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Being a Teen in Eastern Europe: Cyber Hacking

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Being a Teen in Eastern Europe: Cyber Hacking

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In early 2000, the Russian government claimed that the West was exaggerating the preponderance of youth online hacking into computer systems. Unfortunately, almost a decade later, Russia, and cyber crime gangs, have become the center of the computer hacking universe. Who is their target? We all are.

Until the past years, the computer hacking generally involved vandalizing web sites and generally fooling around online. Today, cyber gangs regularly hack into corporate and private computers to steal personal information, transfer money out of bank accounts, and gain access to government information.

The Russian school system has three kinds of educational facilities and student placement is based on examinations. Students are assigned to one of three paths – the 11 year school complex, the specialized technical school, or the vocational high school. Students attending the 11 year school complex often follow a program similar to most American high schools and they take extra humanities and natural science courses to prepare them to attend college. Students in the other tracks will prepare students for jobs. Russia has had excellent schools preparing students for jobs in the technology fields for decades, however, most researchers think that the schools are not necessarily providing the instruction on hacking – that is simply the desire of the students to do that on their own.

In urban areas there is more pressure to succeed in school and in the job market. Computer hackers – even those in their teens – have the potential to make tens of thousands of dollars a month. It is an alluring job prospect in a country with a struggling economy. Many Eastern European countries right now are facing a generational crisis. Young people are fleeing because they cannot find adequate paying jobs – leaving behind an aging population that will need more and more government services. Faced with these tough situations, it is no wonder that many teens are choosing the wrong path.

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"Armed with primitive personal computers and -- given the lack of well-paying jobs in Russia -- a lot of free time, Russians are earning an international reputation for hacking skills. … For young people in Russia, a country where … there is still a frustrating lack of jobs, hacking has become a subculture with a strong allure."

New York Times, 2000

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Even without climate change issues, buildings built on permafrost have potential structural issues because buildings generate heat and heat can cause some of the ice in the permafrost to melt and the resulting water is then displaced by the weight of the building. There are generally three ways to deal with permafrost: avoid it, destroy it, or preserve it. When contractors are scouting out sites for building structures, there are a few topographical clues they look for to determine if an area has permafrost or is permafrost free. In general, black spruce trees indicate hidden permafrost. Seeing birch, aspen, or white spruce often indicate permafrost-free areas. Additionally, permafrost is more common on north-facing slopes while it is less common on south-facing slopes.

What can be done? You might notice that most structures built in permafrost regions are built on stilts. This reduces the effect of the thaw freeze cycle that might affect the top surface layers of the soil. Sometimes roads are built on posts that are artificially cooled to reduce the potential for thaw. Installing insulation in the floors of new construction will also prevent the transfer of heat from the building to the ground. The heat stays in the building – not transferring through the ground! These are just a few ways to build on permafrost. Due to climate change, scientists are working even harder to develop more strategies to help build in these regions.

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About 20% of the surface of the earth is covered by permafrost. The rules governing building on permafrost have changed in recent years because of the simple fact that permafrost used to be permanent. Permafrost is defined as soil that has been frozen for a minimum of two years. However, due to climate change, there has been increasing instability of permafrost throughout northern Europe and in other regions.

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One of these worst cases of a nuclear disaster was in 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant located in Ukraine.

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By far the biggest concern with nuclear energy is the safety factor. The single greatest danger from an accident at a nuclear power plant is exposure to radiation. The worst-case scenario is a nuclear meltdown. A nuclear meltdown is not the same thing as a nuclear explosion! A nuclear meltdown occurs when the core of a nuclear reactor loses its coolant and essentially overheats. Radioactivity is able to escape if the meltdown is not caught in time. Two of the worst nuclear disasters occurred at Chernobyl in the Ukraine and Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania.

The disposal of nuclear waste is a serious concern in the debate over the use of nuclear energy. High-level radioactive waste is the spent, or used, uranium fuel from nuclear power plants. Low-level radioactive waste consists of items that have come in contact with radioactive materials, such as gloves, personal protective clothing, tools, water purification filters and resins, plant hardware, and wastes from reactor cooling-water cleanup systems. This material must be contained until it loses its radioactivity – 95% will lose its radioactivity back to ground level within 100 years or less – the remaining 5% will take up to 500 years.

