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We used this one in class. Its pretty straight forward. I will post activities that go with each objective.  These objectives are large! There is a reason we stay on a topic for a long time! I will post the large ones as 2.1A, 2.1B and so forth!

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Write anything you think might help this page! I’m figuring out this too! Someone has already mentioned a basic ppt or video going over the concepts for the unit. So I’ll work on that too!

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1.1 Identify types of maps, the types of information presented in maps, and different kinds of spatial patterns and relationships portrayed in maps. 

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1.1 Identify types of maps, the types of information presented in maps, and different kinds of spatial patterns and relationships portrayed in maps. 

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Map found via reddit, click for larger version

While it's well known that the mercator projection distorts the world, the maps here show very clearly by how much. Countries close to the equator barely change, whereas countries further north shrink dramatically.

The maps are all the work of climate data scientist @neilrkaye.

You can see an animation below:

Map found via reddit, click for larger version

Finally the map gives a bar graph to show the relative size of the world's largest countries:

Map found via reddit, click for larger version

Also, see:

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Map Projections: Mercator Vs The True Size of Each Country

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Map found via reddit, click for larger version While it's well known that the mercator projection distorts the world, the maps here show very clearly by how much. Countries close to the equator barely change, whereas countries further north shrink dramatically. The maps are all the work of...

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The 'orange peel problem' is perhaps the most widely-cited analogy that geographers use to explain why a three-dimensional world cannot be represented in two dimensions sans any kind of distortion. Try as you might, you just cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing, squashing or stretching it. Likewise, when cartographers try to flatten the Earth for a map projection, distortions in terms of shape, distance, direction, or land area are inevitable to creep in.

Depending on the purpose they are trying to serve, the number of possible map projections is limitless. However, which map projection should be used for general purposes, such as, for hanging in classrooms or on TV news? Here's how some popular projections weigh against each other:

Mercator

The most popular map projection in the world has been around for 448 years now. It was created by Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569 - a time when Antarctica hadn't even been discovered. Mercator was designed as a navigational tool for sailors as it was most convenient to hand-plot courses with parallel rules and triangles on this map.

In most maps, when you try to fix one kind of distortion, you increase another kind of distortion. However, Mercator is one of those rare maps whose answer to latitudinal distortion was to ensure that the longitudinal distortion is equally bad!

On a Mercator projection, Greenland is roughly the same size as Africa. In reality, Africa is almost 14 times larger, and Greenland can fit inside China no less than four times. The map also suggests that Scandinavian countries are larger than India, whereas, India is actually three times the size. And yet, Google Maps, Bing, Yahoo and even OpenStreetMaps c ontinue using some version or the other of the Mercator to display the world.

Pros: Sailors loved it; preserves angles and directions in a small area

Cons: Bad for understanding the real size and shape of continents and countries

Related: After this video you'll never trust a map again

Gall-Peters

The biggest criticism for the skewed Mercator projection came in 1973 from German filmmaker and journalist Arno Peters. Peters argued that by enlarging Europe and North America, Mercator maps were giving white nations a sense of supremacy over non-white nations.

His solution? An equal-area projection that would show the correct sizes of countries relative to each other. Not that the Gall-Peters projection came without any flaws. In its quest of removing size distortions, the map stretched some places near the poles horizontally to a shocking degree. It also stretched land masses vertically near the Equator. So, if the map looks really odd to you, it's because the shapes and angles are all wrong - exactly the reason why we don't see this map online much. Nevertheless, it's quite widely used in the British school system.

Pros: The only 'area-correct' map of its time; got featured in The West Wing (S2E16)

Cons: Galled the cartographic community in the 1980s

Robinson

American geographer and cartographer Arthur H. Robinson came up with this projection in 1963, focusing more on the 'look' of the map than precise measurement of places. Robinson intended the map, which is neither equal-area nor conformal, as a general purpose tool.

In fact, he told the New York Times in a 1988 interview, "I decided to go about it backwards. I started with a kind of artistic approach. I visualized the best-looking shapes and sizes. I worked with the variables until it got to the point where, if I changed one of them, it didn't get any better. Then I figured out the mathematical formula to produce that effect. Most mapmakers start with the mathematics."

Hopefully, this map would replace Mercator in classrooms.

Pros: Shows the entire world at once

Cons: Compromises both area and angles, especially at the poles

Winkel-Tripel

Proposed by German cartographer Oswald Winkel in 1921, the Winkel-Tripel projection is quite the opposite of Robinson. The map resorts to mathematics to curtail three major types of distortion - area, direction, and distance (and hence the German term for 'triple', Tripel, is in the name). This map projection shows Greenland as the same size as Argentina, and not as the size of all of South America.

The National Geographic Society has been drawing all its standard maps using the Winkel-Tripel projection since 1998, and many US schools have followed suit. However, despite its popularity, since the map doesn't preserve angles, it is nowhere close to replacing Mercator for navigation purposes.

Pros: Reasonably accurate shapes and sizes of countries

Cons: Land masses closer to the poles still enlarged

AuthaGraph

This is hands-down the most accurate map projection in existence. In fact, AuthaGraph World Map is so proportionally perfect, it magically folds it into a three-dimensional globe.

Japanese architect Hajime Narukawa invented this projection in 1999 by equally dividing a spherical surface into 96 triangles. These triangles were then projected onto a tetrahedron, which not only helped maintain the proportions of land and water, but also helped to unfold the map into a perfect, flat rectangle. Narukawa, however, insists that if the map is refined a step further to increase the number of subdivisions, its accuracy will improve and it can officially be called an area-equal map.

Nonetheless, AuthaGraph realistically represents all oceans and continents, including the neglected Antarctica. And while the general shape of the continents is maintained, you will notice that their orientation is skewing upwards - as if in a smile!

Pros: Most accurate; will win you Japan's biggest design award; can be folded into a 3D globe

Cons: The Arctic Circle gets somewhat squashed
Is your favorite map projection not in the list? Let us know in comments below!

Ishveena is a geospatial enthusiast and a veteran of creating and managing compelling digital content for organizations and individuals. When she is not making magic at her desk, you are likely to find her exploring nature, eating her way through life, or binge-watching funny animal videos.

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The 'orange peel problem' is perhaps the most widely-cited analogy that geographers use to explain why a three-dimensional world cannot be represented in two dimensions sans any kind of distortion. Try as you might, you just cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing, squashing or stretching it.

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1.2 Identify different methods of geographic data collection.

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1.2 Identify different methods of geographic data collection.

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Need to know: Geospatial technologies include geographic
information systems (GIS), satellite navigation systems, remote sensing, and online mapping and visualization.

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Remote sensing is the examination of an area from a significant distance. It is used to gather information and imaging remotely. This practice can be done using devices such as cameras placed on the ground, ships, aircraft, satellites, or even spacecraft.

Today, data obtained through remote sensing is usually stored and manipulated with computers. The most common software programs used for this include ERDAS Imagine, ESRI, MapInfo, and ERMapper.

The science of remote sensing began in 1858 when Gaspard-Felix Tournachon first took aerial photographs of Paris from a hot air balloon. One of the first planned uses of remote sensing in its most basic form was during the ​ Civil War when messenger pigeons, kites, and unmanned balloons were flown over enemy territory with cameras attached to them.

The first government-organized air photography missions were developed for military surveillance during World Wars I and II. However, it was during the Cold War that remote sensing was most widely used. This field of study has developed since its beginning to become the highly-sophisticated method of indirect information acquisition that it is today.

Satellites were developed during the late 20th century and are still used to gain information on a global scale, even about planets in the solar system. The Magellan probe, for example, is a satellite that has been using remote sensing technologies to create topographic maps of Venus since May 4th of 1989.

Today, small remote sensors such as cameras and satellites are used by law enforcement and the military in both manned and unmanned platforms to gain information about an area. Other modern remote sensing methods include infra-red, conventional air photography, and Doppler radar imaging.

Each type of remote sensing is differently suited for analysis-some are optimal for closer scanning and some are much more advantageous from great distances. Perhaps the most common type of remote sensing is radar imaging.

Radar imaging can be used for important safety-related remote sensing tasks. One of the most important uses is for air traffic control and weather detection. This can tell analysts whether adverse weather is on its way, how storms are progressing, and

Doppler radar is a common type of radar that can be used both to collect meteorological data and by law enforcement to monitor traffic and driving speeds. Other types of radars can create digital models of elevation.

Another type of remote sensing involves lasers. Laser altimeters on satellites measure factors like wind speed and the direction of ocean currents. Altimeters are also useful for seafloor mapping as they are capable of measuring bulges of water caused by gravity and seafloor topography. Varied ocean heights can be measured and analyzed to create accurate seafloor maps.

One particular form of laser remote sensing is called LIDAR, Light Detection and Ranging. This method measures distances using light reflection and is most famously utilized for weapons ranging. LIDAR can also measure chemicals in the atmosphere and heights of objects on the ground.

Other types of remote sensing include stereographic pairs created from multiple air photos (often used to view features in 3-D and/or make topographic maps), radiometers and photometers that collect emitted radiation from infra-red photos, and air photo data obtained by satellites such as those found in the Landsat program.

Uses for remote sensing are diverse but this field of study is mainly conducted for image processing and interpretation. Image processing allows photos to be manipulated so that maps can be created and important information saved about an area. By interpreting images obtained through remote sensing, an area can be closely studied without anyone needing to be physically present, making the research of dangerous or unreachable areas possible.

Remote sensing can be applied to various fields of study. The following are just a few applications of this continually-developing science.

Geology: Remote sensing can help map large, remote areas. This makes it possible for geologists to classify an area's rock types, study its geomorphology, and track changes caused by natural events such as floods and landslides.

Agriculture: Remote sensing is also helpful when studying vegetation. Photographs taken remotely allow biogeographers, ecologists, agriculturalists, and foresters to easily detect what vegetation is present in an area as well as its growth potential and conditions optimal for survival.

Land-use planning: Those studying land development can apply remote sensing to studying and regulating land usages over wide expanses. The data obtained can be used for city planning and the modification of the environment more generally.

Geographic information system mapping (GIS): Remote sensing images are used as the input data for raster-based digital elevation models or DEMs. Air photos utilized through GIS can be digitized into polygons that are later put into shapefiles for mapmaking.

Because of its varied applications and ability to allow users to collect, interpret, and manipulate data from inaccessible locations, remote sensing has become a useful tool for all researchers regardless of concentration.

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Everything You Need to Know About Remote Sensing

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Remote sensing is the examination of an area from a significant distance. It is used to gather information and imaging remotely. This practice can be done using devices such as cameras placed on the ground, ships, aircraft, satellites, or even spacecraft. Today, data obtained through remote sensing is usually stored and manipulated with computers.

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Whether you use a GPS device in your car or Google Maps on your smartphone, few of us travel anymore without digital help. And why not? After all, why plot your travel route on an old-school map when a high-tech system not only computes the best itinerary from Point A to Point B in seconds but coaches you through each step of the journey?

Sounds ideal, but don't fold up your paper maps just yet. For one thing, GPS isn't as reliable or accurate as you might think. What's more, science is beginning to discover that people who rely exclusively on navigational technologies may be missing out on the low-tech benefits of printed maps, which include boosting the brain's navigational abilities and enhancing your sense of place during travel.

Cyber-navigation on the rise

Cartographers have been mapping the world in 2-D for thousands of years, advancing from clay tablets to parchment paper to mass-produced printed atlases. With the rise of digital technology, though, paper maps have gradually given way to satellite-aided travel.

The result? Production of hard-copy maps by U.S. government agencies and venerable mapmakers like Rand McNally has slowed considerably. Others like the California Automobile Association have halted production altogether.

And not without reason. Paper maps do have disadvantages compared to their digital counterparts.

Drawbacks include:

* They quickly become outdated as cities and landscapes change, requiring users to continually purchase updated versions.

* Paper maps are easily damaged from exposure to water, poor weather conditions and other physical forces.

* They tend to focus on smaller geographic areas, so you need more than one map if you're traveling across large regions.

* It's hard to look at a paper map when you're hurtling down the highway at 65 mph.

Then, of course, there are the numerous advantages of GPS:

* No need to understand complex map symbols or painstakingly plot out your route.

* You're less likely to get lost because GPS literally announces turn-by-turn directions in real time.

* GPS automatically updates itself.

* It alerts you to traffic jams and reroutes you if necessary.

But maps aren't quite obsolete

Printed maps give you a big-picture view of where you're going and, unlike GPS systems, allow you to plot your own scenic route with leeway to wander. (Photo: Stefan Andrej Shambora/Flickr)

But even with GPS's many pluses, physical maps still offer a few advantages that technology can't. For one thing, studying a map allows you to get a holistic view of where you're going, including the roads, forests, towns, historic sites, rivers, mountains and cities you'll encounter along the way. You simply don't get that from a small GPS screen that reveals little more than your next exit.

