struck.

Dr Kristina Killgrove, a bioarchaeologist, added: "At Oplontis, archaeologists found a very large, strong box that they think belonged to the owner of this large commercial area and it's possible that person was found in Room 10 as one of the skeletons."

Explaining the features of the box, the narrator continued: "This ornate strongbox was the Roman answer to the state-of-the-art home security system.

"It's a clear indication of the lengths the wealthy were going to in order to protect their valuables.

"Following a painstaking restoration, the exquisite detailing of the ancient safe can, at last, be revealed.

"The highly-prized item featured a four-stage locking mechanism to protect any riches inside.

"It was so well made, it took a full-scale natural disaster to breach its defence.

"But evidence from Pompeii suggests that in the lead-up to the devastating eruption, crime was rampant across the city."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pompeii archaeologist finds 2,000-year-old 'social media' posts of Roman Empire

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Pompeii was an ancient Roman city located near Naples, Italy, which was buried under 20 feet of volcanic ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. Largely preserved under the ash, the excavated city offers a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried, providing extraordinarily detail to archaeologists today.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article highlights the writers doubt of Pompeii's authenticity. Due to the recasting of bodies, and slow rebuild of the city, the author states the Pompeii is not actually ancient.
Connection: The connection between this article and the course content is the red flag red herring.  The author uses irrelevant facts to distract the reader -  stating the bodies are casts and therefore not "ancient bodies" at all. While this may be true, it does not prove the idea that Pompeii is not an ancient tragedy. The eruption still occurred thousands of years ago, and though the town may be undergoing construction, it is still the same base. The writer attempts to sidetrack the reader from these important facts and convince them of something false.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Is Pompeii an ancient or a modern wonder? Its ruins have been rebuilt and the bodies of the volcano's victims are plaster casts, says classical historian Mary Beard.

Last weekend I spent a couple of hours with the remains of one of the human victims of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79.

The corpse is apparently well preserved: a young woman, lying face down, shielding her face with her hands at the moment of death. Her dress has risen up and is tangled around her waist, her bare legs exposed beneath.

She is currently on display at the J Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, as the first exhibit in a show that explores the ways that modern artists - from Francesco Piranesi to Anthony Gormley - have responded to history's most famous volcanic eruption. "Welcome to Pompeii," she is meant to say. "The city of the dead".

Volcanic material covered the bodies, setting hard and solid around them, and as the flesh, internal organs and clothing gradually decomposed, a void was left

I was curious to find out what visitors to the exhibition made of her. So I lurked and listened.

The kids were the most forthcoming. Many of them rushed up to her, then uttered some variant of "Oooh, uggh! Is that a real Roman?" Their mums and dads tended to improvise one of two fairly predictable responses:

"Yes dear, it is, but don't worry - she died a very long time ago"

or "No, don't be silly, it's just a model"

In an odd way, both those answers turn out to be right.

Ghoulish as they are, for most of us (me included), these bodies are always one of the highlights of any display of the discoveries from Pompeii (and a group of them will be starring in an upcoming exhibition at the British Museum). They number in the hundreds altogether, each one a casualty of the eruption.

Find out more

Historian Mary Beard is professor of classics at Cambridge University

A Point of View broadcasts on BBC Radio 4 on Fridays at 20:50 GMT and repeated on Sunday at 08:50 GMT

Listen to A Point of View BBC Podcasts - A Point of View Explore the best of A Point of View
And they are not just human victims either. One of the most famous is the remains of a dog, still tied up, straining at its leash, in a futile attempt to make a run for it.

The truth is, though, that they are not actually bodies at all. They are the product of a clever bit of archaeological ingenuity, going back to the 1860s.

The early excavators had noticed, as they dug through the volcanic debris that covered Pompeii, a series of distinctive cavities in the lava, sometimes containing human bones.

The reason for that soon became clear. The material from the volcano had covered the bodies of the dead, setting hard and solid around them. As the flesh, internal organs and clothing gradually decomposed, a void was left - which was an exact negative imprint of the shape of the corpse at the point of death.

It wasn't long before one bright spark saw that if you poured plaster of Paris into that void, you got a plaster cast that was an exact replica of the body, but only a replica - more an "anti-body" than a real body.

And not just that - once the cast had been made, it could be used in turn to make more and more copies of the same person, rather like post-mortem cloning.

In fact, at the very moment that one version of the young woman is greeting visitors to the Getty Museum in Malibu, an identical version has pride of place in another Pompeii exhibition in Denver, Colorado - different casts and recasts of the same void made by the same dead human being 2,000 years ago (and 5,000 miles away).