Another significant concern associated with nuclear energy is the ability for countries or terrorist organizations to surreptitiously create nuclear warheads using nuclear materials bought or stolen from other nations. In 2005, electronic blueprints that gave comprehensive details about how to build and test equipment essential for making nuclear bombs vanished! According to UN investigators, they expected these drawings to be sold on the black market – possibly to terrorist organizations. In 2003, it was discovered that the scientist responsible for developing nuclear technology for Pakistan was smuggling information and equipment about building nuclear warheads to Libya and Iran.

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As of February 2009, 30 countries worldwide were operating 436 nuclear reactors for producing electricity and 44 new nuclear plants were under construction in 14 countries. The next generation of nuclear power plants being built in places like California and South Africa are even safer and more efficient than those currently in operation. In 2007, nuclear power plants provided about 14 percent of the world's electricity. Nuclear power plants generate heat from fission rather than burning fuel, so they produce no greenhouse gases or emissions associated with acid rain or urban smog. In the United States, approximately 20% of the nation’s electricity is provided by nuclear energy.

By far, the biggest benefit touted by supporters of nuclear energy, is the fact that nuclear energy is environmentally clean. Nuclear energy has been embraced by some countries more than others. In the 1980s, in response to concern over dependence on foreign oil, France nearly tripled its use of nuclear energy. During that same time period, the pollution in France from its electric power system saw an 80 to 90% reduction!

Another important factor is the cost of producing nuclear energy. The costs of generating electricity with nuclear energy include fuel, operations and management, as well as the management of nuclear waste. Since 2001, nuclear power plants have achieved lower production costs than coal, natural gas or oil.

Eastern Europe uses nuclear energy for electricity production at a higher proportion compared to other parts of the world. The following list organizes the top 12 countries in 2007 according to the percentage of their electricity generated from nuclear energy. Notice how many of these countries are Eastern European.

France: 76.8%

Lithuania: 64.4%

Slovakia: 54.3%

Belgium: 54.0%

Ukraine: 48.1%

Sweden: 46.1%

Armenia: 43.5%

Slovenia: 41.6%

Switzerland: 40.0%

Hungary: 36.8%

S. Korea: 35.3%

Bulgaria: 32.1%

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"Slovakian Mountains dominate the landscape, and bears, lynx and wolves are some of the unexpected locals. A bonus here is empty slopes, skiers mostly being Russians intent on committing crimes against ski fashion rather than heading downhill."

Quoted from an Eastern European Ski Blog

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Snow Sports: Tapping the Environment for Economic Gain

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Snow Sports: Tapping the Environment for Economic Gain

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Since the fall of communism in the early 1990s, many Eastern European countries have been spending large amounts of money to develop first class winter resorts. Two of the best ski resorts in Eastern Europe are Bansko in Bulgaria and Jasna in Slovakia. Bulgaria claims to have the "most modern resort in Eastern Europe" and attracts tourists from all over Europe and the world. In addition to developing beautiful mountain resorts, Slovakia has also capitalized on its many thermal springs by building spas, wellness centers, and over-the-top water parks.

Eastern Europe has mostly been substantially underpriced compared to the rest of Europe. Although prices have risen a bit in recent years, the cost of a ski vacation to some of these Eastern European resorts is estimated to be less than half the cost of a ski or snowboard vacation in the U.S. to a resort like Vail or Park City. Lift tickets, food, and accommodations are often ¼ or less the price of comparable items in the U.S. While a heli-skiing trip in Canada might cost $500, in Slovakia you would pay $50.

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Human Impact on the Environment of Eastern Europe

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Human Impact on the Environment of Eastern Europe

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When you think of Eastern Europe, do you think about ski slopes and geothermal spas? Although you were not born yet, have you heard about the disaster at Chernobyl? The human impact on the environment of Eastern Europe is wide-ranging. In this section we will explore the good, the bad, and the future of environmental issues in the region.

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The legacy of Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin can be felt in Eastern Europe to this day. Lenin was the first head of the Soviet state in 1917. He masterminded the Bolshevik (worker) revolution and the take-over of power in Russia from Tsar Nicholas II. Lenin’s target audience was the workers. His goal was to convert the economy of Russia to a Socialist model. When it stalled, he introduced the New Economic Policy. This policy allowed for some private ownership and, in fact, this model continued for some time after Lenin’s death. Lenin had a vision of a Socialist utopia – one that he was never able to see come to pass.