As Katherine Martinko notes on Treehugger, a paper map is a must-have for her travels, providing context for a particular locale and a big-picture sense of her surroundings.

"It allows me to orient myself before I've even set foot in the street," she writes. "I learn where I am in relation to the rest of the city, the names of the neighborhoods, the major streets and the directions in which they run, the transit lines. I figure out where the rivers and waterfronts are, where the subway stations are, how I can get to the best walking and cycling routes."

According to Betsy Mason, author of "All Over the Map: A Cartographic Odyssey," maps can be far more than just navigational aids. Many older maps are gorgeous, offering a lovely feast for the eyes, she notes in an interview with PBS NewsHour. Plus, they can take you back in time, providing a glimpse of history and how places transform across the ages.

Maps even occasionally prompt important discoveries, such as when geologists compared maps of damage from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake with maps of the geology underlying these areas. They quickly noticed a correlation between the type of rock and sediment beneath buildings and their likelihood of collapsing.

As Mason explains: "Maps can take you places that you wouldn't think to go. You can see a beautiful map, and it pulls you in - you want to look at it. Then you find you learned something about history, or your city or some scientific discovery that you had no idea was based on a map."

Older maps offer a glimpse of history and how geographic areas change over time, like this 1883 map showing several Pacific railroads in the U.S. (Photo: Rand, McNally and Co./Wikimedia Commons)

Dark side of high-tech navigation

Even more important, though, is what may be lost as we increasingly forgo printed maps, including our ability to envision places and use our cognitive spatial skills to maneuver through the physical world.

Research by Toru Ishikawa and colleagues at the University of Tokyo found that study subjects who navigated a city on foot using GPS spent 30 percent more time looking at their device than those who used a paper map. They also had a poorer recollection of surrounding scenery (20 percent lower scene recognition memory) and tended to stick to the suggested route more than paper map users, who frequently meandered off course looking at sights. In other words, GPS users didn't see or experience as much during their travels. Instead they tended to stare at their screens and follow directions, never gaining a full view of where they were going or developing a deep familiarity with the place they visited.

Also problematic is the fact that GPS signals are easily lost if your smartphone battery dies or you hit a pocket of spotty cell coverage.

Even more troubling, orbiting satellites that power GPS devices are vulnerable to cyberattacks and technical glitches. In 2016, for example, a software bug threw off the timing of satellites by a few microseconds, causing hours of hassles with GPS devices on Earth that couldn't lock with them.

GPS systems offer many advantages that printed maps don't, but they're also notoriously unreliable and error-prone. (Photo: Mohamed14247/Wikimedia Commons)

Consider also that GPS is sometimes just plain wrong, particularly in remote regions where good digital mapping is still unavailable. People who follow GPS commands without question have been known to drive into lakes, down walking paths and into desolate wilderness areas that their GPS devices insisted were roads. Such over-confidence in the infallibility of satellite navigation has even occasionally turned fatal, earning it the name "death by GPS."

Bottom line: Go ahead and use your GPS, but also carry a paper map or atlas as a handy backup. It will enhance your travel experiences, and could even be a life-saver.

Which is exactly what the professionals do. As several truck drivers note in this online forum, the very best way to get around is via some combination of digital and paper navigation.

Why we still need paper maps

Dependence on GPS hampers your brain's ability to navigate and can even lead you astray. Don't leave home without a trusty paper map.

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Whether you use a GPS device in your car or Google Maps on your smartphone, few of us travel anymore without digital help. And why not? After all, why plot your travel route on an old-school map when a high-tech system not only computes the best itinerary from Point A to Point B in seconds but coaches you through each step of the journey?

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1.3 Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using geographical information.

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1.3 Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using geographical information.

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Need to know information: census data and satellite imagery, are used
at all scales for personal, business and organizational, and governmental decision making purposes

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The federal government bases a large amount of its spending decisions, including on highways and low-income programs, on census data. Credit... Rich Pedroncelli/Associated Press

WASHINGTON - The United States census is so much more than just a head count. It is a snapshot of America that determines how congressional seats are apportioned, how state and federal dollars are distributed, where businesses choose to ship products and where they build new stores. To do all that properly, the count needs to be accurate.

The Commerce Department's decision to restore a citizenship question to the census beginning in 2020 is prompting concerns about curtailing participation and possibly undercounting people living in the United States, particularly immigrants and minority groups who are expressing discomfort with answering questions from census workers.

Wilbur Ross, the commerce secretary, acknowledged concerns about decreased response rates in a memorandum released on Monday night. But he said asking about citizenship would enhance the results by helping calculate the percentage of the population eligible to vote.

An undercount of the population would have far-reaching implications. It could skew the data that are used to determine how many congressional representatives each state gets and their representation in state legislatures and local government bodies. It would shape how billions of dollars a year are allocated, including for schools and hospitals. It would undermine the integrity of a wide variety of economic data and other statistics that businesses, researchers and policymakers depend on to make decisions, including the numbers that underpin the forecasts for Social Security beneficiaries.

Here are several of the commercial, political and research efforts that depend on accurate census data:

The Constitution requires the government to enumerate the number of people living in the United States every 10 years, and to use that data to apportion the seats in Congress among the states. The calculation is based on total resident population - which means citizens and noncitizens alike - and it generally shifts power between the states once a decade, in line with population and migration trends.

States including Texas, Florida, Colorado and Oregon are projected to gain seats after the 2020 numbers are in. Illinois, Ohio, New York and West Virginia are among the states expected to lose seats. An undercount could shift those projections.

Lawmakers also use census data to draw congressional district boundaries within states, an often-controversial process that can help decide partisan control of the House. Census data also underpin state legislative districts and local boundaries like City Councils and school boards.

The federal government bases a large amount of its spending decisions on census data. Researchers concluded last year that in the 2015 fiscal year, 132 government programs used information from the census to determine how to allocate more than $675 billion, much of it for programs that serve lower-income families, including Head Start, Medicare, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Pell grants for college and reduced-price school lunch programs. Highway spending is also apportioned according to census data.

To sell products and services, companies large and small need good information on the location of potential customers and how much money they might have to spend. The census provides the highest-quality and most consistent information on such items, and businesses have come to depend on it to make critical choices.

Census data help companies decide where to locate distribution centers to best serve their customers, where to expand or locate new stores and where they have the best chance of seeing a high return on investment. That is why business groups have been particularly concerned about the integrity of that data.

"The 2020 census is used to help construct many other data products produced by the federal government," said Michael R. Strain, an economist at the American Enterprise Institute who writes frequently on the importance of census data for policymakers and the private sector.

"Some of those products are heavily used by businesses when determining where to open new stores and expand operations, or even what items to put on their shelves. This affects retail businesses, for sure, but businesses in many other sectors as well," he added.

Low response rates from any one demographic group would undermine the validity of various population-wide statistics and program planning.

Scientists use census data to understand the distribution of diseases and health concerns such as cancer and obesity across the United States population, including drilling down to race and ethnicity to identify health patterns across demographics. Public health officials then use the data to target their interventions in at-risk communities. Inaccurate census data could lead public health officials to invest in solving a problem that does not exist - or worse, to overlook one that does.

"It's getting harder to conduct the census, due to a variety of factors, including increasing cultural & linguistic diversity, and distrust of the government," said Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach, an economist who directs the Institute for Policy Research at Northwestern University. "The addition of the citizenship question will make the enumerators' jobs even harder by heightening privacy concerns and reducing participation among immigrants, who may fear the information will be used to harm them or their families."

An undercount in the census could also impact forecasts about Social Security payouts, which are already increasing as a share of the federal government's revenue.

When Congress plans for the costs of the country's Social Security needs, lawmakers rely upon demographic projection about the population's future: the number of children expected to be born, the number of people expected to die, and the number of people expected to immigrate. If baseline data regarding the current population are inaccurate, future projections could be skewed, causing financial challenges down the line.

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Here's Why an Accurate Census Count Is So Important

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WASHINGTON - The United States census is so much more than just a head count. It is a snapshot of America that determines how congressional seats are apportioned, how state and federal dollars are distributed, where businesses choose to ship products and where they build new stores.

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GIS is tracking this virus in real time.

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This story was originally published in February 2020. While the maps in the story are automatically updated with latest available statistics, the text may include information that is no longer current. For the latest guidelines on coronavirus prevention and mitigation, please visit the CDC’s or WHO’…

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1.4 Define major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships. These include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.

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1.4 Define major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships. These include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.

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Lol! This would be something fun to do if you have little siblings you are watching. Everyone take a piece of paper, trace your hand and fill in info for each theme of geography! Or just watch the video

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Five Themes of Geography Fortnite Edition

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About toponyms aka place names!

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Victors don't just write the history books. They make the atlases too. Places are named and cities are founded by strong-willed go-getters. They've seeded our maps with the rush of exploration and the joy of conquest.

Toponymy generally isn't the province of the melancholy or the morose. They would make terrible explorers and conquistadores. Most days, they don't even make it out of the house - let alone to that nameless continent across the horizon.

That's why the register of global place names is skewed toward optimism and progress. Yet there is a small, scattered number of toponyms that delight us by their unvarnished expression of downheartedness, defeat and despond.

One Instagram account, appropriately named @sadtopographies, is uniquely and solely dedicated to collecting these sad place names, pinning their Google Maps likenesses on the webpage like so many depressed butterflies.

All by itself at the end of a road, Alone seems a test case in self-reference. Except that it is in Italy, and you probably should pronounce it a-LOH-nay. Which does sound a bit more cheerful.

This cove isn't even good at being bad. It's just unfortunate, as if it's the one slight disappointment in a family of rather adequate, merely sufficient coves.

None of these four Sorrow Islands is even visible. Perhaps they drowned in their own tears?

The Slough of Despond is a figure of speech. But there really is a Mount Despair, in Montana. Perhaps a nice destination for your next team-building weekend. Or perhaps not.

Not likely that this was the original, official name. But sometimes those are crowded out by particularly appropriate colloquialisms, however blunt.

Does this lead to the Suicide Bridge?

No buried treasure here. Nor sandy beaches. And no palm trees either.

Samuel Beckett's favourite holiday destination.

The Instagram page lists quite a few more sad place names, such as Gloomy Lake (Ontario), Melancholy Waterhole (Australia) and Uncertain (Texas). But there must be more sad topographies out there. In fact, Toon Wassenberg, who sent in the link to a story on the above Instagram account, also shared one he found himself.

Casing the joint on Google Street View, Tristesse, not far from Cork in Ireland, appears to be an ordinary bungalow on an unremarkable road, surrounded by a wild hedge. What goes on behind those walls?

And here are a few we found:

Defeated, Tennessee. The town sign should read: "Now completely spoils-free."

Morose Street, in an otherwise generally sunny and cheerful Lemon Grove (California).

Slap bang in the centre of Berlin, this Niederlagstraße - "Defeat Street."

We've received a few interesting additions to the selection above - many in the comments section below (my favourites: the Antarctic islands of Inexpressible and Reluctant). Also: Niederlagstrasse apparently doesn't quite mean 'Defeat Street', as one or two German-speaking readers have pointed out.

"Niederlagstraße in Berlin does not refer to Niederlage (defeat) - would have been spelled with one more e - but to Niederlag (literally, though archaic: "to lay down"). This is a historic term for a place where merchants had (or were allowed) to put down their wares", writes Folkard Wohlgemuth. Okay, I will admit my Niederlage. Without further ado: more sad topographies!

David Slauenwhite pointed out not one, but two examples of a Skunks Misery Road, one in Millerton in upstate New York (pictured; possibly continuing into nearby Pine Plains), the other in Locust Valley, a hamlet of Oyster Bay (on Long Island). In fact, there are two more roads commemorating musteline misfortune: in Franklin, Vermont and Templeton, Massachusetts.

Stephen McCavour refers to Mount Misery, on the Kingston Peninsula in New Brunswick (Canada). There are in fact a few other topographical features also called Mount Misery, one in Voluntown, Connecticut and another one in Pemberton Township, New Jersey. Oh, and yes, all you Tolkienistas, there is also a Mount Doom. Or at least a Doom Mountain, in Brooks Peninsula Provincial Park on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Canada).

Leif G. Malmgren mentions Verdens Ende, Norwegian for 'World's End' - a tourist attraction at the end of a peninsula south of Oslo. "Once, it was a small world", he says. Indeed. There are plenty of other World's Ends, no less than eight in the UK (plus three pubs, plus a movie named after such a pub), two in the U.S., and one in Australia and Sri Lanka each.

Anton Sherwood points to Leidig Court in Hayward, California. 'Leidig' is German for 'sorrowful'. Fortunately, you only have to cross West Tennyson Road to get to Lustig ('joyful') Court.

