# data[].attributes.body
Situated along the edge of Jurong Lake, Rasau Walk is a 300m boardwalk that meanders through clusters of Nibong (Oncosperma tigillarium), Sealing Wax Palm (Cyrtostachys renda), and Rasau (Pandanus spp.).

A restored freshwater swamp, Rasau Walk contains over 50 species of plants, which are found in naturally occurring freshwater swamp forests.

The boardwalk is is made from Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete (GFRC) for greater durability and sustainability and the Corten steel edges gives the boardwalk and rustic, industrial look. The interface between land and water also provides feeding opportunities for a large variety of shore birds, such as the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) and White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus).

# data[].attributes.body
Dominated by tall grasses, Grasslands are an important habitat for many small bird species that feed on grass seeds and seek shelter in the grass. There are three bird hides located around the Grasslands.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The zitting cisticola or streaked fantail warbler ( Cisticola juncidis) is a widely distributed Old World warbler whose breeding range includes southern Europe, Africa (outside the deserts and rainforest), and southern Asia down to northern Australia. A small bird found mainly in grasslands, it is best identified by its rufous rump; as well, it lacks any gold on the collar and the brownish tail is tipped with white. During the breeding season, males have a zigzagging flight display accompanied by regular "zitting" calls that have been likened to repeated snips of a scissor. They build their pouch nest suspended within a clump of grass.

The zitting cisticola was described by the naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1810 and given the binomial name Sylvia juncidis. The type locality is Campofelice di Roccella in Sicily. The current genus name Cisticola is from Ancient Greek kisthos, " rock-rose", and Latin colere, "to dwell". The specific juncidis is also from Latin and is a diminutive of iuncus, reed".

Across their wide distribution range, several variations in populations have been noted and as many as 18 subspecies are recognized. They differ slightly in calls, plumage and size and some have been considered full species in some taxonomic treatments. The nominate form is found in southern France, Greece, Turkey, Sicily, Corsica and Egypt while western Portugal and Spain have cisticola. The population in Palestine, Syria, Iraq and Iran is neuroticus while the northern and eastern African population is uropygialis and perennius (further south). Gabon, Angola, and southern Africa are home to terrestris. The population in the Western Ghats of India, salimalii, does not show seasonal tail length variation as in cursitans of the plains of India and dry-zone of Sri Lanka, which has a longer tail in the non-breeding season. Population malaya is found in southern Southeast Asia, tinnabulans further north in southern China while brunniceps is found in Korea and Japan. Other populations include nigrostriatus (Philippines), constans (Sulawesi), fuscicapilla (east Java), leanyeri (northern Australia), normani (northwest Queensland) and laveryi (northeast Australia).

This genus is sometimes split off with various other southern warbler genera and given family status as the Cisticolidae. This species was previously known as the fan-tailed warbler, but the current name gives consistency with the many tropical cisticola species, as well as avoiding confusion with an American species also named the fan-tailed warbler.[citation needed ]

The zitting cisticola is 10 to 12 cm (3.9 to 4.7 in) in length. It is brown above, heavily streaked with black markings. The underparts are whitish, and the tail is broad, white-tipped and flicked frequently, giving rise to the alternative name for the species. The adult males have less crown streaking and more back marking than the females, but there are no great difference between the sexes or the eighteen geographical races. The absence of a nuchal collar separate it from the golden-headed cisticola ( Cisticola exilis). In the non-breeding season, they tend to skulk within the grass and can be hard to spot.

This species is found mainly in grassland habitats, often near water. Most populations are resident, but some East Asian populations migrate south to warmer areas in winter. In the Himalayas, they ascend to about 1,900 m (6,200 ft) during summer but are below 1,300 m (4,300 ft) in the winter. This species is a rare vagrant to northern Europe, mostly as a spring overshoot. Its European range is generally expanding, although northern populations are especially susceptible to hard winters.

Zitting cisticolas are very small insectivorous birds, sometimes found in small groups. The breeding season is associated with the rains. Two broods a year occur in many regions. Males are generally polygynous, but some are monogamous. The male builds the initial nest structure deep in the grasses, and invites females using a special display. Females that accept the male complete the nest. The nest is made by binding living leaves into the soft fabric of felted plant-down, cobwebs, and grass. The zitting cisticola's nest is a cup shape with a canopy of tied-together leaves or grasses overhead for camouflage; 3-6 eggs are laid. The female incubates the egg. The eggs hatch after about 10 days. More than one brood may be raised. Females change their mates frequently and rarely stay within the same territory, while males are less mobile, maintaining non-overlapping song-territories which shift from day to day. Females can sometimes breed in their first year.

