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Situational stress tests (SStTs) or Inventories (SSIs) are a type of psychological test which present the test-taker with realistic, hypothetical scenarios and ask the individual to identify the most appropriate response or to rank the responses in the order they feel is most effective. Participants are presented with work-specific situations and asked to judge how they would respond to a potential work dilemma. Respondents review a range of multiple-choice answer options to determine which is their preferred solution.

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The tool is used to know from others where an individual stands in terms of some personality traits. It reflects the impression one has made upon the person who rates them

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Nomination technique is a method of assessing sociometric status in which participants are asked to nominate or rank their peers by the variable of interest. The peer nomination technique is commonly utilized to assess peer relations or observable individual characteristics.

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This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without system.

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Observation Method in Psychology: Naturalistic, Participant and Controlled

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Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying out research in psychology. However, there are different types of observational methods, and distinctions need to be made between: 1. Controlled

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It is a technique of getting information directly from the subject about his personality in face to face approach.

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The Interview Research Method

By Dr. Saul McLeod, published 2014

Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaires methods, researchers need training in how to interview (which costs money).

Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn generate different types of data. For example, closed questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words.

Quite often interviews will be recorded by the researcher and the data written up as a transcript (a written account of interview questions and answers) which can be analyzed at a later date.

It should be noted that interviews may not be the best method to use for researching sensitive topics (e.g. truancy in schools, discrimination etc.) as people may feel more comfortable completing a questionnaire in private.

Structured Interview

A structured interview is a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which he/she reads out exactly as worded.

Interviews schedules have a standardized format which means the same questions are asked to each interviewee in the same order (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1. An example of an interview schedule

The interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule (except to clarify the meaning of the question) or probe beyond the answers received.

A structured interview is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

Strengths

2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the interview flow like a natural conversation. The interviewer modifies his or her questions to suit the candidate's specific experiences.

Unstructured interviews are sometimes referred to as 'discovery interviews' and are more like a 'guided conservation' than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.

Strengths

1. Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents' answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule.

2. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person's understanding of a situation.

Limitations

1. It can be time-consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis).

Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview is a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues. The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population.

The role of the interview moderator is to make sure the group interact with each other and do not drift off-topic. Ideally, the moderator will be similar to the participants in terms of appearance, have adequate knowledge of the topic being discussed, and exercise mild unobtrusive control over dominant talkers and shy participants.

A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a focus group interview. For example, certain skills may be needed by the moderator including the ability to establish rapport and knowing when to probe.

Strengths

Limitations

1. Group interviews generate qualitative narrative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondents to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person's understanding of a situation. Qualitative data also includes observational data, such as body language and facial expressions.

The Interviewer Effect

1. The researcher must ensure that they keep all the interviewees' details confidential and respect their privacy. This is difficult when using a group interview. For example, the researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in the group will keep information private.

2. Group interviews may sometimes lack validity as participants may lie to impress the other group members. They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.

Because an interview is a social interaction the appearance or behavior of the interviewer may influence the answers of the respondent. This is a problem as it can bias the results of the study and make them invalid.

For example, the gender, ethnicity, body language, age, and social status of the interview can all create an interviewer effect.

For example, if a researcher was investigating sexism amongst males, would a female interview be more preferable than a male? It is possible that if a female interviewer was used male participants may lie (i.e. pretend they are not sexist) to impress the interviewer, thus creating an interviewer effect.

Design of Interviews

First, you must choose whether to use a structured or non-structured interview.

Next, you must consider who will be the interviewer, and this will depend on what type of person is being interviewed. There are a number of variables to consider:

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Gender and age: This can have a big effect on respondent's answers, particularly on personal issues.

Personal characteristics: Some people are easier to get on with than others. Also, the accent and appearance (e.g. clothing) of the interviewer can have an effect on the rapport between the interviewer and interviewee.

Also, the language the interviewer uses should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. For example, the researcher must change the language of questions to match the social background of respondents' age / educational level / social class / ethnicity etc. <

The interviewer must ensure that they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as children. For example, children have a limited attention span and for this reason, lengthy interviews should be avoided.

Ethnicity: People have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group.

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By Dr. Saul McLeod, published 2014 Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaires methods, researchers need training in how to interview (which costs money). Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn generate different types of data.