Damien Rudd, who runs the @sadtopographies Instagram account mentioned in the blog, was kind enough to say thanks for the article - and to point out that there really is a literal Slough of Despond, in Georgian Bluffs, Ontario.
Update 13 October
Marc A. Criley reports that in Alabama, there is a Dismals Canyon, "the only known habitation of the dismalites, a fly whose larval form emit a bright blue-green light to attract food and mates".

From Austria, Paul Herzberg ("I live fairly near Windpassing, though that's not particularly sad") points out the existence of Äußere Einöde (' Outer Wasteland'), not far from Einöde bei Villach ('Desolation near Villach'). I suppose that makes the first, Villach-less desolation the more desolate of the two.

In Australia, says Shane McEwan, there is a Cape Grim, overlooking Suicide Bay. The story attached to both names is quite grim, though nothing to do with suicide: "Suicide Bay got its name after European shepherds massacred an Aboriginal tribe and threw their bodies off the cliff. They named the site of the massacre Victory Hill. A fine example of history (and cartography) being written by the victors".

Also in Australia, sent in by Andrew Brown: Lake Disappointment, so named by the explorer Frank Hann in 1897. He noticed creeks in the area flowing inland, but found salt flats instead of a freshwater lake.

From a salty setback to a foggy one: "Cape Disappointment at the mouth of the Columbia River on the Washington side is the foggiest place in North America as well as having a sad name", says SounderBruce.

Jorge sent in Useless Bay ('Bahia Inutil') in Chile, as well as a few other sad, strange places - a Futile Lake in Canada, and Nameless Place ('Bezimyane') in Donetsk oblast, Ukraine.

Lowell G. McManus lives less than two miles from Desolation Row, in Radar Base, Texas.

Karin Hosking reveals the existence of a Doubtful Sound in New Zealands's South Island - balanced out by a Doubtless Bay on the North Island.

Finally, Andrew Porter points us in the direction of the Canadian town of Porters Lake, Nova Scotia, where you'll find This Street, That Street and The Other Street. While that does not sound as bad as some of the other names above, imagine living there, and having to provide directions to your house.

Even more sad toponyms!

"You missed this wonderful confluence of toponymic and cartographic sad place names", says Tom Williams, referring to Mount Disappointment, in the San Gabriel Mountains in Los Angeles. He quotes its interesting history:

Mount Disappointment has a summit elevation of 5,963+ feet (1,818+ m). It was named "Disappointment" in 1894 when USGS surveyors sighted it from the Santa Susana Mountains, believing it to be the highest point in the immediate area, decided to use it as their next triangulation point. When they reached the summit, however, they discovered that San Gabriel Peak half a mile (0.8 km) to the east was 167 feet (51 m) higher and so moved there instead.

A Nike missile site was located there in 1955 and the summit was flattened to accommodate it. The missile site was abandoned in 1965. The mountain top is now an important telecommunications site for both commercial and government organizations.

"Having been to both locations mentioned below, I can say that San Gabriel Peak is definitely more satisfying".

James Williams - any relation? - has some info on another area in California: "In the course of a long work project on the history of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, I came to discover that it was a region bursting with odd/baffling/amazing place names. An artificial watercourse called Telephone Cut, for instance. (...) My favorite is Widows Island, which is now a body of water encircled by the levees that used to maintain the island as dry-ish land. A few miles to the northeast is Disappointment Slough, just around the corner from Hog and Spud islands".

Sara Byrd points to Boring, Tennessee - a toponym so joylessly stale that it almost makes you want to go have a look at all that municipal misery. Other kinds of misfortune are to be found at Yucky Run Road in Moorefield, West Virginia and Smelley Road in Longview, Texas, she says.

Update January 2017 - even more sad(-ish) place names:

"There is a very short street in North Little Rock, AR called Endsquick Court ", writes Billy BobX.

"Similar to the streets of Porters Lake, Nova Scotia, Lake Jackson, TX has a variation of the same theme", says David Karesh, pointing out and That Way on a local map.

How could you miss Death Valley in California, ask Cynthia and Mark Hall-Patton. "As the local county museum administrator, I am also particularly taken with Forlorn Hope Spring in Southern Nevada, near Boulder City", adds Mark, Administrator at the Clark County museum system.

Jennifer Roberts has a peculiar story from eastern Québec: " This cape was named Cap d'Espérance (Cape Hope) by Jacques Cartier, and had a rather capricious naming history. Its name was shortened to Cap Despera, then mistranslated into English as Cape Despair and again into French as Cap Désespoir (Cape Despair) until the end of the 19th century. The village was then named Cape Cove and Anse-du-Cap until the Geographical Commission adopted the toponym Cap d'Espoir in 1953".

The pithiest contribution is by Dave Johnson, who simply writes: " Pity Me, County Durham, UK".

Got any more? Let me know at strangemaps@gmail.com.
Update 18 October Strange Maps #744

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Victors don't just write the history books. They make the atlases too. Places are named and cities are founded by strong-willed go-getters. They've seeded our maps with the rush of exploration and the joy of conquest. Toponymy generally isn't the province of the melancholy or the morose.

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1.5 Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships. 

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1.5 Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships. 

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"We're in the midst of new cities fever," says Prof Sarah Moser. The head of the new cities lab at McGill University has documented more than 100 cities that have sprung up across Asia and Africa since the early 2000s for her forthcoming Atlas of New Cities.

There's Eko Atlantic, a "new Dubai" taking shape on reclaimed land off the coast of Nigeria, and Forest City, a "new Singapore" being built just over the Johor Strait from the original. There's the New Silk Road city of Khorgos rising from the barren steppe that separates Kazakhstan and China, the "sustainable city" of Neom in Saudi Arabia, the Norman Foster-designed Masdar in Abu Dhabi, a few in Latin America ... and even a Robotic New City in Malaysia.

Most are in places where rapid urbanisation and population growth have overwhelmed existing cities. Sometimes masterplanned cities are a way for countries in the global south to kickstart an economic transition out of agriculture or from resource-based economies. They can also allow governments to write their country's image afresh. "That's a very seductive idea, especially in countries that were colonised," says Moser.

"It's easy for leaders to whip up some nationalist frenzy and sell the new city as a source of national pride. The computer-generated models look beautiful too - all the old city problems are just gone - and it looks magically real. It's compelling for people who live in overcrowded and polluted places."

Moser says the money to be made is staggering - measured in the trillions of dollars. "It's extremely lucrative," she adds. "There are real estate and tech companies circling like sharks."

Ordos, China

Officials in coal-rich Inner Mongolia announced plans for a city of 1 million people in the parched desert and grasslands south of Ordos Dongsheng in 2003. Six years later the part-built development of Ordos Kangbashi became notorious around the world as a "ghost city", as news reports highlighted the lack of people, aroundabout 30,000 at the time. Images showed a vast central public space - almost the size of Tiananmen Square in Beijing - and rows of identical empty apartment blocks.

There are signs the city has started to fill up. A 2017 report from the state-run Xinhua news agency claimed a permanent population of 153,000, with almost 5,000 active businesses. Wade Shepard, author of The Ghost Cities of China, believes that by the city's expected completion date of 2023 it should have met its revised population target of 300,000 people. "It regularly takes western cities five to 10 years to build civil engineering projects such as new subway lines," he points out. "Ordos Kangbashi probably should have impressed the world with its rapid pace of development."

Putrajaya, Malaysia

The former prime minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad announced plans in the late 1980s to shift the nation's administrative capital from congested, overcrowded Kuala Lumpur to a new city built on former oil and rubber plantations 25 miles (40km) to the south. Putrajaya would join the ranks of purpose-built capitals around the world: from Canberra in Australia to Islamabad in Pakistan, Abuja in Nigeria to Washington DC in the US.

Construction began in the mid-1990s. Putrajaya was billed as an "intelligent garden city": more than a third of the land is reserved for green spaces, with 200 hectares (494 acres) of wetlands and a 400-hectare manmade lake - as well as the world's largest roundabout.

Although the Asian financial crisis of 1997 put a temporary halt on development, the city is now fully functioning: almost all government departments have moved there, along with an estimated population of 88,000. It has been praised for its innovative architecture, community and environmental focus; a "manicured Malaysia" of office blocks, hotels and pretty parks.

New Cairo, Egypt

The city of New Cairo - in the desert 20 miles to the east of its namesake - was conceived in the late 1990s and established by presidential decree in 2000. Not to be confused with the as-yet-unnamed new administrative capital proposed by president Abdel-Fattah El-Sisi in 2014 (another 20 miles east and dubbed the "new New Cairo"), the original New Cairo was meant to attract a population of 5 million. A few hundred-thousand currently call it home.

Songdo, South Korea

Where Ordos and New Cairo rose from the desert and Putrajaya from the jungle, the new city of Songdo was built on land reclaimed from the Yellow Sea. Songdo International Business District was envisioned as a sustainable, low-carbon, hi-tech "ubiquitous city" - with all the advantages of Seoul, 30 miles to the north, but without the congestion and air pollution.

All major buildings are constructed to LEED green standards; a network of underground tubes sucks all household and office waste to processing facilities, eliminating the need for rubbish trucks; residents can remotely control lighting and air conditioning, while street sensors monitor traffic flow. Many of those futuristic features, though, are starting to look a little commonplace.

Master-planned by New York architecture firm Kohn Pedersen Fox, Songdo is the world's most expensive private real estate development. As of last year, the population was estimated at just over 100,000 people - around a third of its target. The 2015 completion date has been pushed back to 2022.

All satellite imagery sourced from Google Earth Engine

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Cities from scratch: watch new cities rise from the desert, jungle and sea

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"We're in the midst of new cities fever," says Prof Sarah Moser. The head of the new cities lab at McGill University has documented more than 100 cities that have sprung up across Asia and Africa since the early 2000s for her forthcoming Atlas of New Cities.

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1.5 Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships.

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1.5 Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships.

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Humans have made an indelible mark on the planet. Since the mid-20th century, we've accelerated the digging of mines, construction of dams, expansion of cities and clearing of forests for agriculture - activity that will be visible in the geological record for eons to come.

Some scientists are calling it the Anthropocene era, or the age of the humans ("anthropos" is Greek for human).

Photographer Edward Burtynsky and filmmakers Jennifer Baichwal and Nicholas de Pencier were inspired by this ongoing discussion of the debate over this new geological era. These three Canadian artists traveled to 22 countries to research and document "places of obvious, physical human incursions on the landscape," says filmmaker de Pencier.

They created over 50 images capturing the impact of humans on the Earth, like a sprawling, 30-acre garbage dump in Kenya, large swaths of deforestation in Borneo and waterways damaged by oil siphoning in Nigeria.

Their expansive, multidisciplinary body of work is called The Anthropocene Project.

The project, which includes photography, film, virtual reality and augmented reality, took four years to complete and launched in September 2018. The exhibition is currently on display at the Fondazione MAST Museum in Bologna, Italy. And their filmwill be shown in the U.S. this fall.

"[The Anthropocene Project] is almost looking back from a projected future, from the future geologist investigating what will remain in the rock record long after we're gone," de Pencier adds.

Here is a selection of photographs from the project.

Jonathan Lambert is a freelance science journalist based in Washington, D.C. You can follow him on Twitter: @evolambert. Rebecca Ellis is a Kroc Fellow with NPR.

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Oh Dear: Photos Show What Humans Have Done To The Planet

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Humans have made an indelible mark on the planet. Since the mid-20th century, we've accelerated the digging of mines, construction of dams, expansion of cities and clearing of forests for agriculture - activity that will be visible in the geological record for eons to come.

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1.6 Define scales of analysis used by geographers. 

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1.6 Define scales of analysis used by geographers. 

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This one is really simple.
1. Global Scale (the Earth)
-this is a small scale analysis because it shows very little detail of places.
2. National Scale
-the United States
3. Regional Scale
-Texas
4. Local Scale
-Fort Worth
-This is a large scale Map because it shows the greatest detail.

Small Scale analysis shows very little data, large scale shows a lot.

I am attaching a really cool map of Fort Worth. Read the article and then play with the map. Find your house and so on. The map is slightly hard to find. It is after the first paragraph. Called the Age of Fort Worth interactive map!

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December 2, 2015

At the TCU Center for Urban Studies, we plan to produce data analyses and visualizations with open, public datasets that address urban issues in the Fort Worth and greater North Texas communities. Our first such example is an interactive building age map of Fort Worth, which we are calling The Age of Fort Worth. Please click the link below to access the map.
The Age of Fort Worth interactive map
The map shows all of the buildings in the City of Fort Worth's publicly-available building footprint dataset (building outlines), colored by year of construction information from the Tarrant Appraisal District and the Denton Central Appraisal District. It is inspired by similar projects completed for Portland, Oregon, Los Angeles, and The Netherlands, among others.

Zoom and pan around the map to explore just like in Google Maps, hover your cursor over any building to reveal its address and year of construction in the top-right corner of your screen, and locate your computer or device on the map by clicking the pin icon in the top-left corner. If you are interested in the technology behind the development of the map, please click this link for the companion technical write-up.