1. ^ BirdLife International (2017). "Cisticola juncidis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22713491A111070621. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22713491A111070621.en.

2. ^ Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel (1810). Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali e piante della Sicilia (in Italian). Palermo: Per le stampe di Sanfilippo. p. 6.

3. Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1986). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 11. Vol. 11. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. pp. 114-117 - via Biodiversity Heritage Library. - via Internet Archive

4. ^ Ryan, P. (2017). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (eds.). "Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions.

5. ^ Rasmussen, Pamela C; Anderton, J C (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p. 468.

6. ^ Nemeth, A & Vadasz, C S (2008). "First record of the Zitting Cisticola (Cisticola juncidis Rafinesque, 1810) in Hungary" (PDF). Opusc. Zool. Budapest. 37: 89-90.

7. ^ Ueda, Keisuke (1984). "Successive nest building and polygyny of Fan-tailed Warblers Cisticola juncidis". Ibis. 126 (2): 221-229. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1984.tb08001.x.

8. ^ Yamagishi, S; Ueda, K (1986). "Simultaneous territory mapping of male fan-tailed warblers (Cisticola juncidis)" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology. 57 (3): 193-199.

9. ^ Ueda, K (1986). "A Polygamous Social System of the Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola juncidis". Ethology. 73 (1): 43-55. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1986.tb00998.x.

10. ^ Ueda, K (2008). "Juvenile female breeding of the Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola juncidis: occurrence of two generations in the year". Ibis. 127 (1): 111-116. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1985.tb05041.x.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The zitting cisticola or streaked fantail warbler ( Cisticola juncidis) is a widely distributed Old World warbler whose breeding range includes southern Europe, Africa (outside the deserts and rainforest), and southern Asia down to northern Australia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The scaly-breasted munia or spotted munia ( Lonchura punctulata), known in the pet trade as nutmeg mannikin or spice finch, is a sparrow-sized estrildid finch native to tropical Asia. A species of the genus , it was formally described and named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Its name is based on the distinct scale-like feather markings on the breast and belly. The adult is brown above and has a dark conical bill. The species has 11 subspecies across its range, which differ slightly in size and color.

This munia eats mainly grass seeds apart from berries and small insects. They forage in flocks and communicate with soft calls and whistles. The species is highly social and may sometimes roost with other species of munias. This species is found in tropical plains and grasslands. Breeding pairs construct dome-shaped nests using grass or bamboo leaves.

The species is endemic to Asia and occurs from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and the Philippines (where it is called mayang pakíng). It has been introduced into many other parts of the world, and feral populations have established in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, as well as parts of Australia, and the United States of America, with sightings in California. The bird is listed as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

In 1743 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the scaly-breasted munia in the first volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "Gowry Bird". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen at the London home of Charles du Bois, treasurer to the East India Company. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the scaly-breasted munia with the crossbills in the genus . Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Loxia punctulata and cited Edwards' work. Linnaeus specified the locality as "Asia" but this was restricted to Kolkata (Calcutta) by E. C. Stuart Baker in 1926. The species is now placed in the genus that was introduced by the English naturalist William Henry Sykes in 1832. The genus name Lonchura combines the Ancient Greek lonkhē meaning "spear-head" or "lance" with oura meaning "tail". The specific epithet is from Modern Latin punctulatus meaning "spotted" or "dotted".

Over its large range there are 11 recognised subspecies. These include the nominate form found in the plains of the Indian Subcontinent, including Pakistan, India, Iran, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The name lineoventer was formerly used for the Indian population. Other populations include subundulata from the eastern Himalayas, yunnanensis of southern China, topela of Thailand, cabanisi of the Philippines and fretensis of Singapore and Sumatra. Island populations include nisoria (Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa), particeps (Sulawesi), baweana (Bawean Island), sumbae (Sumba) and blasii (Flores, Timor and Tanimbar).

L. p. punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758) - northern Pakistan, India (except northeast), Nepal terai and Sri Lanka

L. p. subundulata (Godwin-Austen, 1874) - Bhutan, Bangladesh, northeast India (Assam) and west Myanmar

L. p. yunnanensis Parkes, 1958 - southern China (southeast Xizang, south Sichuan, Yunnan) and north Myanmar

L. p. topela (R. Swinhoe, 1863) - southern Myanmar, Thailand, southeast China (Taiwan), Hainan Islands, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

L. p. cabanisi (Sharpe, 1890) - north and west Philippines (Luzon, Mindoro, Calauit, Palawan, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Mindanao) and northern Borneo (coastal west Sabah and Brunei)

L. p. fretensis (Kloss, 1931) - south Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra and Nias Islands

L. p. nisoria (Temminck, 1830) - southern Borneo (western & southern Kalimantan), Java, Bali, and western Lesser Sundas (Lombok, Sumbawa)

L. p. sumbae Mayr, 1944 - Sumba, in western Lesser Sundas

L. p. blasii (Stresemann, 1912) - central & eastern Lesser Sundas (Flores east to Timor and Tanimbar Islands)

L. p. baweana Hoogerwerf, 1963 - Bawean Islands, off northeast Java

The subspecies holmesi (southeast Borneo) is sometimes recognised.