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Behavior analysis is a natural science that seeks to understand the behavior of individuals. That is, behavior analysts study how biological, pharmacological, and experiential factors influence the behavior of humans and nonhuman animals.

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It is designed to ferret people's basic need by having them tell stories. It was designed by Henry C.Murray and Christian D. Morgan.
The tester presents a series of questions and the test taker has to make a story.

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The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a type of projective test that involves describing ambiguous scenes. Popularly known as the "picture interpretation technique," it was developed by American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan at Harvard University in the 1930s.﻿﻿ To date, the TAT is one of the most widely researched and clinically used personality tests.

How the TAT Works

The TAT involves showing people a series of picture cards depicting a variety of ambiguous characters (that may include men, women, and/or children), scenes, and situations.

They are then asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented, including:

what has led up to the event shown

what is happening in the scene

the thoughts and feelings of characters

the outcome of the story

The complete version of the TAT includes 31 cards. Murray originally recommended using approximately 20 cards and selecting those that depicted characters similar to the subject.

Today, many practitioners only utilize between 5 and 12 cards, often selected because the examiner feels that the scene matches the client's needs and situation.﻿﻿

Why the TAT Is Used

The TAT can be utilized by therapists in a number of different ways. Some of these include:﻿﻿

To learn more about a person. In this way, the test acts as something of an icebreaker while providing useful information about potential emotional conflicts the client may have.

To help people express their feelings. The TAT is often used as a therapeutic tool to allow clients to express feelings in a non-direct way. A client may not yet be able to express a certain feeling directly, but they might be able to identify the emotion when viewed from an outside perspective.

To explore themes related to the person's life experiences. Clients dealing with problems such as job loss, divorce, or health issues might interpret the ambiguous scenes and relating to their unique circumstances, allowing deeper exploration over the course of therapy.

To assess someone for psychological conditions. The test is sometimes used as a tool to assess personality or thought disorders.

To evaluate crime suspects. Clinicians may administer the test to criminals to assess the risk of recidivism or to determine if a person matches the profile of a crime suspect.

To screen job candidates.This is sometimes used to determine if people are suited to particular roles, especially positions that require coping with stress and evaluating vague situations such as military leadership and law enforcement positions.

Criticisms

The TAT is often criticized for not being standardized, meaning there are no rules of administration or formal scoring system. Clinicians often vary in how they administer the test. Additionally, few practitioners use Murray's complex scoring system and instead rely on their subjective interpretation and clinical opinion.

For example, even if clinicians use the same scoring system, they may use different cards or a different number of cards. This makes it incredibly difficult to obtain estimates of reliability and validity,﻿﻿ and almost impossible to compare results.

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What Is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

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The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a type of projective test that involves describing ambiguous scenes. Popularly known as the "picture interpretation technique," it was developed by American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan at Harvard University in the 1930s.﻿﻿ To date, the TAT is one of the most widely researched and clinically used personality tests.

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A method in which the test taker responds to ambiguous and vague stimuli. The basic idea is that the way people respond to the unstructured stimuli is often a projection of their underlying feelings and motives.

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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical issues. It was developed by Starke R. Hathway and J.C Mckinley

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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used and researched clinical assessment tool used by mental health professionals to help diagnose mental health disorders.

Originally developed in the late 1930s, the test has been revised and updated several times to improve accuracy and validity. The MMPI-2 consists of 567 true-false questions and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete, while the MMPI-2-RF has 338 true-false questions, taking 35 to 50 minutes to finish.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed in 1937 by clinical psychologist Starke R. Hathaway and neuropsychiatrist J. Charnley McKinley at the University of Minnesota.

Today, it's the most frequently used clinical testing instrument and is one of the most researched psychological tests in existence. While the MMPI is not a perfect test, it remains a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

The MMPI is most commonly used by mental health professionals to assess and diagnose mental illness, but it has been utilized in other fields outside of clinical psychology. The MMPI-2 is often used in legal cases, including criminal defense and custody disputes.

The test has also been used as a screening instrument for certain professions, especially high-risk jobs, although using it in this manner has been controversial. It's also used to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment programs, including substance abuse programs.