Following the death of Lenin in 1924, Joseph Stalin gained control of the Soviet Union. Stalin was ruthless and ambitious – under Stalin many people were killed or imprisoned. He ruled with an iron fist and used famine and terror to control the people. To modernize the economy of Russia, he created what he called Five Year Plans. These plans were designed to push the Soviet Union to be more competitive with the rest of the world and modernize the Soviet economy. Under these five year plans, each factory was given an impossibly high target to achieve. Although no factory could reach its goal, the five year plans did lead to increased outputs and some economic growth.

Today, the history and ideology of Lenin continues to be studied by citizens, politicians, and historians. Lenin was almost deified upon his death and such reverence has never quite waned. Many people have been able to overlook his shortcomings because of his message.

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Many people believe that the United States and the European Community should be ashamed of the way they allowed the crimes against humanity to continue in this region for so many years. At the beginning of the conflict, both the U.S. and the E.C. stood firmly on the side of Yugoslavia.

The Irish rock band, U2, with the help of the late opera singer, Luciano Pavarotti, recorded the following song, Miss Sarajevo, in response to the Balkan Crisis. The lyrics in English read as follows:

You say that the river
finds the way to the sea
and like the river
you will come to me
beyond the borders
and the dry lands
You say that like a river
like a river...
the love will come
the love...
And I don't know how to pray anymore
and in love I don't know how to hope anymore
and for that love I don't know how to wait anymore

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Bosnian Army: comprised of mainly Muslim forces; national army of Bosnia

Bosnian Croats: pro-Muslim; united with Bosnian government forces

Croatian Government: anti-Serb; allied with Muslims; Goal is to recover land gained by Serbs in 1991

Bosnian Serbs: seek to unite Serb territories; rebels supported by Yugoslavia

Croatian Serbs: support the Bosnian Serbs; Serb rebels active in Croatia

Many people believe that the United States and the European Community should be ashamed for the way they allowed the crimes against humanity to be perpetuated in this region for so many years. At the outset of the conflict, both the U.S. and the E.C. stood firmly on the side of Yugoslavia.

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In 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia after Yugoslavia failed to take adequate action to become a confederation of sovereign states. This prompted a huge uprising in the Balkans. Ethnic squabbles and general tensions turned sharply toward crisis level as the Serbian minority in Yugoslavia began a process of “ethnic cleansing.” Although the Serbs were the minority, they had the power of the federal army on their side. With the help of the federal army and the approval of the government, specifically Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic, 2 million people were driven from their homes and at least 20,000 people were killed.

In response to government-sanctioned murders and human rights violations, the United Nations kicked Yugoslavia out of its General Assembly. Slobodan Milosevic became the first sitting head of state to have charges brought against him by the U.N. for war crimes. He was arrested and detained at the U.N. Center near The Hague on the Netherlands in 2001. He died in prison in 2006. Milosevic was charged with 66 counts of crimes against humanity, genocide, and war crimes. During the trial, Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Wesley Clark, former commander of NATO, and even Bill Clinton, former U.S. President, were all subpoenaed to testify.

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Slovenia … a primarily Catholic republic; two million citizens total - about 50,000 ethnic Serbs.

Croatia … population of 4.5 million; almost 1 million Serbs live in two distinct portions of the country.

Bosnia … population is approximately 32% Serb, 42% Muslim Slav, and 18% Croat.

Serbs accounted for only nine million of Yugoslavia's population of 23.3 million yet the military is almost 70% Serbian.

The area has been fought over for centuries due to its important location as a crossroads in the region. The hilly locale is not desirable as a spot for agriculture but it is important in terms of trade and access. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Balkans came under the control of a wide assortment of rulers and was inhabited by quite a mix of religions and ethnicities. The country formerly known as Yugoslavia was not even created until after World War I – it was first known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The name Yugoslavia was adopted in 1929. For many years, the diverse, multi-ethnic peoples of the Balkan region were held together by communism. When communism in Eastern Europe started to fail, so too did the tenuous relationships between these adversarial groups. In the 1990s, as non-communist leaders were elected, more and more ethnic divisions began to resurface throughout the region.

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Take a close look at this map of different ethnicities in the Balkans region. The Illyrians, an Indo-European collection of tribes, are believed to be the first people that settled in the Balkans area in a region known recently as Yugoslavia. The Balkans Crisis did not simply begin in the 1990s. This crisis was generations in the making. The roots of the crisis can be found in history even before the birth of Christ. Problems grew during the Middle Ages and were strained during World War II and in the years following. The rivalries between Serbs, Croats, and Muslim communities date back centuries. For a problem so long in the making, there is certainly no short-term or quick fix solution.