Pompeii imagined

Edward Bulwer-Lytton's bestselling 1834 novel The Last Days of Pompeii reflects 19th Century fascination with supposed decadence of ancient Rome

Up Pompeii! - TV sitcom (1969-70) starring Frankie Howerd (pictured) as put-upon slave Lurcio

Dr Who: The Fires of Pompeii (2008) - sci-fi show reveals that explosion was caused by aliens called Pyroviles living under Vesuvius

Bodies or anti-bodies, the re-creation of these ancient Romans in plaster caused a tremendous stir when it was first done in the mid-19th Century.

Family groups seemed to be brought back almost to life. Only the hardest of hearts remained unmoved at the sight of these doomed plaster people clinging to each other as catastrophe approached, mothers cradling their children, husbands embracing wives.

The clothes they were wearing also came as a shock. It was still generally believed in the 1860s that ancient Roman dress had been a skimpy affair, not merely suitable for warm Mediterranean climes, but flirtatiously flimsy and revealing too.

That idea faded almost instantly when the casts revealed that the victims were heavily clad, wrapped in cloaks and thick dresses, heads covered and some of them even in trousers. (Although I have never quite understood why those 19th Century historians were so certain that the garments people chose to wear in the middle of a volcanic eruption were a good guide to their usual day-to-day attire.)

But there are much wider issues at play than ancient Roman dress sense.

For a start, these strangely ambivalent objects bring us face to face with our own voyeurism. Why does it seem OK for us to gawp at these disaster victims, when it would be decidedly not OK to gawp at the death agonies of victims of a modern train crash or terror attack?

Is it because, as some parents at the Getty suggested to their kids, they are just so ancient that they don't matter to us in the same way? As if in becoming archaeological specimens they lost their right to human privacy? Or is it the simple fact that these are not Roman bodies that gives us licence to peer?

Surely, we don't imagine that a lump of 19th Century plaster poured into a void in the lava has any "right to privacy" - still less (as in the Getty example) a 20th Century copy of a 19th Century lump of plaster. As the other parents had it, they're "just models".

For me, though, these plaster victims prompt other thoughts too - about the city of Pompeii as a whole, and what it stands for. Partly that's because they are so eloquently trapped in that no man's land between the living and the dead, captured at the very moment when they lost their struggle against the fumes and lava.

How dangerous is Vesuvius today?

European mainland's only active volcano - eruption in 1906 caused 1908 Olympics to be relocated from Rome to London

Last eruption in 1944 (pictured) destroyed several villages nearby

Geologists suspect major eruption, on same scale as Pompeii, is due in next couple of centuries

Mt Vesuvius: Volcanic ticking time bomb Vesuvius map, facts and photos
Which is a bit like the city too. Is it really a vast tomb? Or is Pompeii a place where we can go to step back in time into the lives of the ancient Romans?

When they're not in disaster-movie mode, modern visitors like to think of its living side, with Roman bread still in the Roman oven and the trundling Roman carts - or the seedy encounters in the Roman brothel - only a glimpse away. Not so tourists 200 years ago, who found it the ideal place to reflect on their own mortality.

It was the novelist Sir Walter Scott, visiting the site shortly before his death, who first described Pompeii as the "city of the dead" - words he muttered constantly as he was carried round the excavations in a sedan chair.

But more than anything, it's the combination of the ancient and the modern - the 19th Century plaster combined with the fleeting traces of those real dead Romans - that stands so well for Pompeii itself.

Of course, there's no question that it is the best-preserved ancient town anywhere in the world, one of the very few places in the world where you can actually walk the Roman streets. But an awful lot of what you see there was built - or rebuilt - in the 20th Century.

Keen as they were to reflect on the transience of human existence, early visitors to the site were often decidedly disappointed with the place. It was, frankly, a wreck.

It looked, as one disgruntled tourist observed, as if it had been destroyed in enemy action. Well, of course it looked like that. It had been devastated by a violent volcanic eruption.

It wasn't until the houses began to be rebuilt and reroofed around 1900 that Pompeii became something like the ancient city we now visit - until, that is, the site was heavily bombarded by the Allies in World War II (in what really was enemy action, with more than 160 bombs dropped on the place). Parts of what we now see are a rebuild of a rebuild.