In the years after the test was first published, clinicians and researchers began to question the accuracy of the MMPI. Critics pointed out that the original sample group was inadequate. Others argued that the results indicated possible test bias, while others felt the test itself contained sexist and racist questions.

In response to these issues, the MMPI underwent a revision in the late 1980s. Many questions were removed or reworded while a number of new questions were added. Additionally, new validity scales were incorporated in the revised test.

The revised edition of the test was released in 1989 as the MMPI-2. The test received revision again in 2001 and updates in 2003 and 2009, and it's still in use today as the most frequently used clinical assessment test.

The most recent edition of the test, published in 2008, is known as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form ( MMPI-2-RF), an alternative to the MMPI-2. However, the MMPI-2 is still used more often than the MMPI-2-RF.

There is also an MMPI, published in 1992, that's geared toward adolescents aged 14 to 18 years old called the MMPI-A. With 478 questions, it takes about an hour to complete.

In 2016, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent-Restructured Form ( MMPI-A-RF) was published. Like the MMPI-2-RF, it's shorter, with just 241 questions that take 25 to 45 minutes to answer.

Administration

The MMPI-2 contains 567 test items and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. The MMPI-2-RF contains 338 questions and takes around 35 to 50 minutes to finish.

Additionally, the MMPI is copyrighted by the University of Minnesota, which means clinicians must pay to administer and utilize the test.

The MMPI should be administered, scored, and interpreted by a professional, preferably a clinical psychologist or psychiatrist, who has received special training in MMPI use.

The MMPI can be administered individually or in groups and computerized versions are available as well. Both the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF are designed for individuals age 18 years and older.

The test can be scored by hand or by a computer, but the results should always be interpreted by a qualified mental health professional that has had extensive training in MMPI interpretation.

10 Clinical Scales

The MMPI-2 and MMPI-A have 10 clinical scales that are used to indicate different psychological conditions, though the MMPI-2-RF and the MMPI-A-RF use different scales.

Despite the names given to each scale, they are not a pure measure since many conditions have overlapping symptoms. Because of this, most psychologists simply refer to each scale by number.

Here's a brief overview of the clinical scales on the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-A.

Scale 1-Hypochondriasis

This scale was designed to assess a neurotic concern over bodily functioning. The items on this scale concern physical symptoms and well-being. It was originally developed to identify people displaying the symptoms of hypochondria, or a tendency to believe that one has an undiagnosed medical condition.

Scale 2-Depression

This scale was originally designed to identify depression, characterized by poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and general dissatisfaction with one's own life situation. Very high scores may indicate depression, while moderate scores tend to reveal a general dissatisfaction with one's life.

Scale 3-Hysteria

The third scale was originally designed to identify those who display hysteria or physical complaints in stressful situations. Those who are well-educated and of a high social class tend to score higher on this scale. Women also tend to score higher than men on this scale.

Scale 4-Psychopathic Deviate

Originally developed to identify psychopathic individuals, this scale measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of authority, and amorality (a disregard for morality). This scale can be thought of as a measure of disobedience and antisocial behavior.

High scorers tend to be more rebellious, while low scorers are more accepting of authority. Despite the name of this scale, high scorers are usually diagnosed with a personality disorder rather than a psychotic disorder.

Scale 5-Masculinity-Femininity

This scale was designed by the original authors to identify what they referred to as homosexual tendencies, for which it was largely ineffective. Today, it is used to assess how much or how little a person identifies how rigidly an individual identifies with stereotypical male and female gender roles.

Scale 6-Paranoia

This scale was originally developed to identify individuals with paranoid symptoms such as suspiciousness, feelings of persecution, grandiose self-concepts, excessive sensitivity, and rigid attitudes. Those who score high on this scale tend to have paranoid or psychotic symptoms.

Scale 7-Psychasthenia

This diagnostic label is no longer used today and the symptoms described on this scale are more reflective of anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. This scale was originally used to measure excessive doubts, compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable fears.

Scale 8-Schizophrenia

This scale was originally developed to identify individuals with schizophrenia. It reflects a wide variety of areas including bizarre thought processes and peculiar perceptions, social alienation, poor familial relationships, difficulties in concentration and impulse control, lack of deep interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and self-identity, and sexual difficulties.