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Almost two decades after the fall of communism, the governments of Eastern Europe are all tackling transitions away from a command economy and toward capitalism in different ways. Many of these countries are trying hard to establish stable democracies while simultaneously building a market system. Under previous communist or socialist political systems, equality and full employment were seen as important benefits that offset the restrictions and lack of freedoms. In a democratic system that embraces capitalism, the significant downside is unemployment and increased income inequality.

In the United States, companies that have been incredibly successful, even in serious economic recession, have been derogatorily accused of following Soviet-style command capitalism! What does that mean? Essentially, highly centralized management, tight information control, and a “take it or leave it” approach to business partners and employees all work together to help make Wal-Mart one of the biggest and most profitable corporations in the world. The countries of Eastern Europe – specifically Russia – are much more capitalistic than they have ever been before, but the government rules with a tight fist using highly centralized management, tight information control, and blatant scare tactics to motivate its citizens.

Young Eastern European democracies struggle because governments are young and untested and corruption is rampant. In an effort to offset this turmoil and corruption, Western Europe has made great efforts to help Eastern Europe develop and grow. In 1991, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development was founded to promote private companies and entrepreneurial initiatives throughout Eastern Europe. The EBRD helps countries in times of crisis and financially supports projects for sustainable development. The EBRD has grown substantially in recent years; it is currently co-owned by 61 countries.

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Communism and a command economy work well together, so to speak. As we learned in the previous unit, a command economy is one that is controlled by a central authority – usually the government. The government controls the resources, allocates the resources, and dictates the use of resources and the allocation of the products created from those resources. Communism and a command economy are not synonymous; however, most Eastern European countries under communism practiced a command economic system. If you look at the map below, you will notice that communism expanded throughout the countries of Eastern Europe in the 1940s and 1950s – around the years of World War II and after.

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Today, more than 300 million Christians are members of the Orthodox Church. The word orthodox is defined as meaning "strict followers." The term Orthodox Christian applies to Christians who are extremely observant of apostolic tradition. Orthodox Christians believe that their way is the only right way – the other followers of Christianity are heretics. In recent years, the tension has somewhat subsided between Orthodox Christians and other sects of Christianity because Eastern Orthodox churches are self-governing. It is up to individual churches to decide how and if they interact with other Christians. There is no equivalent to the Vatican – the center of Roman Catholicism – but, following the Great Schism of 1054, Constantinople emerged as the center of Orthodox Christianity and was referred to as the New Rome.

Historians believe that the Orthodox Church is invaluable for many reasons apart from the religious aspect. Because the goal of the Eastern Orthodox Church has been to maintain the rich liturgical tradition passed down from the earliest times of Christianity, we can see historical traditions alive today. The art and music of the Eastern Orthodox Church is even studied in secular classrooms all over the world. The first image for this section was a beautiful stained glass window from an Eastern Orthodox Church in Poland. Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that art and music plays a very functional role in the liturgical life and that beautiful and ornate artwork and music help people feel the spiritual largesse of the mysteries of God.

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As you can see from the chart below, the Great Schism of 1054 resulted in the sharp division of Christianity into two distinct branches. This division was the result of years and years of tension between the East and the West that began in the early centuries of the Common Era and lasted into the Middle Ages. Political events, linguistic differences, and cultural differences all contributed to the process of estrangement between the two sides. The importance of Jesus Christ is central to all Christians, but the followers who separated from the western followers of Christianity believe that Jesus Christ is the true head of the Church. They do not have a pope or a pontiff that is seen as the head of their religion. In fact, the Orthodox Church is not even in communication with the Roman Catholic and Protestant communities because their dogmatic differences are so serious.

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Chances are that your parents and teachers were alive when the Berlin Wall fell and communism began to collapse throughout Eastern Europe in the late 1980s. However, you, most likely, were not even born yet! Research the fall of the Berlin Wall by doing an Internet search using these key words: Berlin Wall video. Locate videos or images of the wall coming down. Take note of the people in the video coverage – their ages, their ethnicities, the languages they speak. What do you notice? Any similarities? Differences?