I'm not accusing anyone of "faking it". My point is that our Pompeii - like most classical sites, in fact - is the product of collaboration between modern rebuilders and conservators, and the original Roman builders themselves, with the lion's share of the work on our side.

And it's no less impressive or moving for that - as the body casts help to show.

One of the video clips played in the exhibition at the Getty Museum comes from Roberto Rossellini's film, Voyage in Italy, in which the lead couple, played by Ingrid Bergman and George Sanders, tour the country as their marriage disintegrates.

On their visit to Pompeii they watch the plaster being poured into a cavity left by two of the victims. In the movie's most haunting scene, these victims emerge as a couple tenderly embracing in their final moments - and a silent indictment of the hollowness of the relationship between Bergman and Sanders.

It might only be modern plaster poured into an ancient hole, but it still has emotional power, as the kids and their parents were finding, in their own ways, last weekend.

Y ou can follow the Magazine on Twitter and on Facebook

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Is Pompeii an ancient or a modern wonder? Its ruins have been rebuilt and the bodies of the volcano's victims are plaster casts, says classical historian Mary Beard. Last weekend I spent a couple of hours with the remains of one of the human victims of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79.

# data[].attributes.body
Description:  This article states a few facts about Pompeii, including that there are alleged comics in restaurants, and plenty of phallic graffiti.
Connection: This article connects to the course content through the red flag ancient wisdom. Though one can assume information through these drawings and simple facts about Pompeii, they cannot confirm anything. People assume facts about Pompeii simply because the evidence they are given is ancient.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In the ruins of a city destroyed by a pyroclastic disaster, where thousands of people died in 79 A.D., one can feel a little detached. Populated by millions of tourists every year, it can be hard to imagine how normal people may have lived here. The clopping of horses as carriages moved past. The sounds of ancient languages at storefronts, restaurants, residential homes. Without these elements, Pompeii feels like a ghost town.

Luckily, archaeologists have been digging through the ruins to recreate ancient life in this unparalleled treasure trove. Here are ten things you probably didn't know about Pompeii.

1. Pompeii was a seaside town. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius did more than bury the city in a tomb of ash and pumice: it also changed the landscape. Evidence of fish in Pompeiian diets, to interpretations of the sea in frescoes, makes it clear that Pompeii used to be on the coast. The pyroclastic blast in 79 A.D. caused the top of Mt. Vesuvius to collapse, transforming today's version of Pompeii into the landlocked city.

2. Pompeii was multicultural. Among the ruins, dozens of relics from other countries have emerged. Jade from Egypt and sculptures from India were found. Evidence like suggest that people likely knew of places outside their hometowns.

3. Both the rich and the poor ate a balanced diet. Evidence of chicken, eggs, fish, and produce were in both the rich and poor circles. While there was a difference between the ordinary and the rich, both shared the same amount of nutrition.

4. Bread often had stones in it. Because milling grain involved grinding flour down with stone tools. Oftentimes, pieces of the stone would be baked in the bread, a staple of ancient Pompeii. This would wear down on the teeth over time, causing cavities and other problems. Talk about taking crunchy to a new level.

5. Fast food was alive and well. While it may not be the McDonald's or Taco Bell, there was fast food in ancient Pompeii. At one point, there were twenty shops in one street. This was where people who needed to work long hours got something quick.

6. The first case of congenital syphilis may have been here. In a cellar two miles away from Pompeii, the remains of twins were found. After examining their bones, researchers believe it they may have had syphilis. This would raise further questions about healthcare in Roman times, as the twins grew up to be 12-13 years old before Mt. Vesuvius erupted.

7. Phallic symbols are rampant here. Yes, that's definitely what it is on the wall. While it's unknown what this meant in ancient times, some theorize it was a symbol of masculinity, fertility, and good luck.

8. Evidence of how Pompeii lived can still be found in Naples. Some things have never changed. Many of the ways people in ancient Pompeii lived are still evident on the street level in Naples. Door knockers, graffiti, even the way stores were set up, all have frescoes that look similar to them from Pompeii.

9. The baths were super dirty. There was no filtration of water in the famous Roman baths like there are in pools today. Because of this, people's sweat, oils, and dirt would stand in the water while people relaxed in it. In fact, one Roman physician stated you shouldn't go to the baths with open wounds, lest it gets infected and leads to other, nastier problems. Yikes.

10. Small comic-book stories have been found in restaurants. In a bar, two men are drinking and start arguing over something petty. When it breaks out into a fight, the owner of the establishment steps in and threatens to kick them out for causing a scene. The words were written in the ancient world's version of speech bubbles, reminding us that not only were these places people ate, drank, and became merry - they were also businesses.