The scale can also show potential substance abuse, emotional or social alienation, eccentricities, and a limited interest in other people.

Scale 9-Hypomania

This scale was developed to identify characteristics of hypomania such as elevated mood, hallucinations, delusions of grandeur, accelerated speech and motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas, and brief periods of depression.

Scale 0-Social Introversion

This scale was developed later than the other nine scales. It's designed to assess a person's shyness and tendency to withdraw from social contacts and responsibilities.

Validity Scales

All of the MMPI tests use validity scales of varying sorts to help assess the accuracy of each individual's answers. Since these tests can be used for circumstances like employment screenings and custody hearings, test takers may not be completely honest in their answers.

Validity scales can show how accurate the test is, as well as to what degree answers may have been distorted. The MMPI-2 uses the following scales.

Also referred to as the lie scale, this "uncommon virtues" validity scale was developed to detect attempts by individuals to present themselves in a favorable light.

People who score high on this scale deliberately try to present themselves in the most positive way possible, rejecting shortcomings or unfavorable characteristics.

This scale is used to detect attempts at overreporting. Essentially, people who score high on this scale are trying to appear worse than they really are, they may be in severe psychological distress, or they may be just randomly answering questions without paying attention to what the questions say.

This scale asks questions designed to determine if test-takers are contradicting themselves in their responses.

Sometimes referred to as the "defensiveness scale," this scale is a more effective and less obvious way of detecting attempts to present oneself in the best possible way by underreporting.

People may underreport because they're worried about being judged or they may be minimizing their problems or denying that they have any problems at all.

Also known as the "cannot say" scale, this validity scale assesses the number of items left unanswered. The MMPI manual recommends that any test with 30 or more unanswered questions be declared invalid.

The True Response Inconsistency Scale (TRIN) was developed to detect people who use fixed responding, a method of taking the test without regard to the question, such as marking ten questions "true," the next ten as "false," and so on.

Fixed responding could be used due to not being able to read or comprehend the test material well or being defiant about having to take the test. This section consists of 20 paired questions that are the opposite of each other.

The Variable Response Inconsistency Scale (VRIN) is another method developed to detect inconsistent, random responses. Like fixed responding, this can be intentional or it can be due to not understanding the material or not being able to read it.

The Fb Scale

This scale is designed to show changes in how a person responded in the first half of the test versus how he or she responded in the second half by using questions that most normal respondents didn't support.

High scores on this scale sometimes indicate that the respondent stopped paying attention and began answering questions randomly. It can also be due to over or underreporting, fixed responding, becoming tired, or being under severe stress.

The Fp Scale

This scale helps detect intentional overreporting in people who have a mental health disorder of some sort or who were using random or fixed responding.

The FBS Scale

The "symptom validity" scale is used for people who are taking the test because they're claiming that they had a personal injury or disability. This scale can help establish the credibility of the test taker.

The "superlative self-presentation" scale was developed in 1995 to look for additional underreporting. It also has sub-scales that assess the test taker's belief in human goodness, serenity, contentment with life, patience/denial of irritability, and denial of moral flaws.

A Word From Verywell

If you've been asked to take the MMPI, there isn't anything you need to do prepare. Instead, be ready to answer the questions as honestly as possible. If you have questions, you should be given the opportunity to ask beforehand by the test administrator.

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The History and Use of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used and researched clinical assessment tool used by mental health professionals to help diagnose mental health disorders. Originally developed in the late 1930s, the test has been revised and updated several times to improve accuracy and validity.

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It is a tol for securing aswers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills himself. It a form which asks questions or give simple statement to be marked yes or no, true or false.
CHARACTERISTICS;
1- It is general device and can be used for collecting all kinds of information.
2- The questions, set in the questionaire are generally addressable to the second person.

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A personality inventory is a self-assessment tool that reveals information about individuals' social traits, motivations, strengths and weaknesses, and attitudes.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1- It is specially designed to seek answers about the person and his personality.
2- Questions are usually addressed to the first person.

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A self-report is any test, measure, or survey that relies on an individual's own report of their symptoms, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes. Self-report data is gathered typically from paper-and-pencil or electronic format, or sometimes through an interview.