There are countless stories in the map about Fort Worth neighborhoods; feel free to explore and find those relevant to you! We've highlighted a few of these stories below.

Tear-downs and re-builds in Monticello

The Monticello neighborhood is located in west Fort Worth, just to the northwest of the popular Cultural District and West 7th Street areas. In recent years, many older houses in Monticello have been torn down, making way for newer construction in the neighborhood. In 2007, the Fort Worth Weekly reported on this activity in Monticello; this has continued apace since 2007, as revealed by the map. On many streets in Monticello, it is common to see a home constructed in the 1920s next door to a new build from the past five years.

Re-development in the Terrell Heights Historic District

The Terrell Heights Historic District (also called the Historic Southside), located to the southeast of Downtown Fort Worth, also has experienced significant redevelopment over the past decade. Thanks to both private partnerships and federal and state grant funding, the City has pursued both commercial and affordable housing development in the neighborhood, as detailed in this 2012 article in the Fort Worth Star-Telegram. The new developments in Terrell Heights are highlighted in green and yellow on the map, showing that majority of buildings on many blocks in the neighborhood have been constructed since the late 1990s.

Pre- and post-recession growth in Far North Fort Worth

The northern-most neighborhood in Fort Worth is Harriet Creek Ranch, located in Denton County to the west of Texas Motor Speedway. Like many other neighborhoods on the edges of Fort Worth, Harriet Creek Ranch was built almost entirely in the early 2000s before the recession of 2008 and 2009. The "waves" of development in these neighborhoods pre- and post-recession are visible on the map, with post-2010 development represented in bright bright yellow. An example is the Rivers' Edge West neighborhood just west of Harriet Creek Ranch, the cluster of homes on the left-hand side of the image.
What about other cities in the Fort Worth area?
Our goal with this map is to demonstrate an "open data" workflow, in which all of the datasets and tools used to produce the map are free to the public. Building footprint data are available for purchase from the North Central Texas Council of Governments; as such, we opted to focus on Fort Worth, as the City provides footprint data for free. This is why you'll see open spaces on the map with no buildings; there are buildings located in these areas, but they are not part of the City of Fort Worth. We've labeled those other municipalities on the map (e.g. Edgecliff Village, Westover Hills).
Is the map accurate?
The map is as accurate as the underlying data from the City of Fort Worth and the Tarrant and Denton Appraisal Districts. However, in any dataset as large as this one, some inconsistencies are likely to creep in. While the map uses the most recent data available, some very new (since 2014) construction in Fort Worth may be omitted. Also, we cross-checked a random sample of building ages in our dataset against the corresponding information from Zillow, and found that they matched 94 percent of the time, and that half of the mismatches were within 10 years of one another. Some of the errors, however, are due to the way that buildings are classified by the Tarrant Appraisal District. Take the western part of TCU's campus, for example, in which every building has a "year built" value of 2011, even though many of the buildings are much older:

All of these buildings are on the same Tarrant Appraisal District parcel, have the same address in the database (2820 S University Dr), and in turn all have the same ID code. In turn, when the year of construction information is updated in the TAD dataset for a new building, all the TCU buildings will be updated in turn. Additionally, you may come across some missing buildings; for example, the building that houses the Center for Urban Studies on TCU's campus, Scharbauer Hall, is missing from the City's building footprint dataset.

We hope you enjoy exploring the map, and please keep an eye out for our future posts!

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TCU Urban Studies | The Age of Fort Worth

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At the TCU Center for Urban Studies, we plan to produce data analyses and visualizations with open, public datasets that address urban issues in the Fort Worth and greater North Texas communities. Our first such example is an interactive building age map of Fort Worth, which we are calling The Age of Fort Worth.

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1.7 Describe different ways that geographers define regions.

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1.7 Describe different ways that geographers define regions.

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Be able to describe each region and give a real life example of each.

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Formal, Functional, and Perceptual Regions

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While studying geography, you may have heard the term functional region before. Yet what exactly is a functional region? Put simply, a functional region is a defined geographical area centered around a specific focal point with a specific function.

A functional region is distinguished by a centralized hub with surrounding areas and structures that relate to a common activity. For example, a trade route, transportation hub, or a shopping center would all be considered functional regions. Let's go into greater detail about the characteristics of regions, look at some examples, and see how functional regions differ from other types of geographical regions.

Defining A Functional Region

The name "functional region" provides an excellent clue to its definition. It is a region that is based around a specific activity, a region which has a primary function. Within a functional region, there is usually a central hub or point of distribution for whatever function or activity the region is concerned with.

"Towering genius disdains a beaten path. It seeks regions hitherto unexplored." - Abraham Lincoln

This central hub or focal point is frequently what defines the nature of the functional region, with other buildings and locations popping up in association with the central hub. For instance, a bus depot might be created at the central hub of a transportation network, and more bus routes, stops, and supporting facilities will crop up around/spread out from the initial depot. The focal point of the functional region is where the greatest amount of activity in the region will occur, falling off as one increases in distance from the focal point. People and activity will flow towards and away from the focal point at various times of the day. Although there will be a central hub or focal point for the region, the region as a whole can be considered one unit regarding the activity it is concerned with.

Examples Of Functional Regions
Metropolitan Areas
The biggest examples of functional regions are metropolitan areas, and you can think of the city that the metropolitan area is based around as of the central hub or focal point of the region. The major city within a metropolitan area is where most commerce and activity takes place, being the most densely populated portion of the functional region. The city or central hub is connected to outlying portions of the region by transport routes, trade routes, and communication. People commute daily from the surrounding area to the city to carry out economic activities within the central club. The urban center that the metropolitan area surrounds may perform many different functions like education, employment, and entertainment.

"Towered cities please us then, And the busy hum of men." - John Milton

In the United States and other countries, metropolitan areas are comprised of multiple different cities, towns, suburbs, or even entire counties or states. One example is the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area, which connects the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth, while another example is the Los Angeles metropolitan area which connects Los Angeles, Long Beach, and Anaheim.
School Districts
School districts can be thought of as functional regions centered around education. A school district is based on a certain number of schools, which as hubs for the functional region. The different schools and the school district will serve children from the surrounding neighborhoods, based on factors like population and geographical location. The students must commute to their school every day, and a number of different transportation routes link the central hubs (schools) to the homes of the students and surrounding areas.

The presence of a greater number of schools frequently draws more residents to an area, so school districts remain tied to the population growth of the greater geographical area. While schools can potentially serve a wide variety of students from different backgrounds and ethnicities, analysis of school district demographics indicates that school districts are frequently much more homogeneous than larger cities, states, and counties as a whole.
Branch Banks
Branch banks exist to provide services to people who live away from the headquarters or home branch of the bank, handling banking transactions for people at home in their own communities. In a branch banking system, the main bank will create many different branches that cover a variety of geographical areas according to the needs of the population within those areas.

Branch banks can be considered a functional region because the main bank serves as the focal point or main hub of the system, and the branch banks that are distributed throughout the region interact with the main bank. Note that functional regions can be subdivided into smaller regions of their own. For instance, the local bank branches act as the central hub of that subregion, even though they are part of a larger functional region that includes the entire banking company.
Shopping Centers/Department Stores
Department stores and shopping centers are examples of functional regions based on shopping for material goods. A department store will attempt to serve as the primary hub for citizens looking to purchase goods in a surrounding geographical area. The store will target the citizens that live closest to the store, hoping to draw them in, with their customer base reducing as the distance from the store increases. The people who are at the far extremes of the store's range may well choose to go to another department store to get their needed items. The department store is connected to surrounding homes, businesses, and services by a transportation network and trade routes.

"I never think that people die. They just go to department stores." - Andy Warhol

Shopping centers work similarly to department stores, but instead of being a single store they are conglomerations of many different stores located in a single area. The shopping center itself is the main hub of the functional region, and the stores there will take advantage of the presence of other shops to catch the eye of customers in the surrounding region.
Harbors and Ports
Harbors and ports are also examples of functional regions. A harbor can be thought of as the central hub of a coastal region. Harbors frequently handle industries like fishing and shipping and also serve as a base of operations for the creation of coastal infrastructure. The central hub of the harbor is linked to surrounding areas by trade routes and communication routes.

Ports, like airports and seaports, service functional regions by handling the coming and going of people in a geographical region. The airports and seaports frequently welcome tourists to an area, and as the distance from the airport increases, the tourists will have other ports they can utilize. This is also true of ports and harbors as employment centers. As the distance one must commute to a port or harbor for work increases, people become more likely to look for job opportunities elsewhere.

Other Types Of Geographical Regions

Outside of functional regions, other types of geographical regions include formal regions and perceptual or vernacular regions. Formal regions are the regions that have boundaries recognized by different cities, states, and countries. Meanwhile, perceptual regions are regions that are based around cultural factors and attributes.
Formal Regions
A formal region is defined by officially recognized boundaries, and they typically have their boundaries set by national or local governments. Some of the criteria a governmental entity might use to create a formal region include nationality, common languages, political affiliation, religion, culture, and geographical features. These characteristics/features are used to distinguish them from other formal regions. Physical characteristics of an area are frequently used to create formal regions, with natural boundaries like canyons, lakes, mountains, and rivers being used as a basis for a region's boundaries. That said, non-physical characteristics also influence the creation of boundaries.

Formal regions may be easier or harder to define depending on the criteria chosen. Though the physical features of terrain remained fairly steady over the years, cultural factors like language, religion, or other demographic attributes may shift dramatically over the years. This might mean that that the region must be redrawn from time to time as the demographics change. Despite this, every formal region is in principle based on a variable that can be quantified.
Perceptual Region
Perceptual regions are also sometimes called vernacular regions, though some geographers do not use the terms interchangeably, using them to refer to different concepts. While a vernacular region is based on the different methods of communication people in an area have, perceptual regions are often based upon certain beliefs/feelings/attitudes that people have about a particular region.

Because vernacular/perceptual regions are based on attitudes, perceptions, and methods of communication, they are much more likely to change then regions based on physical geographical features. Examples of perceptual regions include the Northeast, SoCal and NorCal in California, and the Midwest. Global examples of perceptual regions include Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

References:

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Functional Region: Definition And Examples | Science Trends

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While studying geography, you may have heard the term functional region before. Yet what exactly is a functional region? Put simply, a functional region is a defined geographical area centered around a specific focal point with a specific function. A functional region is distinguished by a centralized hub with surrounding areas and structures that relate to a common activity.

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1.7 Continued because whose mom/dad are ordering things off amazon like crazy 

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1.7 Continued because whose mom/dad are ordering things off amazon like crazy 

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Did you see that amazon is limiting their supply chain? They are selling out of their warehouses and will only restock with "essentials" think toilet paper and soap. Amazon is in a unique position to supply the majority of the United States if needed.

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A closer look at Amazon's delivery network illustrates why the company is now ready to make one-day shipping the default for its Prime members.

Amazon is already capable of offering same-day and next-day delivery to 72% of the total U.S. population, including almost all of the households (95% or more) in 16 of the wealthiest and most populated states and Washington, D.C., according to a report published in March by RBC Capital Markets.

The vast delivery network is the result of significant investments over the past four years, a period during which Amazon built out fulfillment centers across the country, nearly tripling its U.S. logistics infrastructure, RBC said. Amazon has added roughly double the amount of distribution space Home Depot currently owns.

That means the company has a huge head start in fulfilling its plan laid out in its latest earnings report to shorten the current two-day free shipping plan by one day for Prime members, who pay $119 a year for fast delivery as well as services like unlimited music, access to the video catalog and exclusive deals.

"We see Amazon's 1-day Prime shipping raising consumer expectations and increasing the cost to compete in e-commerce," Morgan Stanley analysts wrote in a note after the announcement.

The map below from RBC shows the four-year change in Amazon's distribution footprint. It already covers most of the coastal cities, as well as Texas and major metropolitan areas in the Midwest.

"While store-level distribution is still the fastest way for a consumer to acquire a product, Amazon's continued rollout of same-day and next-day delivery capabilities continues to reduce that historical competitive barrier and represents a growing risk to retailers who are too often fighting yesterday's (2-day) delivery wars," RBC Capital wrote in the note.

Following the Amazon announcement, RBC said in another report that "the faster you ship, the more people buy."

One of the biggest reasons people shop at a physical store is because of the immediate need to get a product. By shortening delivery time to one day, Amazon changes that equation. Brian Olsavsky, Amazon's CFO, said on the first-quarter earnings call that the company is already starting to see "good order trends" after rolling out one-day default shipping to certain areas.

It's having an impact on the stock market, too. Rival retailers, like Walmart and Target, saw their shares drop following Amazon's announcement. Most retailers are just now starting to offer two-day shipping and will be forced to spend more on improving their logistics infrastructure to try and keep pace with Amazon.