Pompeii was a vibrant ancient city frozen in time under thirty feet of ash by Mount Vesuvius. It is the most famous archaeological site in the world, providing an opportunity to step back into an ancient world. At Sant'Anna, you can take a class where Pompeii and Herculaneum become your classroom. To find out more, visit our website. Applications for Spring 2020 are currently being accepted.

Sources:

Pompeii: Life and Death in a Roman Town. Directed and written by Paul Elston, presented by Mary Beard. BBC, 2010.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Things You Probably Didn't Know About Pompeii

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the ruins of a city destroyed by a pyroclastic disaster, where thousands of people died in 79 A.D., one can feel a little detached. Populated by millions of tourists every year, it can be hard to imagine how normal people may have lived here. The clopping of horses as carriages moved past.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article discusses the deaths of people in Pompeii from the eruption in detail. It states that Pompeii residents weren't killed by lava, or suffocation, but by the fast flowing gases released from the volcano that swept over the town. Their bodies would have boiled in seconds of contact, as the gas is 400-900 degrees Fahrenheit. This is known as a pyroclastic surge, and occurs during some eruptions.
Connection: This article connects to the course content with the reason for belief, simplicity. When one learns about the tragedy of Pompeii, it can easily be assumed that people suffocated from smoke. It's common to associate volcanoes with what many know more about - fires. People that are involved with fires more often die of a lack of oxygen, not of burning up. But that isn't the case when it comes to Pompeii. The residents living in Pompeii were likely boiled by the fast moving pyroclastic surge, rather than suffocated or even melted by lava.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is the worst way to die? There are a lot of potential answers to that question: getting eaten alive by a shark, say, or being burned at the stake. But now a group of researchers have a theory that, if true, would take the cake: That the helpless residents of Pompeii and Herculaneum died when their blood boiled and their skulls exploded during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Mount Vesuvius was a volcano that overlooked the Roman settlement of Pompeii, Italy, near modern-day Naples. It erupted in 79 AD, wiping out the entire town and preserving its populace in ash.

The common historical interpretation of that horrific event was that the toxic gases and thick chunks of ash released from the volcano choked every single inhabitant to death. But in a study published in PLOS One last month (Sept. 26), researchers from Naples, Italy, argue that a segment of Vesuvius victims were likely killed by the fast-moving lava that streamed down toward Pompeii, which created temperatures high enough to vaporize bodily fluids and tissue and create explosions in the skull.

The researchers analyzed 103 skeletal samples from the remains of victims who took shelter from the eruption by hiding in 12 waterfront chambers in Herculaneum, a town 11 miles from Pompeii. That didn't help them much: According to the researchers, these people "were suddenly engulfed by the abrupt collapse of the rapidly advancing" pyroclastic surge-a fluid mass of gas and rock fragments that is ejected during some volcanic eruptions-which radiated temperatures between 400 and 900 degrees Fahrenheit, and descended onto them at nearly 180 miles per hour.

By studying the skeletal remains, the researchers say they were able to deduce that excessive temperatures, rather than gas inhalation or lava-related accidents, was the cause of death for the victims of Herculaneum. Because the town was closer to the volcano, the heat instantly vaporized bodily tissues and fluids (including blood).

One expert who was not involved with the study raised concerns about the researchers' findings; as Neel V. Patel of Popular Science explains, "The cause of death may have been something else entirely, and the observed high-temperature effects on the blood and tissue may have been produced by post-mortem pyroclastic flows." But the theory that extreme temperatures killed at least some of Vesuvius's victims has been gaining traction in research circles since 2001, and the consensus seems to be that further research into the potential dangers of pyroclastic surge is worthwhile.

"These kind of field and laboratory studies are of great importance," Pier Paolo Petrone, the lead author of the study, told Popular Science, "not only from the point of view of a historical and biological reconstruction of the Roman age populations, but also because they provide fundamental information useful for the assessment of volcanic risk in densely populated areas." In other words, research on the victims of Pompeii could be used to assess the risks of an eruption in Naples and the smaller towns near Vesuvius, which is still active. That area is home to about 1 million people today-including 12 citizens who, in 2013, sued (pdf) the Italian government at the European Court of Human Rights for not sufficiently preparing them for a possible eruption. Probably a fair concern, folks.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is the worst way to die? There are a lot of potential answers to that question: getting eaten alive by a shark, say, or being burned at the stake. But now a group of researchers have a theory that, if true, would take the cake: That the helpless residents of Pompeii and Herculaneum died when their blood boiled and their skulls exploded during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article talks about horses that have been unearthed from the rubble of Pompeii. It describes many of these horses being saddled elegantly, but unable to flee.
Connection: The red flag that can be associated with this article is confirmation bias. A reader may believe  that all people in Pompeii lived luxurious lives, and this article provides information of gracefully decorated horses. If one is searching for information about the residents of Pompeii and their general lives, they'll find information only supporting the idea of many people being wealthy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Palko KaraszThe New York Times