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The countries of Eastern Europe are similar in that they all have a rich cultural heritage based on traditions that have been centuries in the making. As we have learned, the term “Eastern Europe” applies more to the people and the culture than it does to specific political boundaries. In this section, we will explore religion, politics, economics, and conflict in Eastern Europe and take a closer look at the people and culture of Eastern Europe.

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Rivers, as well as lakes, provide stunning beauty and practicality. The Volga River, the longest river in Europe, carries about half of all the river freight in Russia and is even referred to as the Mother Volga by the Russian people. The Volga is critical to the region! Over half of the Russian population lives on or near the Volga River. Tourists and locals camp on the river, farmers depend on the river for irrigation, and industry uses the river for shipping.

Second to the Volga, in terms of size and importance, is the Danube River. The Danube River has had such international notoriety that perhaps you are even familiar with the Blue Danube Waltz? Today, tourists can even take a cruise down the Danube River.

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Skiers, snowboarders, and mountain climbers regularly plan adventures to the mountain resorts for a relaxing vacation or an adrenaline filled adventure. Mount Elbrus, a mountain peak located in the western Caucasus mountains, in Russia, near the border of Georgia, is the highest mountain in Europe. Thrill seekers travel from all over the world to conquer its peak! Other visitors trek through the Carpathian mountains – found throughout the countries of Poland, the Ukraine, and Romania, while still many more are mesmerized by the beauty of the Alps. On this page, you can see a view of the north side of Mount Jalovec, found in the Julian Alps of Slovenia. Mount Grintovec and Mount Skuta also attract visitors. Both the Julian Alps and the Kamnik Alps of Slovenia are part of the Southern Limestone Alps found in the north of Slovenia near the Austrian border.

Other locals as well as visitors are attracted to Eastern Europe because of the beautiful lakes.

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Mountains and Waterways of Eastern Europe

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Mountains and Waterways of Eastern Europe

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The physical features found throughout most of Eastern Europe are stunning. Beautiful mountain ranges, long and winding waterways, and pristine lakes all add to the allure of the area. Although tourists travel from all over the world to visit Eastern Europe for its rich culture and history, many come back for its beauty.

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The Caucasus Mountains are a great historic barrier that stretches across the isthmus separating the Black Sea from the Caspian Sea. The forests of the Caucasus range cover about 17% of the Caucasus range. How similar are the Caucasus Forests of Russia to forests in North America?

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Among the countries of Eastern Europe and Russia, a variety of climates can be found in this vast region. However, in spite of this wide variety of climate, these nations struggle with harnessing their natural resources. Formidable obstacles such as climate, difficult terrain, and distance between cities and towns mean that natural resources remain largely untapped. Almost ½ of Russia (46%) is made up of permanent forests, only 4% is used as permanent pasture land, and only 8% is even arable – capable of producing crops or suitable for farming. Although 8% of the land is arable, none of it is used for permanent cropland.

Due to a lack of proper soils and favorable climates, there is not as much agriculture in Eastern Europe as can be found in Western Europe. In most of Central and Eastern Europe, the climate is of the humid continental-type with cool summers. The country of Poland has both a maritime and a continental climate due to humid Atlantic air which collides over its territory with dry air from the Eurasian interior. This results in incredibly variant seasons from year to year. In fact, Poland experiences six distinct seasons throughout the year: the four typical European seasons of Summer, Fall, Winter, and Spring, but it also has a season known as Early-Spring (przedwiosnie) and Early Winter (przedzimie).

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In spite of the harsh impact of global warming, the ecological changes are not causing any animals to commit suicide – contrary to popular belief. Have you ever heard the phrase, “Like lemmings to a cliff?” For decades, a scientific myth has been perpetuated that these rodents migrate together in large groups and, at times, run straight off the edges of cliffs, plunging to their deaths. Believe it or not, scientists have studied this for decades and no one has been able to prove any such behavior. For no apparent reason, the population of lemmings experiences sharp increases and decreases every 4 to 10 years. People have latched on to the idea that these little creatures are “suicidal rodents” but there really is no evidence to support that belief.

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Impact of Tundra on the Ecosystems of Eastern Europe

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Impact of Tundra on the Ecosystems of Eastern Europe

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The tundra is a mainly frozen, treeless plain. The low temperatures and short growing seasons hinder tree growth. The only flora one can see in this region is generally mosses, lichen, and short stubby trees. Animals such as reindeer, or caribou, subsist on this growth.