Even at Amazon, the change won't come cheap. The company said it's planning to spend $800 million during this quarter alone to expand one-day shipping. RBC noted that 15 U.S. states still don't have access to Amazon's same-day or next-day delivery, so the company will have to spend more heavily to reach those areas.

"While this is a drag on profitability near term, we believe enhancements like this should encourage incremental spending by customers and attract new Prime members," BMO Capital wrote in a note following Amazon's earnings.

Another benefit is improvements in warehouse efficiency. Since products are shipped faster, more inventory will move in and out of Amazon's fulfillment centers more quickly.

"The long-term benefit is that turnover will be faster in the warehouse so efficiency can be gained for fulfillment as a percentage of revenues," Mizuho Securities wrote in a recent note.

WATCH: Buffett says Berkshire Hathaway has been buying Amazon

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Amazon can already ship to 72% of US population within a day, this map shows

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A closer look at Amazon's delivery network illustrates why the company is now ready to make one-day shipping the default for its Prime members. Amazon is already capable of offering same-day and next-day delivery to 72% of the total U.S.

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1. I will be posting the objectives for each unit in order. 1.1 and so on.
2. Each objective will be in the title. It won't let me post multiple things per tile. So if I have more than one resource I have to post one for each thing.
3. Under the first objective I will have need to knows posted. These are key words and definitions that you need to use while answering the objective on a possible FRQ response.
4. Try and answer the objective with the information provided.
5. None of this is mandatory just putting out information.
6. If you have a question add it to the comment section of the post you need help with!

Obviously, this is a huge project. So be patient please!

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First off, I hope everyone is healthy and a little stir crazy. I know I am! This website has been a great distraction over the past few days. I wish I had something better. With FWISD systems still being down I only can do so much. I miss y'all and hope to see you all in my class soon! As of right now, the AP test is still scheduled. No one knows the future but College Board is looking into some ideas just like everyone else in the world!

This website is meant to be a review page. I will add things as I find them. You will have to scroll to the right to see all the units.

For Unit 6 and 7, I will post actual work. It is NOT mandatory. Those were the units we still had to cover.We have already covered half of Unit 7, when we studied development. So if you are bored and want some actual work those might be a good start, For example, supply chains have become a huge issue facing the U.S. right now. Empty store shelves. EEEKKK!  That would be from Unit 7, Industry.

Post an update when I have one!

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2.1 Identify the factors that influence the distribution of human populations at different scales.

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2.1 Identify the factors that influence the distribution of human populations at different scales.

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Nobody lives here: The nearly 5 million Census Blocks with zero population

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Nobody lives here: The nearly 5 million Census Blocks with zero population A Block is the smallest area unit used by the U.S. Census Bureau for tabulating statistics. As of the 2010 census, the United...

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2.2 A Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment.

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2.2 A Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment.

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A. Population distribution and density affect political, economic, and social processes, including the provision of services such as medical care.

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Population pyramids: Powerful predictors of the future - Kim Preshoff

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2.2 B Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment.

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2.2 B Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment.

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B.  Population distribution and density affect the environment and natural resources; this is known as carrying capacity

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This story map requires JavaScript, but running JavaScript is not currently allowed by your web browser. If you wish to view this story, please enable JavaScript in this browser or try a different browser.

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This story map requires JavaScript, but running JavaScript is not currently allowed by your web browser. If you wish to view this story, please enable JavaScript in this browser or try a different browser.

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2.3 A. Describe elements of population composition used by geographers. 

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2.3 A. Describe elements of population composition used by geographers. 

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A. Patterns of age structure and sex ratio vary across different regions and may be mapped and analyzed at different scales.

Look at different countries especially ones in the Middle East and Asia that have had restrictive Anti-Natalist policies, then Italy!

In the left corner where it says world. Change that to a country! Now find it on a map.

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Check our other visualizations

Other indicators visualized on maps:

(In English only, for now)

AIDS estimated deaths (UNAIDS estimates)

Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19)

Age at first marriage, female

Age at first marriage, male

Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population)

Antiretroviral therapy coverage (% of people living with HIV)

Antiretroviral therapy coverage for PMTCT (% of pregnant women living with HIV)

Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people)

Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total)

Children (0-14) living with HIV

Children with fever receiving antimalarial drugs (% of children under age 5 with fever)

Completeness of birth registration (%)

Completeness of death registration with cause-of-death information (%)

Diabetes prevalence (% of population ages 20 to 79)

Diarrhea treatment (% of children under 5 receiving oral rehydration and continued feeding)

Fertility rate, total (births per woman)

GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$)

Health expenditure per capita (current US$)

Health expenditure per capita, PPP

Health expenditure, private (% of GDP)

Health expenditure, public (% of GDP)

Health expenditure, total (% of GDP)

Hospital beds (per 1,000 people)

Immunization, BCG (% of one-year-old children) - Turberculosis

Immunization, DPT (% of children ages 12-23 months) - Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and Tetanus

Immunization, HepB3 (% of one-year-old children) - Hepatitis B

Immunization, Hib3 (% of children ages 12-23 months) - Meningitis, Pneumonia, and Epiglottitis

Immunization, Polio (% of one-year-old children)

Immunization, measles (% of children ages 12-23 months)

Incidence of HIV (% of uninfected population ages 15-49)

Incidence of malaria (per 1,000 population at risk)

Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people)

Labor force, female (% of total labor force)

Labor force, total

Life expectancy at birth, female (years)

Life expectancy at birth, male (years)

Life expectancy at birth, total (years)

Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above)

Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)

Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15-24)

Malaria cases reported

Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000)

People practicing open defecation, urban (% of urban population)

Physicians (per 1,000 people)

Population ages 65 and above (% of total)

Population growth (annual %)

Population, male (% of total)

Postnatal care coverage (% mothers)

Prevalence of HIV, female (% ages 15-24)

Prevalence of HIV, male (% ages 15-24)

Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49)

Prevalence of overweight (% of children under 5)

Prevalence of overweight, female (% of female adults)

Prevalence of overweight, male (% of male adults)

Prevalence of syphilis (% of women attending antenatal care)

Public spending on education, total (% of GDP)

Risk of impoverishing expenditure for surgical care (% of people at risk)

Rural population growth (annual %)

School enrollment, secondary (% gross)

School enrollment, secondary, male (% net)

Sex ratio at birth (male births per female births)

Smoking prevalence, females (% of adults)

Smoking prevalence, males (% of adults)

Suicide mortality rate (per 100,000 population)

Tuberculosis death rate (per 100,000 people)

Unemployment, total (% of total labor force)

Urban population growth (annual %)

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Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100

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2.3 Explain ways that geographers depict and analyze population composition.

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2.3 Explain ways that geographers depict and analyze population composition.

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Population pyramids are used to assess population growth and decline and to predict markets for goods and services.

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Health and longevity are frequently conflated. After all, aren't people living longer precisely because they're healthier? Instead, aging brings with it new health challenges that are all too familiar to anyone who has cared for an aging relative or is getting older themselves. In the current American health-care system, those maladies are treated individually, usually by specialists hired to deal with individual diseases or bodily systems. Often, older age becomes a series of health emergencies, growing more and more frequent as people get older.

"The problem is that physicians, in doing what they're supposed to be doing, don't look at the big picture," Olshansky argued. "We're supposed to look at the big picture." But patients can't become experts on everything, and as people age, it becomes harder for the very elderly to effectively advocate for themselves within the byzantine world of American medicine.

Susan Golden, another panelist and the director of the dciX innovation program at Stanford University, noted that shifting this system would require changing how the medical profession is structured. "It would be better if we had primary-care physicians as our navigators," she said. "In Denmark, primary-care providers are paid more than specialists, and that's a good idea.* It puts prevention up front and embeds it into the system."

Golden said that if people are living longer lives, maintaining their health in the long term will require an emphasis on healthy habits starting in childhood. She also noted that it will require the political will to dismantle the structural disparities that impact the health of people of color and those living in poverty.

Olshansky expects to see major advances in increasing the American health span within his lifetime. "I'm extremely optimistic that the science has now caught up with the idea that we can modify our own biology and slow down the process of biological aging," he said. "Not for the purpose of making us live longer, but for the purpose of extending the period of healthy life."

In the meantime, Olshansky and Golden both emphasized that prevention is better than treatment, and that eating a healthy and diverse diet, getting plenty of sleep, and exercising regularly are reliable ways to make your life span, whatever it might be, more enjoyable.

For at least one other popular health tactic, they were less enthusiastic. "Everybody always asks about nutritional supplements as some sort of magical elixir," Olshansky said. "I'm going to be frank: The vast majority of people who are taking nutritional supplements thinking it's going to extend their life are really just producing expensive urine."
* This quote previously misstated the location of where primary-care providers are paid more than specialists.

We want to hear what you think about this article. Submit a letter to the editor or write to letters@theatlantic.com.

Amanda Mull is a staff writer at The Atlantic.

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byzantine world of american medicine.susan golden

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disease-specific model of modern medicine

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Human Lives Might Be Long Enough Already

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Health and longevity are frequently conflated. After all, aren't people living longer precisely because they're healthier? Instead, aging brings with it new health challenges that are all too familiar to anyone who has cared for an aging relative or is getting older themselves.

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2.4 Explain factors that account for contemporary and historical trends in population growth and decline.

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2.4 Explain factors that account for contemporary and historical trends in population growth and decline.

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Demographic factors that determine a population’s growth and decline are fertility, mortality, and migration.

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Americans are having so few babies these days that the fertility rate has hit a historic low, according to stunning data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

The number of births in the US dropped by 2 percent between 2017 and 2018, to 59 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44, continuing a general downturn that started with the Great Recession of 2008. It's the lowest number of births in 32 years.

The fertility rate is an important measure of a country's well-being. When it's too low, countries worry that in the long term they may not have enough healthy, young workers to keep productivity up and the economy humming. Meanwhile, a birthrate that's too high can drain resources.

The "replacement" fertility rate of 2.1, enough to renew the population, is typically viewed as the optimal level for stability. During the post-World War Two baby boom, the total fertility rate, or number of births each woman is expected to have in her childbearing years, was 3.77 births- but it's been much lower in every generation that followed the boomers.

In 2018, it dropped to an all-time low of 1.72. "The rate has generally been below replacement since 1971 and consistently below replacement for the last decade," the new CDC report, which is based on more than 99 percent of US birth records, reads.

It's not yet clear exactly what's driving the trend, and the CDC authors don't offer any guesses. Some, like the economist Lyman Stone, have suggested America's " historic collapse in childbearing" is being driven by the fact that society isn't organized to support people having all the babies they'd like to. Others have blamed the economy.

Whatever the cause, researchers from Columbia University, the University of Illinois, and other universities warned in a 2018 Hill commentary that a low birthrate is another contributor to the "aging society" in the US - where the proportion of the population over 65 is greater than the proportion under age 15 - and that the effects of this demographic makeup "will reverberate for years to come."

But there are also two pieces of good news embedded in the data, especially for women. A decline in fertility is largely being driven by a dramatic drop in teen births and women joining the workforce. Second, America is simply looking more like its economic peers when it comes to the fertility rate - and that can be partially explained by the drop in unintended pregnancies.

Ultimately, it may be too soon to panic about a "baby bust." It is time, however, for some sober thought about what social programs and policies are needed to address a demographic shift that is well underway.

A dramatic drop in the teen birthrate and an increase in older moms has nudged the fertility rate down

In the chart below, you can see the birthrate stratified by the age group of American women. There's one line that takes a dramatic nosedive: the teen birthrate, which has halved since 2007.

There are various reasons for this, as Vox explained, but a major one is that we have better access to birth control. Women these days are just as likely to be sexually active as they were in the past, but how they use contraceptives has changed:

The percentage of sexually active teens who used at least one type of birth control the last time they had sex rose from 78 percent in 2007 to 86 percent in 2012. More teens gravitated toward better types of birth control - like pills, IUDs, or implants - rather than relying on lower-quality birth control like condoms.

So - surprise, surprise! - giving women a technology that allowed them to control their fertility led to fewer teen pregnancies. And this dramatic drop in the teen birthrate has contributed to the overall decline in fertility.

In this chart, you'll also notice another, related good news story: that the birthrate has actually increased for older moms. Women ages 35 to 44 are more likely to have kids these days than they were 20 or 30 years ago.

"Women want to have a better economic platform from which to launch their families," University of Maryland health inequality researcher Philip Cohen told Vox in 2018. "People who have more to lose invest more in planning and prevention. So the better things are for women, the more they are going to delay their births up to a point and also have fewer births. They have more to lose, they intend to spend more on their children, and the result is fewer children."

So while delaying childbearing may mean having fewer kids, like the teen birthrate, it's also a sign of women's advancement and improved conditions, including their participation in the workforce.

The US birthrate is aligning with that of other rich countries

Another good news story out of the decline in fertility: It's a sign of economic development.