Saturday

Dec 29, 2018 at 4:17 PM Dec 29, 2018 at 4:17 PM

LONDON - The horse, a purebred, was wearing a bronze-plated military saddle and ready to go when Mount Vesuvius erupted and buried the ancient city of Pompeii in A.D. 79. The horse, too, was covered in pumice and ash.

Almost 2,000 years later, archaeologists unearthed the petrified horse, along with the remains of two others, in the remnants of a stable attached to a sumptuous suburban villa in Civita Giuliana, outside the walls of what remains of Pompeii, the Archaeological Park of Pompeii said in a statement last week.

The horses are among a growing list of archaeological treasures dug up at the Pompeii site, which was discovered in the late 16th century. This year, Pompeian excavations have found a shrine with wall paintings that hint at Roman life in the first century; the skeleton of a man who had fled the volcanic eruption only to be buried by a rock; and a well-preserved fresco in a house on the Via del Vesuvio depicting the mythological rape of Leda, the queen of Sparta, by Zeus in the form of a swan.

The horses probably perished soon after the volcanic explosion, with their frozen postures suggesting they had been unable to wrest free. The saddled horse and its elaborate harness were discovered over the summer, the archaeological park statement said.

Instead of stirrups, the saddle had four bronze-plated wooden horns, one in each corner, to help keep the rider stable. Researchers compared the saddle to those used by Romans around the time Mount Vesuvius erupted.

In May, researchers completed a plaster cast of the first horse found at the site. The dimensions suggested that the horses, including the latest discovered, had been of a valuable breed, a type used to display social status, officials said in a statement.

The discovery of the horses confirmed that the stable had been part of a prestigious estate, said Massimo Osanna, the Pompeii site's general director, in the statement. The villa was enhanced with "richly frescoed and furnished rooms, and sumptuous sloping terraces facing onto the Gulf of Naples and Capri, as well as an efficient servant's quarter, with a farmyard, oil and wine warehouses and densely cultivated lands," according to the statement.

Archaeologists discovered 15 rooms of the villa in the early 20th century, and smaller finds since then. In 1955, dividing walls were found in excavations at Civita Giuliana. In recent decades, scavengers visited the site, too, digging illegal tunnels below the estate.

To stop the illegal tunneling, official excavations began again this year. In 2019, with the aid of $2.27 million, archaeologists will continue the work with an eye toward opening the site to the public, Osanna said.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Petrified purebred horse with bronze-plated saddle excavated at Pompeii estate

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Palko KaraszThe New York Times Dec 29, 2018 at 4:17 PM Dec 29, 2018 at 4:17 PM LONDON - The horse, a purebred, was wearing a bronze-plated military saddle and ready to go when Mount Vesuvius erupted and buried the ancient city of Pompeii in A.D. 79.

# data[].attributes.body
Description: This article discusses the lesser known city that was nearby the eruption in 79 AD - Herculaneum. It states that the smaller, rich town was spared from the same fate as Pompeii simply by the direction of the wind. The initial eruption sent ash and pumice into the air that began the destruction of Pompeii, and allowed the residents of Herculaneum time to flee.
Connection: This article connects to the course content with the reason for belief  ideology. One can assume that, due to the town of Herculaneum being inhabited by much wealthier people, they had the resources and ability to escape and many more people survived due to this. In reality, the residents of Herculaneum survived due to luck overall.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The devastating history of Pompeii is so bewitching that even today the name evokes an immediate emotional response. However, Pompeii wasn't the only Ancient Roman town to be preserved by Mount Vesuvius's eruption. Halfway between Naples and Pompeii lies the smaller, wealthier town of Herculaneum, which followed a slightly different fate.