Permafrost only occurs in the tundra and tundra-forest biomes of Eastern Europe. Permafrost is supposed to be permanently frozen subsoil. Unfortunately, the permafrost has been less than permanent in recent years. This is impacting the caribou, polar bears, snowy owls, and even grasshoppers found in the arctic tundra region. Reindeer were domesticated almost 2000 years ago and are currently herded by native peoples of northern Europe and Asia. The impact of global warming has had a negative effect on the eating patterns and fertility patterns of these animals.

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The line where trees no longer grow is called a timberline.

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This second photo was taken in the Siberian Taiga.

In the next photo, there is a line where the regional biome no longer supports tree growth.

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That photo was a picture of a tundra biome in Eastern Europe.

Can you identify the type of biome in the next photo?

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Examine these three photos. Can you tell what region is photographed in the first picture?

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Mainly found in the tundra regions of Eastern and Central Europe, permafrost, a layer of perennially frozen subsoil, lies beneath the surface. Recently, permafrost, which is supposed to be continuously frozen, has been thawing in some places. This photo is a picture of what is referred to as a "drunken forest." Because the trees roots are shallow, when the permafrost melts, the trees start to tip over. The melting of this permafrost throughout the Northern Hemisphere has been altering ecosystems and damaging roads and buildings across Russia and other countries of Eastern Europe.

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North of the taiga biome can be found the frozen tundra. The tundra is a mostly flat and frozen treeless plain found throughout the arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. Animals such as caribou depend on the lichen, mosses, and stunted shrubs of the tundra for food.

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Another interesting geographical feature of the Scandinavian region is the taiga. Taiga is a term referring to a subarctic biome containing wide swaths of evergreen, coniferous forests found in northern Europe and Asia below the arctic tundra. The taiga biome covers vast areas of northern North America and Eurasia.

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There are many unique geographical features present throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Have you ever seen a beautiful fjord? The country of Norway is famous for the thousands of these long, narrow arms of the sea bordered by steep cliffs – most of them caused by glacial erosion.

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Physical Systems and Processes of Eastern Europe

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Physical Systems and Processes of Eastern Europe

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Strolling reindeer, pristine lakes, beautiful mountain tops … all of these physical features can be found in Eastern Europe. In this section, we will explore the physical systems and processes of Eastern Europe. We will study relevant geographical terms, take a look at different climate regions and compare the topography of Eastern Europe to the United States.

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Russia is an incredibly vast country. No other country in the world encompasses 11 time zones! Russia essentially wraps itself around the Arctic Circle. Although we might think of approaching Russia from the United States by flying over the Atlantic Ocean and traveling through Europe, did you know that you could also reach Russia by traveling through Alaska? The Bering Strait separates Russia from Alaska – mainland Alaska is only about 50 miles from mainland Russia. During the 2008 presidential elections, Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin, Governor of Alaska, referred to the proximity of Russia to Alaska when discussing her experience with foreign policy. Although her comment was widely criticized by television news casts and late night talk shows, she raised an important issue – Russia is our neighbor!

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Do you remember which mountain range divides Russia into an Asian and European Section?

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Do you remember which mountain range divides Russia into an Asian and European Section?

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Did you say, the Ural Mountains? Good job!

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As we have learned, one can describe the relative location of a place in many different ways. To describe the relative location of Russia, we could say that Russia is west of China or that the Arctic Ocean borders Russia to the north. We could also identify the position of Russia within the hemispheres – Russia is located in both the northern and eastern hemispheres. We have already learned that Russia can be divided into an Asian and a European section.

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The Eastern Highlands encompasses a region of complex systems of mountain ranges and uplands that begin at the Lena River and ends at the Pacific Ocean.

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The region directly east of the West Siberian Plain is the Central Siberian Plateau. The Central Siberian Plateau stretches from the Yenisei River to the Lena River. The traditional dividing line between the east and the west of Russia is the Yenisei Valley. The Yenisei River delineates the western edge of the Central Siberian Plateau from the West Siberian Plain. This region encompasses land of varying elevations and topography. The Altai Mountains, found in this region, is where the countries of Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan come together. The Central Siberian Plateau is mostly made up of wilderness – especially in the north. Permanently frozen ground lies beneath much of the area.