Poorer countries globally tend to have higher fertility rates. And as you can see here, the US long had a higher fertility rate than its economic peers. Since the 1970s, the fertility rate has mostly been increasing at a time when the world's other wealthiest countries have seen their rates stagnate or decline.

The reasons for this were not entirely positive: While economic prosperity and rising immigration played a role, so did an unusually high rate of unintended and single-parent pregnancies relative to other rich countries.

So it's not all bad that the US is now more in line with its peers; it might mean fewer unintended pregnancies and single moms relative to other countries. Notice, too, that the richest countries have had below-replacement fertility for decades. "[They're] still rich," Cohen added.

"In the long run, of course, countries with lower fertility are richer more developed countries where women have more opportunities," he said.

Plus, saidWilliam Frey,a demographer and senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, in 2018, "Even in this extremely low point we are still better off than a lot of other countries."

Better child care and parental leave policies could turn the trend around

The baby bust isn't cause for panic just yet. But if the trend decline continues, and the US hits the low fertility rates of Japan and Italy, we will need to address the predicaments of advanced aging and losses in the labor force. And this means lawmakers need to grapple with policies that address the demographic shift.

To do that, John Rowe of Columbia University laid out a few potential approaches. "One is keeping older people in the workforce longer." The second is technology - using automation, robots and artificial intelligence to boost productivity, even with fewer workers. "A third is increasing immigration. The [final] is boosting the fertility rate," he summed up.

Keeping older folks in the workforce is probably among the most attractive solutions, Rowe argued, since it keeps people's minds and bodies engaged and the Social Security trust fund replenished. "But we need to start the processes now," he added, "because the downturn in the fertility has been going on for several years. And it's going to take two decades or so to get the policies in place and change employers attitudes."

Karen Benjamin Guzzo, a professor at Bowling Green State University in Ohio, told the Associated Press that more generous parental leave and child care policies could help.

That's because a surprisingly large number of families want kids but don't have them because they don't have the means to or don't feel supported enough. A 2018 New York Times and Morning Consult survey found the cost of child care was the top reason people gave to explain why they had fewer kids than they'd considered ideal.

"Seventy percent of US mothers work outside the home today," said Caitlyn Collins, a professor of sociology and gender studies at Washington University in St. Louis. After having a baby, parents need time to recover and care for their child, as well as "affordable, quality options for child care once they return to work."

"The US lacks federal provisions for both," she added. "In my mind, leaving it to individual women to find private market-based solutions is insufficient, and it's part of the explanation for why we're seeing continuing declines in fertility in the US." So addressing this for women may not only further improve their status - it could help stabilize the fertility rate too.

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The historically low birthrate, explained in 3 charts

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Americans are having so few babies these days that the fertility rate has hit a historic low, according to stunning data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The number of births in the US dropped by 2 percent between 2017 and 2018, to 59 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44, continuing a general downturn that started with the Great Recession of 2008.

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2.4 B. Geographers use the rate of natural increase and population-doubling time to explain population growth and decline.

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2.4 B. Geographers use the rate of natural increase and population-doubling time to explain population growth and decline.

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I N 1907 AN anxious Austrian, Emil Reich, predicted that Germany would have a population of 150m in 1980 and as many as 200m by the year 2000. It seemed plausible at the time. Germany had a high birth rate and a falling mortality rate. Reich's prediction, in his book "Germany's Swelled Head", turned out to be completely wrong. By the early 1980s East and West Germany had a combined fertility rate lower than anywhere in the world except Denmark and the Channel Islands. Far from exploding, Germany's population seemed doomed to rapid decline.

But in the past few years something unexpected has happened. The fertility rate, an estimate of the number of children each woman can expect to have in her lifetime, has climbed off the floor. Between 2006 and 2017 it rose from 1.33 to 1.57. The rate for 2018 has not yet been worked out, but more babies were born that year than in 2017. Germany's fertility rate has pulled away from Italy's and Spain's (see chart) and is now almost identical to the euro-area average. On June 17th the UN estimated that in 2050 Germany will have 58 people over the age of 65 for every 100 people aged 20-64. That is a lot, but comfortably less than Italy's predicted ratio of 74 to 100.

What has happened? It is partly a statistical quirk. The fertility rate is influenced by the timing of childbirth. If women move en masse to have children at older ages, the rate will fall, then rise again as the average age of childbearing stabilises. This has happened in Germany and other rich countries. But it does not explain the whole rise in the fertility rate. German women born in 1973 (who can be assumed to be done with babies by now) have more children than women born in 1968.

Another explanation is immigration. Germany has not only accepted a lot of people in the past decade-it has taken them from countries where large families are the norm. In 2017 Syrian women in Germany had 20,100 babies, up from just 2,300 three years earlier. Afghans and Iraqis had more than 5,000 each. Tomas Sobotka, a researcher at the Vienna Institute of Demography, estimates that about half the rise of Germany's fertility rate in the past few years is explained by immigration.

That boost will not last, because immigrants adjust quickly to native ways. Mona Shinar, a Palestinian woman in her mid-30s who fled Damascus for Potsdam, near Berlin, comes from an enormous family. Before Syria's civil war began, she had 12 brothers and sisters. She already has four children, including one who was born just two days after she arrived in Germany. She believes her children will have no more than one or two babies each. She has "an Arabic head", as she puts it. Her children have German heads.

The other explanation for the baby boomlet is that Germany has made it easier to raise children. What crushes birth rates, whether in Europe or East Asia, is opening higher education and attractive jobs to women while continuing to expect mothers to do the great majority of child care and housework. If a society forces women to choose between jobs and motherhood, many will keep working. Western Germany has a tradition of stigmatising working mothers, and a special slur for them: Rabenmutter ("raven mother").

This is gradually changing. In 2007 Germany's federal government introduced generous parental-leave laws and tweaked the rules to encourage fathers to take time off. In 2013 it declared that children over one year old had a right to nursery places. Although there are still not enough places to meet demand, supply is growing. Between 2006 and 2017 the number of children under three enrolled in nurseries rose from 286,000 to 762,000.

Unlike those in France, Scandinavia and eastern Europe, German politicians seldom talk explicitly about boosting the birth rate-probably because the Nazis did. Instead they talk about empowering women. Still, their policies seem to promote fecundity. Lena Reibstein of the Berlin Institute for Population and Development says they could do more if they changed the tax system. At present married couples are allowed to file joint income-tax returns. This encourages mothers to stay at home by reducing their husbands' tax bills if they do.

Compare all that to the situation in Italy. It has immigrants too-but many come from low-fertility countries like Romania and Albania. Its economy has stagnated, which puts people off having children. And Italian politicians have no idea how to raise the birth rate. Three years ago the government ran an advertising campaign informing women that their biological clocks were ticking, as though this had not occurred to them. The campaign was withdrawn amid heckling. Italy is now the world's second-oldest country, after Japan. And the truth is, says Maria Letizia Tanturri, a demographer at the University of Padova, that "people don't care".

This article appeared in the Europe section of the print edition under the headline "A baby boomlet"

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Why Germany's birth rate is rising and Italy's isn't

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I N 1907 AN anxious Austrian, Emil Reich, predicted that Germany would have a population of 150m in 1980 and as many as 200m by the year 2000. It seemed plausible at the time. Germany had a high birth rate and a falling mortality rate.

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2.4 C. Social, cultural, political, and economic factors influence fertility, mortality, and migration rates.

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2.4 C. Social, cultural, political, and economic factors influence fertility, mortality, and migration rates.

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The surprising thing about the declining U.S. birth rate

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2.5 The Demographic Transition Model: Explain theories of population growth and decline.

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2.5 The Demographic Transition Model: Explain theories of population growth and decline.

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A. The demographic transition model can be used to explain population change over time.

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This story map requires JavaScript, but running JavaScript is not currently allowed by your web browser. If you wish to view this story, please enable JavaScript in this browser or try a different browser.

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This story map requires JavaScript, but running JavaScript is not currently allowed by your web browser. If you wish to view this story, please enable JavaScript in this browser or try a different browser.

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2.5 B. The epidemiological transition explains causes of changing death rates.

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2.5 B. The epidemiological transition explains causes of changing death rates.

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 2.6 Malthusian Theory (Thanos dude) Explain theories of population growth and decline.

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 2.6 Malthusian Theory (Thanos dude) Explain theories of population growth and decline.

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Malthusian theory and its critiques are used to analyze population change and its consequences.

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Population, Sustainability, and Malthus: Crash Course World History 215

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 2.7 Population Policies Explain the intent and effects of various population and immigration policies on population size and composition 

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 2.7 Population Policies Explain the intent and effects of various population and immigration policies on population size and composition 

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Types of population policies include those that promote or discourage population growth, such as pronatalist, antinatalist, and immigration policies.

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Hungary has announced that it will offer free in-vitro fertilization treatments, the latest major initiative to try to boost the country's population numbers, which have been declining for decades.

Hungary's nationalist right-wing prime minister, Viktor Orbán, said during an international news conference Thursday that IVF treatments would be provided for free starting Feb. 1. The government recently purchased six private fertility clinics, and Orbán said the fertility sector is "of national strategic importance," as the Financial Times reported.

Orbán is fiercely opposed to immigration and has said that increasing national fertility rates is his preferred way to counter the population downturn and risk of labor shortages. Fewer than 10 million people live in Hungary.

"If we want Hungarian children instead of immigrants and if the Hungarian economy can generate the necessary funding, then the only solution is to spend as much of the funds as possible on supporting families and raising children," the prime minister was quoted as saying by the BBC.

Orbán has also introduced other dramatic measures to encourage Hungarians to procreate. Last year, he said women who have four or more children will enjoy an income tax waiver for life, and that couples with three or more children are eligible to have certain loans forgiven.

During his wide-ranging remarks, Orban also said that bringing fertility clinics under state control would "make what happens to the fertilized eggs fully transparent during the entire process," according to his office. He added that fertility treatment in Hungary won't be run on a "market basis" anymore.

The prime minister did not appear to offer any specific restrictions about who is eligible to receive free treatments. It's worth noting that IVF can be extremely costly. In the U.S., for example, the average patient undergoes two cycles of the treatment, which can cost a total of $40,000-$60,000, according to fertility doctor assessment site FertilityIQ. The costs are lower in many other countries.

European Union population projections estimate that the population in Hungary is likely to decline by about 11% by 2080.

The average annual number of births per 1,000 people in Hungary is now less than half of what it was in 1950, according to data from the United Nations. A number of other European countries, such as Greece and Italy, have even lower birth rates.

At a demographics conference last September, Hungary's speaker of parliament, László Kövér, stressed that "having children is a public matter, not a private one." In comments published by the Financial Times, he added that people who don't have kids are "not normal" and "stand on the side of death."

While Hungary's government is staunchly opposed to allowing immigrants into the country, it is also dealing with major migration by Hungarians out of the country. The Times reports that from 2008 to 2018, some 1 million people emigrated. According to Hungary's Portfolio news site, about 1 in 7 Hungarian children are born elsewhere.

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Hungary Says It Will Offer Free Fertility Treatments To Counter Population Decline

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Hungary has announced that it will offer free in-vitro fertilization treatments, the latest major initiative to try to boost the country's population numbers, which have been declining for decades. Hungary's nationalist right-wing prime minister, Viktor Orbán, said during an international news conference Thursday that IVF treatments would be provided for free starting Feb.

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Japan's population is aging at an unprecedented speed, bringing the country to the brink of a demographic crisis that will have long-term implications for its economy and society.

At the heart of the problem is that young Japanese are having fewer babies, put off from family life by a discriminatory work culture (paywall), the cost of childcare, a precarious economy, and the rapid decline of marriage. This trend, which risks creating severe labor shortages and a collapsing social security system, is an extreme version of what many developed countries face around the world (paywall).

In the late 1980s, the widely-used catchphrase " 1.57 shock" captured the reaction when the country's fertility rate reached its lowest point in its history (it would go on to fall even further, hitting 1.26 in 2005). The reality that Japanese women had pretty much stopped having babies pushed government into action. The lateness of this push-and its successes and failures two decades later-illustrate how difficult it can be to change the reality of child-rearing in the face of persistent stigma and systemic constraints.

Japan's childcare and education investments

Japan is losing its battle (pdf) to meaningfully raise fertility rates. Those who experienced the " 1.57 shock" of the late 80s are confronting a fertility rate that has roughly plateaued in growth, reaching 1.43 today.

According to projections from Japan's National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, the country's population of about 127 million people could fall below 100 million by 2049 and reach 82 million by 2065. The Institute's most optimistic projections put the country's population at about 95 million by 2065.