In 79 CE, the peak of Mount Vesuvius exploded-sending a 10-mile cloud of ash and pumice into the stratosphere and marking the start of the cataclysmic eruption. Pompeii was immediately besieged by volcanic ash and pumice stones, but due to a westerly wind, Herculaneum was spared from the first stage of the eruption. The result is an ancient town whose ruins are better preserved, and which offers another glimpse into Ancient Roman life.

Herculaneum in Ancient Rome

According to ancient tradition, Herculaneum's name-based off of the Greek hero Heracles (or Hercules)-suggests that it was of Greek origin. However, like its sister Pompeii, the two settlements passed through a parade of different powers, including the Osci people of central Italy, the Etruscans, and the Samnites, until both finally converted to Roman rule at the culmination of the Social War in 89 BCE.

Before the eruption, the towns surrounding the base of Mount Vesuvius were thriving Roman settlements. Pompeii was formerly a town of 20,000, including numerous merchants and manufacturers who benefited from the proximity to the Mediterranean basin and Roman roads. Outside the city center, Pompeii also had successful vineyards and orchards, which benefited from the rich soil near the volcano.

By contrast, its sister city Herculaneum was less a place of commerce and more a place of leisure. Its population was smaller at about 5,000 inhabitants, but it expanded in the summertime when wealthy Roman families retreated to their seaside villas. Herculaneum's remaining architecture includes all of the hallmarks of prosperous Roman settlements: opulent villas, a complex water system to supply water to the community, and luxurious public bath houses.

The Eruption

According to records, the area surrounding Mount Vesuvius was shaken by a chain of small earthquakes directly leading up to the volcanic eruption. However, the inhabitants had already acclimatized to random seismic activity-and there had been no indication that the ancient Romans even knew Mount Vesuvius was a volcano.

On August 24, 79 CE, just after noon, no one at the time could have predicted the catastrophe that took place. The peak of Mount Vesuvius exploded and sent a mushroom cloud of ash and pumice stone into the sky. Pliny the Younger wrote in a letter to historian Tacitus: "A dark and horrible cloud charged with combustible matter suddenly broke and set forth. Some bewailed their own fate. Others prayed to die."

Pompeii and its inhabitants were immediately pummeled by debris. Those who were able fled Pompeii in terror, but some 2,000 people stayed in the town-hoping to wait out the eruption.

Due to a westerly wind, Herculaneum was spared the first stage of the eruption, allowing precious time for inhabitants to flee and minimizing the damage to the town's infrastructure. Eventually however, Herculaneum and Pompeii succumbed to the same cloud of ash that buried everything and everyone in its path. Except...

The ash that covered Herculaneum carbonized, thereby preserving the wood of roofs, beds, and doors, as well as keeping organic material like food.

Next: More About the Aftermath and Herculaneum Today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Herculaneum: Pompeii's Sister City That Survived a Volcanic Eruption in Ancient Rome

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The devastating history of Pompeii is so bewitching that even today the name evokes an immediate emotional response. However, Pompeii wasn't the only Ancient Roman town to be preserved by Mount Vesuvius's eruption. Halfway between Naples and Pompeii lies the smaller, wealthier town of Herculaneum, which followed a slightly different fate.

# data[].attributes.body
1. What I learnt about Pompeii that surprised me the most is that the people of Pompeii received warning signs of an eruption long before it occurred. The only reason that there were so many deaths is because these signs were assumed to be the pleasure of a god,  and the townspeople stayed. If the eruption had happened a week after the festival was occurring, its likely that many would have survived.
2. The topic of Pompeii has always been interesting to me. I've been fascinated by natural disasters since I was young - but what is more interesting is how the signs of such a disaster can be ignored. It's quite similar to society today and our view of global warming. We know it's happening and yet we continue life as normal, much like the residents of Pompeii as the volcano shook. We're watching the volcano shake and smoke, and continue to ignore it.
3. The research that I found most interesting is the casting of the bodies. I never knew how they had been remade to appear to be full bodies, and the process of this is fascinating.
4.  What I am most likely to remember is the reason why so many people died due to the eruption - the reason being the belief of gods and ignorance towards obvious signs of impending doom.
5. The most harmful pseudoscience belief - in my opinion - is emotional connection. People can be easily manipulated if their emotions are properly tapped into by anyone. The least harmful is likely simplicity. If one takes the time to observe and make through conclusions about something rather than jumping to the simplest answer, simplicity can be avoided entirely.
6. I think the most important knowledge to pass on from this course is to observe and find a rational conclusion. While a simple answer may be great, or one may be hearing just what they want to hear, the truth is what is best for all.