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The West Siberian Plain is located in central Russia. It is one of the world’s largest regions of continuous flatland. The extraordinary flat land of the West Siberian Plain stretches from the Ural Mountains for 1,200,000 square miles to the Yenisei River Valley and is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean. In the 1970s and 1980s, the West Siberian Plain was the source of most of Russia’s oil and gas production.

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The Russian Plain is also known as the Eastern European Plain. The Russian Plain is the largest mountain-free area of Russia. This Eastern European Plain stretches from eastern Poland to the Ural Mountains and encompasses all of the Baltic countries, Belarus, most of the Ukraine, and parts of western Russia. The entire region referred to as the Russian Plain is lower than 1500 feet in elevation.

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Russia is often divided into four physical regions: the Russian Plain, the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and Eastern Highlands.

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The Ural and Caucasus Mountains of Eastern Europe are two of the most well known and most important mountain ranges in the region. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains, in fact, form part of the natural boundary between Europe and Asia.

The Caucasus Mountains travel east-west through the countries of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and southwest Russia, and are made up of two separate mountain systems – the Greater Caucasus Range and the Lesser Caucasus Range. Mount Elbrus, Russia’s highest elevation, is located in the Caucasus Mountains and is one of the seven highest peaks in the world! The Caucasus Mountains can be found on the isthmus that separates the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.

The Ural Mountains run north-south for over 2000 kilometers through Russia. Although the Ural Mountains are some of the oldest mountain ranges in the world, they are quite high! The Urals are generally divided into five regions - Southern, Middle, Northern, Pre-Polar (the highest mountains) and Polar. The Ural Mountains hold vast mineral wealth. Over the years, erosion in the Ural Mountains has exposed many valuable minerals such as topaz and beryl.

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an important Russian city on the Baltic Sea, was established by Peter the Great, named after Saint Peter, in 1703 as the capital of the Russian Empire. Today, although St. Petersburg is no longer the capital of Russia, it is often referred to as the northern capital of Russia due to the fact that many foreign consulates, international corporations, and banking centers are located there. St. Petersburg is a political as well as cultural center and has been described as the most "Western" Russian city because it is a major cultural center of Europe, not only Russia. St. Petersburg has become an important tourist destination as well. Many cruise ships dock and European tours include St. Petersburg on their itinerary.

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a former capital of Poland, is today the most visited tourist destination in the country. Krakow is home to 1 million people and remains an integral center of business, culture, and education. People from all over Europe and the world travel to Krakow to examine its architectural beauties and explore its rich history. Today, Krakow is considered Poland’s southern metropolis, and continues to attract visitors to its famous historical sites as well as its fabulous restaurants!

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a beautiful city in Croatia, is one of those cities recently declared by the UN to be a World Heritage Site. Dubrovnik has been termed the "pearl of the Adriatic." While staying in Dubrovnik in 1929, playwright George Bernard Shaw said: "If you want to see heaven on earth, come to Dubrovnik". Dubrovnik is situated in Southern Dalmatia, what many claim is the most beautiful part of the Adriatic coast. Dubrovnik has an incredible historic tradition due mainly to its location on the Adriatic Sea. Dubrovnik is known for its lush vegetation, beautiful lakes, rare islands, white pebble beaches, and the beautiful sea.

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Dubrovnik, Krakow, and St. Petersburg are just a few of the important cities of Eastern Europe that are not also capital cities. Many of the cities of Eastern Europe are currently undergoing major restoration and renovation projects to preserve aging historical features that have been damaged due to nature, war, or simply time.

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Countries and Capitals of Eastern Europe

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Countries and Capitals of Eastern Europe

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Eastern Europe is a term that refers to the countries of the easternmost part of the European continent. The use of the term dates back to the years following World War II when Europe was divided based on what areas were under Soviet control and what areas were allied with the United States and "western" countries. The term is more political and cultural than it is strict in a geographical boundary sense.

Russia is the largest country in Eastern Europe, although if you notice on the map, most of the landmass of Russia is actually considered to be part of the continent of Asia. Slovenia is the smallest Eastern European country – with a population of only 2 million people.

The CIA World Fact Book divides the countries of central and eastern Europe into the following categories:

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This interactive map of the world shows the various regions we are going to cover in this course. Select a region to zoom in and see the different countries within each region. Explore Eastern Europe to learn a little about the geography of the region we are covering in this unit. Then download the following Capitals of Eastern Europe Map (DOCX) and study guide (DOCX) to help you study the capitals of Eastern Europe.