This trend has accelerated government action, particularly around providing a better work-life balance for working moms. While Japan had some maternal leave policies in place for workers as early as 1911, it passed a law in 1992 (pdf) that formalized partially-paid parental leave for up to a year after childbirth. The government now requires companies of more than 300 employees to publish targets for hiring or promoting women, part of a bid to encourage women to go back to work after having children. In 2017, it announced it would invest 2 trillion yen ($18.47 billion) into a package of subsidies for elderly care and for childcare and education. State-approved preschool is now free for children between three and five years old, and low-income households with children below that age get free childcare. And since 2013, municipalities have created more than 500,000 new public day care slots (paywall).

Some Japanese towns and municipalities have gone to even greater lengths. According to The Economist, the Japanese town of Nagicho managed to increase its fertility rate from 1.4 to about 1.9 in 2017 by offering new moms a "gift" of 300,000 yen ($2,785), as well as subsidies for children's care, housing, health and education.

Policies that make childcare and healthcare more affordable, high-quality, and accessible, are crucial to supporting new mothers and encouraging healthy child development. The years between birth and five lay the foundations for a child's cognitive and social-emotional skills later in life, and high-quality preschool and childcare programs have been found to significantly improve those skills, especially amongst low-income kids. Meanwhile, research shows that generous maternity leave and policies supporting a return to work are good for mothers' mental health and for their families.

Theory v. reality

Japan's investments have already yielded some results. More than 2 million additional women are working today compared to six years ago.

But several obstacles remain for parents. Preschool may now be free, but it hasn't become more accessible. Approximately 20,000 children are on waiting lists for publicly-subsidized day care, according to The New York Times (paywall). The government has said it needs to create 320,000 new public day care slots by 2021, which will mean hiring and training 77,000 more teachers. Filling these slots with highly-educated early childhood caregivers won't be easy.

In addition, cultural stigma around work and childcare persists. Only about one in 20 fathers took advantage of Japan's generous policy of 30 weeks of paid paternal leave in 2017, according to UN data. Mothers who choose to return to work after leave often face discrimination (paywall) and an unequal burden of child-rearing responsibilities at home.

While some of these challenges are unique to Japan-like the phenomenon of , or "death from overwork"-many of them are near-universal. Most countries around the world struggle to provide high-quality, affordable childcare options for families and in many places, entrenched cultural barriers still disadvantage working women who want children-and even those who don't.

Policies like the ones the Japanese government has put in place are a good first step to addressing these problems. But other countries shouldn't wait until they face a demographic crisis to get there.

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Japan is trying really hard to persuade women to start having babies again

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Japan's population is aging at an unprecedented speed, bringing the country to the brink of a demographic crisis that will have long-term implications for its economy and society. At the heart of the problem is that young Japanese are having fewer babies, put off from family life by a discriminatory work culture (paywall), the cost of childcare, a precarious economy, and the rapid decline of marriage.

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2.8 Women and Demographic Change - Explain how the changing role of females has demographic consequences in different parts of the world.

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2.8 Women and Demographic Change - Explain how the changing role of females has demographic consequences in different parts of the world.

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Explain how the changing role of females has demographic consequences in different parts of the world.

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south korean politician tells economist to have children - cnn

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Politician grills economist on her marital status in South Korea

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She's a top economics professor who studied at Harvard and has served on government committees -- but to one South Korean politician, she hasn't done enough for the nation if she hasn't given birth.

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HANS!!! Geez I love him!

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2.9 Aging Populations - Explain the causes and consequences of an aging population. 

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2.9 Aging Populations - Explain the causes and consequences of an aging population. 

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A.  Population aging is determined by birth and death rates and life expectancy

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Fukuoka (Japan) (AFP)

Ballooning healthcare costs, labour shortages and financial services for the elderly: for the first time Sunday, the world's top policymakers are tackling economic issues relating to ageing and shrinking birthrates.

G20 finance ministers and central bank chiefs meeting in Japan -- where a rapidly ageing population is a major domestic problem -- have been warned to address the issue before it is too late.

"What we are saying is, 'If the issue of ageing starts to show its impact before you become wealthy, you really won't be able to take effective measures against it'," Japanese Finance Minister Taro Aso, the meeting's host, told reporters late Saturday.

The G20 is a mixed bag of countries at various stages of development and population profiles, ranging from rapidly-ageing Japan to Saudi Arabia, next year's G20 chair, which has a very young society.

And host Japan is eager to share its experience, with Aso sounding the alarm that nations must be ready to act before population ageing rears its head and piles pressure on the economy.

Longer life-expectancy and sliding birth rates, particularly among wealthy nations, have resulted in a rapid expansion of the elderly population in places like Spain, Italy and South Korea, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

But the pattern is not limited to the rich world, with emerging powers like Brazil and China also facing "rapid demographic change" relative to their early development stage, according to the OECD.

By 2050, the world is projected to have more than two billion residents aged 60 and above, more than double the number in 2017, OECD says.

But many economies have failed to update their pension and employment systems to adjust to the changing demographics, experts warn.

This has resulted in fiscal and debt risks for whole countries, as well as individuals.

- 'Workforce is shrinking' -

OECD chief Angel Gurria sounded the alert in an interview with AFP on the sidelines of the meeting in the western Japanese city of Fukuoka.

"You basically have a very large portion of mankind that is ageing and then the workforce is shrinking. But I would say the G20 in particular are ageing faster," the OECD secretary-general told AFP.

"These are trends that will continue, I am afraid. It's not something you can suddenly stop."

With its fast-shrinking workforce, Japan finds itself scrambling to find ways to cover the cost of its national pension.

It has left many elderly fearing cuts to their benefits, while young people worrying that a pension may not exist by the time they retire.

Meanwhile, a shrinking labour force means Japanese firms are unable to fill job openings, with the national unemployment rate standing at 2.4 percent.

And individuals are increasingly working beyond the traditional retirement age, while economies must offer jobs that older workers can perform, experts said.

Technology may help train elderly workers as well as to assist them access necessary services like healthcare and to manage their finances.

So global leaders in the finance sector not health ministers must take the lead, said Aso.

- 'Cover your pension' -

Sunday's talks aim to prepare the ground for the leaders' summit in Japan's Osaka at the end of the month, as ageing becomes an increasingly pressing issue for the global elite.

"Most of the G20 nations already experience or will experience ageing," said Bank of Japan governor Haruhiko Kuroda. "We need to discuss problems that arise with societal ageing and how to deal with them."

"There is no nation that says ageing issues don't affect them. So we believe the discussions will be productive," added a senior Japanese finance ministry official.

As a way to counter the economic impacts, Gurria called for elderly workers and women to play a greater role in the workplace and urged young people to prepare better for their financial future.

A solution to the issue, Gurria said, requires "changes to the way society organises itself."

"Depending on how prepared you are, you are facing an uncertain future, which already has enough uncertainties," Gurria said.

"What you don't want is to have certainty that you don't have enough money in order to cover the pension," he said.

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In historic first, G20 weighs ageing as global risk - France 24

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Fukuoka (Japan) (AFP) Ballooning healthcare costs, labour shortages and financial services for the elderly: for the first time Sunday, the world's top policymakers are tackling economic issues relating to ageing and shrinking birthrates. G20 finance ministers and central bank chiefs meeting in Japan -- where a rapidly ageing population is a major domestic problem -- have been warned to address the issue before it is too late.

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2.10 Causes of Migration - Explain how different causal factors encourage migration.

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2.10 Causes of Migration - Explain how different causal factors encourage migration.

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A.  Migration is commonly divided into push factors and pull factors

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B. Push/pull factors and intervening opportunities/obstacles can be cultural,demographic, economic, environmental,or political. 

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B. Push/pull factors and intervening opportunities/obstacles can be cultural,demographic, economic, environmental,or political. 

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In 1910, 83% of African Americans lived in the South, about the same percentage that had lived there since at least as far back as 1790.

In the 60 years that followed, growing racism and a lack of economic opportunities in the South led more than 6 million African Americans to migrate north. The pull northward was also compounded by World War I, which boosted the demand for northern industry, but left the North with a shortage of workers.

By 1970, the percentage of African Americans living in the South had fallen to just 40%.

This mass exodus of African Americans to the North, known today as The Great Migration, represents perhaps the largest demographic shift in American history. In The Warmth of Other Suns, Isabel Wilkerson writes:

"What started as a march of the impatient, became a rite of passage, and would become the biggest under-reported story of the 20th Century"

Visualizing the Great Migration

Bubble size = % of the country's African American population.

As the map shows, migrants from the South were particularly attracted to the North's big cities: Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. To this day, more African Americans live in Chicago than in the state of Mississippi.

The Warmth of Other Suns recounts an examination by the Chicago Commission on Race Relations regarding African American perceptions of the North. The responses offer some insight into the racist climate that persisted in the South as well as the challenges black Americans faced acclimating to urban life in the North.

Do you feel greater freedom and independence in Chicago? In what ways?

Yes. Feel free to do anything I please. Not dictated to by white people.

Yes. Can vote; no lynching; no fear of mobs; can express my opinion and defend myself.

Freedom of speech and action. Can live without fear, no Jim Crow.

The schools for the children, the better wages, and the privileges for colored people.

The people, the freedom and liberty colored people enjoy here that they never before experienced.

What difficulties do you think a person from the South meets in coming to Chicago?

Getting accustomed to cold weather and flats.

Rooming and "closeness" of the houses.

Growing accustomed to being treated like people.

Getting used to the ways of the people; not speaking or being friendly; colder weather, hard on people from the South.

I know of no difficulties.

Are you advising friends to come to Chicago?

Yes. People down here don't really believe the things we write back; I didn't believe myself until I got here.

No. I am not going to encourage them to come, for they might not make it, then I would be blamed.

Wish all the colored folks would come up here where you ain't afraid to breathe.

The Great Migration is truly an incredible story, worth reading more about if you are not familiar with it. Considering the profound influence it had (and continues to have) on countless aspects of American life, it's amazing that the Great Migration is not a better known part of American history.

My latest project is launching soon: Blueshift, a platform for designing and publishing dynamic maps for the web. If you'd like to give it a try, request a pre-launch invitation.
Credit

Thanks to Daniel Barnekow (who also made this cool site: Overlap Maps) for the suggestion to look into this topic.

Since the publication of The Warmth of Other Suns in 2010, there have been several good articles online about the Great Migration. If you would like to read more about it, here are a few: Priceonomics, The New Yorker, NPR.

Data for the map comes from the Decennial Census, IPUMS-USA, University of Minnesota, www.ipums.org.

Other sources show different breakdowns between the North and South, depending on how the South is defined. The 12 states used here are based on this analysis by FiveThirtyEight.

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Visualizing the Great Migration - The Most Under-Reported Story of the 20th Century

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Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn547sharesIn 1910, 83% of African Americans lived in the South, about the same percentage that had lived there since at least as far back as 1790. In the 60 years that followed, growing racism and a lack of economic opportunities in the South led more than 6 million African Americans to migrate [...]

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2.11 Forced and Voluntary Migration - Describe types of forced and voluntary migration. 

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2.11 Forced and Voluntary Migration - Describe types of forced and voluntary migration. 

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a.  Forced migrations include slavery and events that produce refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers.

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Around the world, 70.8 million people have been forcibly displaced. That's the most since World War II, according to the U.N. Refugee Agency (UNHCR). Most people remain displaced within their home countries, but about 25.9 million people worldwide have fled to other countries as refugees. More than half of refugees are children.

In 2018, 13.6 million people were newly displaced, either as refugees or IDPs (internally displaced people).

Udai was 6 when the Syrian civil war began in 2011. His little sister, Rana, was 2. They hardly remember life before the violence, chaos, and strife.

Their family of eight remained in their home in eastern Aleppo as long as they could. But they were finally forced to flee when the fierce battle between government and rebel forces in late 2016 literally hit home.

"We had dinner and were getting ready for bed when we heard a 'booooooom,'" Udai recounted that December. "And we started looking for each other. I was shouting, 'Dad!' No one was answering. People came in with flashlights, and they found us."

By the time Udai, Rana, and their three siblings escaped the city in mid-December, they had lost both of their parents and their 7-year-old sister in bomb attacks. The orphaned children relied on relatives and caring strangers to usher them to relative safety in Idlib, Syria.

Udai and his siblings are among the nearly 13 million Syrians who have been forced to flee their homes because of the war. About 6.2 million people are displaced within Syria. The UNHCR counted 6.7 million Syrian refugees and asylum seekers during 2018.

Find out more about protecting displaced children from violence.

Conflict and insecurity in Iraq, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Central African Republic, and Myanmar have also caused millions to flee their homes.

Years of economic and political instability in Venezuela have caused an estimated 3.4 million Venezuelans to leave the country seeking food, work, and a better life since 2014. Most of them have traveled to nearby countries, including 1.4 million who have been granted work permits or temporary status and about 400,000 people who have requested asylum.

Here is a list of the top seven countries of origin that account for the most refugees in the world today. About two-thirds of today's refugees (67%) come from the top five of these countries.

1. Syria - 5.6 million refugees

Most of the Syrians who are currently refugees remain in the Middle East. Turkey hosts 3.6 million, the largest number of refugees hosted by any country. Syrian refugees are also in Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq. During 2018, 1.4 million refugees returned home to Syria. Returnees face a daunting situation, including lack of infrastructure and services and danger from explosive devices. About 6.2 million Syrians are still displaced inside the country.

Since the crisis began, World Vision has helped more than 2.5 million people in Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, and Serbia.

2. Afghanistan - 2.7 million refugees

About 2.7 million people from Afghanistan are living as refugees, representing the second-largest refugee population in the world. Pakistan hosts nearly 1.4 million, including some second- or third-generation Afghan refugees who have never lived in their home country. Some have been forced to return home from neighboring countries, but increased violence in Afghanistan since 2015 has led to a new surge of asylum seekers. As many as 2.6 million Afghans are displaced within the country due to conflict, drought, and other natural disasters.

3. South Sudan - 2.3 million refugees

The protracted conflict in South Sudan is in its sixth year. About 1.8 million people have been displaced within the country, in addition to 2.3 million who fled to neighboring countries. An estimated 80% of the refugees are women and children. And about 50,000 of the children are orphaned or unaccompanied.

During 2018, World Vision helped more than 1.5 million children and families in South Sudan. We also helped South Sudanese refugees in surrounding countries with aid, including food, a special nutrition treatment for malnourished children and breastfeeding mothers, livelihood training, seeds and farming supplies, household items like bed nets and blankets, and water and sanitation services.

4. Myanmar - 1.1 million refugees

About 1.1 million people who identify as members of the Rohingya ethnic group have fled their homes in western Myanmar's Rakhine state. As many as 700,000 relocated to Bangladesh since August 2017. Aid agencies are struggling to adequately serve people who are dependent on aid, including those in local communities.

World Vision has served more than 265,000 refugees in Bangladesh with food, water, sanitation facilities, shelter, and other items.

5. Somalia - 900,000 refugees

Most Somali refugees have settled in Kenya, Ethiopia, or Yemen. Some have lived in massive refugee camps for years. About 100,000 have returned to the country since June 2016, largely due to the Kenyan government's intent to eventually close Dadaab, which at one time was the world's largest refugee camp. But the widespread humanitarian need continues as a result of conflict and recurring and severe drought inside Somalia. Within Somalia, an estimated 2.6 million people are displaced because of insecurity.

6. Sudan - 725,000 refugees

An economic crisis in Sudan that began in 2018 has been exacerbated by escalating violence and insecurity that continues following the overthrow of the Sudanese government in April 2019. Deteriorating conditions have led to displacement of about 1.9 million people within Sudan, along with about 725,000 people fleeing as refugees. At the end of 2018, Sudan was hosting more than 1 million refugees from other conflict-torn countries including South Sudan and Eritrea.

7. Democratic Republic of the Congo - 720,300 refugees

Conflict and food insecurity are driving people to flee the Democratic Republic of the Congo. More than 2 million people were newly displaced in 2017 and 2018, and more than 700,000 people from the DRC live in neighboring countries as refugees. Violence has also prevented containment of an Ebola outbreak that started in May 2018.

World Vision has reached more than 600,000 people in the DRC with humanitarian assistance since August 2017. In Uganda, where many DRC refugees have gone, World Vision is providing life-saving aid.
Chris Huber of World Vision's staff in the U.S. contributed to this article.

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Forced to flee: Top countries refugees are coming from | World Vision

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Around the world, 70.8 million people have been forcibly displaced. That's the most since World War II, according to the U.N. Refugee Agency (UNHCR). Most people remain displaced within their home countries, but about 25.9 million people worldwide have fled to other countries as refugees. More than half of refugees are children.

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B. Types of voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain,step, guest worker, and rural-to-urban

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B. Types of voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain,step, guest worker, and rural-to-urban

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Civil Rights and Labor History Consortium / University of Washington

Here are more than two dozen interactive maps and charts Migration is one of the great forces of history. When people move in large numbers they sometimes rearrange not only their own lives but also places they leave and the places they settle. Americans have always been a moving people, coming from other places, moving to new places. Not only has the nation long attracted people from other nations, it also claims high rates of internal migration. This project explores a number of consequential migrations--Great Migrations--that helped reshape culture, politics, or economic structures. It has five units, each with detailed information and interactive maps, charts, and data: (1) the migration of African Americans out of the South 1900-2000; (2) the enormously consequential migrations of Latinx Americans, both from Latin America and inside the US (1850-2017); (3) the diaspora of whites from the South to northern and western states; (4) the Dust Bowl migration to California from Oklahoma and neighboring states in the 1930s. (5) In addition, we provide migration histories for all fifty states showing decade-by-decade from 1850-2010 where residents have come from.

Most of these materials are from published and unpublished work by James Gregory, Professor of History, University of Washington.

Upwards of 7 million African Americans left the South during the 20th century, settling mostly in the big cities of the North and West. In doing so they transformed more than their own lives. This Great Migration transformed cities and set the foundations for reconstructions of race, politics, and even the regional balances of the nation. This section includes six interactive maps and charts and several interpretative essays.

Spanish-speaking people were living in what is now the United States decades before English-speaking people crossed the Atlantic seeking colonies. Centuries later when the United States annexed Florida, Louisiana, and the northern half of Mexico, more than 100,000 Spanish-speaking residents became US citizens. The 1850 US census, taken shortly after the conquest of Mexico, counted more than 80,000 former Mexicans, 2,000 Cubans and Puerto Ricans, and another 20,000 people from Central and South America. Today the descendants of those 1850 citizens are part of a Latinx American population that has grown enormously. As of 2017, more than 58 million Americans claimed Latin American heritage. This section includes six interactive maps and charts and a short interpretative essay.

More than 20 million whites left the South during the 20th century, vastly outnumbering the 7-8 African Americans who left. They were joined by nearly 1 million Latinx, mostly Tejanos, who moved west to California and north into the Midwest. This section shows migration patterns and explores the impacts of the southern diaspora. This section includes six interactive maps and tables as well interpretative essays.

The relocation to California of close to 400,000 Oklahomans, Texans, Arkansans, and Missourians during the Great Depression was the most publicized mass migration of that decade. Many faced unexpected difficulties, especially those who headed for California's Central Valley. Their plight caught the attention of journalists, photographers, and became the subject of one of the most celebrated American novels of the century, John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Here are three interactive maps as well as detailed accounts and primary sources.

Americans have always been a moving people, coming from other places, moving to new places. Not only has the nation long attracted people from other nations, it also claims high rates of internal migration. Here are interactive graphics and maps that allow us to track the changing population decade-by-decade since 1850. Select a state and see where people were born, both other countries and other states. We have more detail about key states, including racial breakdowns, see the separate pages for: California, Florida, Illinois, New York, Texas, and Washington state.

California's history is keyed to migration. The most populous state in the union became so because so many people from other states and other lands have moved there. It was not until 2010 that the number of native-born Californians surpassed the number who had migrated from somewhere else. And still today most adults are from another state or another country. [more]

More than any other southern state, Florida has consistantly attracted newcomers. Today only about one third of the population claims a Florida birthplace; two thirds are from somewhere else, many from Cuba and Latin America but really from every state and most nations. Migration to Florida is an old story, In the late 1800s, Florida grew rapidly as whites from neighborhing states moved south looking for land to farm. [more]

Illinois, like other midwestern states, experienced rapid population growth through migration in the 19th century and much slower growth since then. Recording a population of 851,000 in 1850, the state doubled its numbers by 1860, doubled again by 1880, and again before 1910. It has taken a century to double the 1910 total. Migration in the 19th century drew heavily on states to the east of Illinois, especially New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. European immigrants from Gemany and Ireland came in huge numbers in the same period. The 1880 census showed that roughly half the population were from out of state with Germany, New York, Ohio, and Ireland the leading contributors. [more]

New York has always been the gateway state, the state that absorbs the greatest diversity of newcomers from abroad. In 1850 when for the first time the US census recorded birthplaces, the leading birthplaces for residents not born in New York were in order: Ireland, Germany, England, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Jersey, and Canada, with a dozen other countries further down the list. [more]

Texas has been a migration magnet throughout its history, which helps explain the record of growth that now makes it the second most populous state following California. Migration, most of it illegal, from Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi fueled the rebellion that wrestled the province from Mexico in 1836. In the decades that followed an enormous number of southerners moved west to expand the cotton belt, many of them enslaved. [more]

Washington remains today a state where most residents came from somewhere else, another state or another country. Occupied by Americans since the 1840s, it's population grew slowly until statehood in 1889, then surged after the discovery of gold in Alaska and the Yukon in 1896. Farming, timber, and fishing attracted newcomers from the upper Midwest and from northern Europe, along with smaller numbers of Chinese and Japanese. [more]

This is a database of more than 700 books and articles, the most complete bibliography of each of the great migrations.

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Civil Rights and Labor History Consortium / University of Washington Here are more than two dozen interactive maps and charts Migration is one of the great forces of history. When people move in large numbers they sometimes rearrange not only their own lives but also places they leave and the places they settle.

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 2.12 Effects of Migration -  Explain historical and contemporary geographic effects of migration. 

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 2.12 Effects of Migration -  Explain historical and contemporary geographic effects of migration. 

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Economic

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The U.S. has a big advantage when it comes to a young labor pool - its population of immigrants. David Wessel of the Brookings Institution explains why to NPR's David Greene.

DAVID GREENE, HOST:

So the U.S., Europe, China and Japan have lots of differences but one common problem - their populations are aging. Each faces a future with a shortage of young workers, but the United States has one big advantage - immigrants. And we wanted to talk about this with David Wessel. He directs the Hutchins Center at the Brookings Institution and is a contributor to The Wall Street Journal.

Hi there, David.

DAVID WESSEL: Good morning.

GREENE: All right. So the oldest baby boomers are in their early 70s now. And you know, we hear so much about the graying of America. But how does our country compare to other big countries?

WESSEL: Well, we're all getting older - that is, the share of the population over age 65 is growing - both because each woman in these societies is having fewer kids and because life expectancies are rising. We're simply living longer. But this phenomenon is more rapid outside the United States. So if you look at projections - the Population Research Bureau has some - and you look ahead to 2050 - that's 30 years from now - about 22 percent of the people in the U.S. will be over 65. But it'll be 26 percent and China, 31 percent and Germany and 36 percent in Japan.

GREENE: All right. So I mentioned, though, that the United States has a real advantage. Describe it for me.

WESSEL: Right. The reason we say it's an advantage is because economics of this are straightforward. The more working-age people you have to support each retiree, the easier it will be for working-age people to both care for old folks and enjoy rising living standards themselves. So what we have in the U.S. is, simply, even though fertility is down here over time - fewer kids per woman than it used to be - we're still significantly more fertile than the rest of the world - or at least more than Germany, Italy, Japan and China.

And second, we have, as you said earlier, a lot more immigrants. If you can't grow your own, you can import them. And the immigrants are usually younger than the people already here, more likely to be workers than retirees. And immigrant women tend to have more kids than their native counterparts. So if you look ahead to 2050, the Pew Research Center says if we had no immigrants at all, the U.S. population would stop growing. The number of people dying would equal the number of births.

GREENE: OK. So a larger population - if we talk about economics, does faster-growing population also mean a faster-growing economy?

WESSEL: Yes. I mean, the more people, the more workers, the more consumers, the bigger the economy. But what really matters is not the top line GDP growth; it's how big the economy is per person. So if you think of Nigeria - Nigeria's population is growing at 2.6 percent a year. That means, in order to give the same amount of stuff to people, its economy has to grow by 2.6 percent a year. But in the U.S., our population is growing much more slowly despite immigration, less than 1 percent a year. So we can deliver more stuff per person with a much slower economic growth rate.

But I think the important thing is, it's not only the number of people that matters; it's their age. The more working people, the easier it is to care for the large and growing number of retirees - the more people paying taxes for Social Security, Medicare and so forth - and the more workers available to care for the growing number of elderly. And that's where immigration plays a really important role.

GREENE: So can we say definitively that immigrants are a plus for the overall economy, or is it complicated?

WESSEL: Well, it's really hard to talk emotionally about immigration. I'm the son of immigrants. But if you just look at government budgets, the National Academy of Sciences panel found that it's a plus for federal government and it's a minus for many state and local governments because they have to pay for schools for so many of the immigrants' kids.

GREENE: David Wessel of The Brookings Institution. Always great to talk to you, David. Thanks a lot.

WESSEL: You're welcome.

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The U.S. has a big advantage when it comes to a young labor pool - its population of immigrants. David Wessel of the Brookings Institution explains why to NPR's David Greene. DAVID GREENE, HOST: So the U.S., Europe, China and Japan have lots of differences but one common problem - their populations are aging.

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