Along with other Estrildines, these species are thought to have originated in Asia.

The scaly-breasted munia is about 11-12 centimetres (4.3-4.7 in) long and weighs 12-16 grams (0.026-0.035 lb). The adult has a stubby dark bill typical of grain eating birds, brown upperparts and a dark brown head. The underparts are white with dark scale markings. The sexes are similar, although males have darker markings on the underside and a darker throat than females.

Immature birds have pale brown upperparts, lack the dark head found in adults, and have uniform buff underparts that can be confused with juveniles of other munia species such as the tricolored munia ( Lonchura malacca) across the Asian and island populations and the black-throated munia ( Lonchura kelaarti) in parts of India or Sri Lanka.

Scaly-breasted munias are found in a range of habitats but are usually close to water and grassland. In India, they are especially common in paddy fields where they are considered a minor pest on account of their feeding on grain. They are found mainly on the plains, but can be observed in the foothills of the Himalayas, in which they may be present at altitudes near 2,500 m (1.6 mi), and in the Nilgiris, where they are found at altitudes up to 2,100 m (6,900 ft) during the summer. In Pakistan, they are restricted to a narrow region from Swat in the west to Lahore, avoiding the desert zone, and then occurring again in India east of an area between Ludhiana and Mount Abu. The species has also been observed in Kashmir, though this is rare.

Outside their native range, escaped birds frequently establish themselves in areas with a suitable climate and can then colonize new areas nearby. Escaped cage-birds established in the wild and such populations have been recorded in the West Indies (Puerto Rico since 1971), Hawaii (since 1883), Australia, Japan and southern United States, mainly in Florida and California. In Oahu, Hawaii, they compete for habitats with the tricolored munia and tend to be rare where this competitor is present. The species has been introduced to other parts of the world due to its popularity as a cage bird and populations have established in the wild.

Scaly-breasted munias form flocks of as many as 100 birds. Individuals communicate with calls that include a short whistle, variations of kitty-kitty-kitty, and a sharp chipping alarm note. They sometimes flick their tails and wings vertically or horizontally while hopping about. The tail flicking motion may have evolved from a locomotory intention movement. The exaggerated version of the tail flicking movement may have undergone ritualization. As a social signal, tail flicking in several other species acts as a signal indicating the intent to fly and helps keep flocks together.

The breeding season is during the summer rainy season (mainly June to August and also in October season in India) but can vary. Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger gonadal growth. The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable, audible only at close range. This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in a slurred whistle. When singing the male sits in what is called the slope posture-erect with the head feathers raised.

There are two types of slope posture, a pre-copulatory one and an ordinary one. The pre-copulatory behavior of scaly-breasted munia includes a sequence of actions. The first involves either the male or female playing with nest-material. As soon as a bird has arranged the nest material in its bill, it begins to fly around in a zigzag path. Once a bird lands close to its partner, the male bends towards the female and wipes its bill. The male then sings with movements of the body. The female invites mounting with tail quivering. The nest is a large domed structure loosely woven from blades of grass, bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and is placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house. A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be Toddalia asiatica, Gymnosporia montana and Acacia chundra, especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover. The nest opening is located to face downwind of the most frequent wind direction. In northern India, they preferred isolated Acacia nilotica in non-urban areas but used Thuja orientalis and Polyalthia longifolia in urban gardens.

Scaly-breasted munia clutches usually contain 4 to 6 eggs, but can contain up to 10. Both sexes build the nest and incubate the eggs, which hatch in 10 to 16 days.

The scaly-breasted munia feeds mainly on grass seeds, small berries such as those of and insects. Although the bill is suited for crushing small grains, they do not show lateral movements of the lower mandible which help European greenfinches in dehusking seeds. Like some other munias, they may also feed on algae, a rich protein source, prior to the breeding season.

The ease of maintaining these birds in captivity has made them popular for studying behavior and physiology. Feeding behavior can be predicted by the optimal foraging theory, where animals minimize time and energy spent to maximize food intake. This theory has been tested by studying the strategies used by scaly-breasted munias to increase their feeding efficacy.

Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on predator vigilance, thereby increasing feeding efficiency. According to the "many-eyes" hypothesis, a reduction in the individual time spent on vigilance against threats in larger groups allows for more time to be spent on searching for food and feeding. Vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The birds collect seeds more quickly in larger groups, reflecting a decrease in individual vigilance, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus when foraging.

Individuals may also take advantage of group foraging by "joining" members that have found food. The options to seek food or to join others that have discovered food involves information sharing and has been studied through what are termed "producer-scrounger models". A cost associated with group foraging is increased resource competition, which in turn may reduce anti-predatory vigilance due to the intensity of foraging. Some studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate.

When foraging, scaly-breasted munia can search as individuals or search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others has been modeled in two ways: the producer-scrounger model and the information sharing model. These models are based on hypotheses that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two food and joining opportunity search modes.

The information sharing model assumes that individuals search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer-scrounger model assumes that the search modes are mutually exclusive. Hopping with the head facing up and downward are observed to be statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird's joining and finding, respectively. When the expected stable frequency of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the availability of seeds, the relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly. When the seed distribution made the scrounger tactic unprofitable, the frequency of hopping with the head up diminished and appears to support the predictions of the producer-scrounger model.

Studies show that scaly-breasted munias tend to adopt the scrounger tactic when food is more clumped and when the group size increases. When most foragers adopt scrounging, the time taken to discover new food patches is greater.

Most social foragers must search for food while also avoiding predators. It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also, by virtue of their head position, be alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance. If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance, then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities, and hence more joining. When stationary, the head-up tactic has been shown to be associated with antipredatory vigilance. However scanning while hopping does not aid in vigilance and it is thought that the scrounger tactic is incompatible with antipredatory vigilance in the scaly-breasted munia.

Three hypotheses might account for consistent foraging specializations across individuals: food source variation, phenotypic differences, and frequency dependent-choice. The food source variation hypothesis predicts that individuals will specialize when the use of two skills is more costly than specialist foraging. The phenotypic differences hypothesis proposes that individuals differ in their ability to use each foraging skill and stably specialize on the most profitable one. The pattern of specialization is expected to be stable although the number of individuals that use a given skill depends on the phenotypic composition of the flock. The frequency dependent choice hypothesis also proposes that individuals specialize on the most profitable skill, but the profitability of each alternative decreases as the number of phenotypically identical foragers gradually specialize on each skill when initially given two equally profitable alternatives. At equilibrium, individual payoffs should be independent of the pattern of specialization. Individuals in flocks adjusted their use of the two skills and two birds in each flock specialized on a different skill resulting in a variant of both the food source variation hypothesis and frequency dependent choice hypothesis.

Aviary experiments conducted with captive flocks of scaly-breasted munia have tested whether producers and scroungers reach the predicted stable equilibrium frequency (see Evolutionarily stable strategy) when individuals are free to choose either behavior. The numbers choosing either producers and scrounger strategies have been shown to converge on stable frequencies while demonstrating that variation in tactics arise through frequency dependent pay-offs from the choice of different feeding strategies.

Furthermore, foraging birds may feed actively on the substrate or pick grains dropped on the ground and these strategies may be chosen according to the situation. Early departures occur more often when expected searching time decreases and when competition intensity increases. Competition intensity is expected to increase when more scroungers are present or when patches are smaller.

Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join, prey crypsis imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging. Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors. Moreover, the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cryptic backgrounds. The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed. Thus, the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers.

Recent models of economic defence in a group-foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases. Studies with scaly-breasted munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled, and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not. Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable. Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled. When food location was signaled, increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters.

1. BirdLife International (2016). "Lonchura punctulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22719821A94646304. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22719821A94646304.en.

2. ^ Edwards, George (1743). A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Vol. Part 1. London: Printed for the author at the College of Physicians. p. 40, Plate 40.

3. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 173.

4. ^ Baker, E.C. Stuart (1926). The Fauna of British India Birds including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). London: Taylor and Francis. p. 91.

5. ^ Paynter, Raymond A. Jr, ed. (1968). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 14. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology.

6. ^ Sykes, William Henry (1832). "Catalogue of birds of the raptorial and insessorial orders (systematically arranged,) observed in the Dukhun". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 2 (18): 77-99 [94].

7. Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Waxbills, parrotfinches, munias, whydahs, Olive Warbler, accentors, pipits". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union.

8. ^ Clements, J. F.; T. S. Schulenberg; M. J. Iliff; B.L. Sullivan; C. L. Wood & D. Roberson (2013). The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology.

9. Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Ruiz-del-Valle, V.; Gomez-Prieto, P.; Reguera, R.; Parga-Lozano, C.; Serrano-Vela, I. (2009). "Estrildinae Finches (Aves, Passeriformes) from Africa, South Asia and Australia: a Molecular Phylogeographic Study". The Open Ornithology Journal. 2: 29-36. doi:10.2174/1874453200902010029.

10. ^ Forshaw J; Mark Shephard; Anthony Pridham. Grassfinches in Australia. Csiro Publishing. pp. 267-268.

11. ^ Abbass, D.; Rais, M.; Ghalib, S.A. & Khan, M.Z. (2010). "First Record of Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) from Karachi". Pakistan Journal of Zoology. 42 (4): 503-505.

12. ^ Akhtar, S.A.; Rao, P.; Tiwari, J.K.; Javed, S. (1992). "Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata (Linn.) from Dachigam National Park, Jammu and Kashmir". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 89 (1): 129.

13. ^ Moreno, J.A. (1997). "Review of the Subspecific Status and Origin of Introduced Finches in Puerto Rico". Caribbean Journal of Science. 33 (3-4): 233-238.

14. ^ Moulton, M.P. (1993). "The All-or-None Pattern in Introduced Hawaiian Passeriforms: The role of competition sustained". The American Naturalist. 141 (1): 105-119. doi:10.1086/285463. JSTOR 2462765. S2CID 84341527.

15. Moulton, M. P.; Allen, L. J. S. & Ferris, D. K. (1992). "Competition, resource use and habitat selection in two introduced Hawaiian Mannikins". Biotropica. 24 (1): 77-85. doi:10.2307/2388475. JSTOR 2388475.

16. ^ Duncan, R.A. (2009). "The status of the nutmeg mannikin (Lonchura punctulata) in the extreme western panhandle of Florida" (PDF). Florida Field Naturalist. 37 (3): 96-97.

17. ^ Garrett, K.L. (2000). "The juvenile nutmeg mannikin: identification of a little brown bird" (PDF). Western Birds. 31 (2): 130-131.

18. ^ Moynihan, M. & Hall, M.F. (1954). "Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (Lonchura punctulata) in captivity". Behaviour. 7 (1): 33-76. doi:10.1163/156853955X00021.

19. ^ Sikdar, M.; Kar, A. & Prakash, P. (1992). "Role of humidity in the seasonal reproduction of male spotted munia, Lonchura punctulata". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 264 (1): 82-84. doi:10.1002/jez.1402640112.

20. ^ Gokula, V. (2001). "Nesting ecology of the Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (South India)". Acta Ornithologica. 36 (1): 1-5. doi:10.3161/068.036.0107. S2CID 84260813.

21. ^ Lamba, B.S. (1974). "Nest construction technique of the Spotted Munia, Lonchura punctulata". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 71 (3): 613-616.

22. ^ Avery, M. L. (1980). "Diet and breeding seasonality among a population of sharp-tailed munias, Lonchura striata, in Malaysia" (PDF). The Auk. 97: 160-166. doi:10.1093/auk/97.1.160.

23. ^ Stephens, D.W. (2007). A comprehensive guide to optimal foraging theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

24. ^ Beauchamp, G. & Livoreil, B. (1997). "The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (Lonchura punctulata)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 75 (9): 1526-1531. doi:10.1139/z97-776.

25. ^ Gauvin, S. & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2004). "Nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition". Oecologia. 139 (1): 150-156. Bibcode:2004Oecol.139..150G. doi:10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2. PMID 14722748. S2CID 21144047.

26. ^ Coolen, I. (2002). "Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 52 (3): 232-238. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4. S2CID 28537757.

27. ^ Coolen, I. & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2003). "Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata". Animal Behaviour. 66 (4): 657-664. doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2236. S2CID 53152430.

28. ^ Beauchamp, G.; Giraldeau, L.-A. & Ennis, N. (1997). "Experimental evidence for the maintenance of foraging specializations by frequency-dependent choice in flocks of spice finches". Ethology Ecology & Evolution. 9 (2): 105-117. doi:10.1080/08927014.1997.9522890.

29. ^ Mottley, K. & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2000). "Experimental evidence that group foragers can converge on predicted producer-scrounger equilibria" (PDF). Animal Behaviour. 60 (3): 341-350. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1474. PMID 11007643. S2CID 35238033.

30. ^ Dubois, F. (2002). "Resource defense in a group-foraging context". Behavioral Ecology. 14 (1): 2-9. doi:10.1093/beheco/14.1.2.

31. ^ "Trade in wild birds going 'unchecked' in Vietnam: new report". Mongabay Environmental News. September 25, 2017.

32. ^ Collar, N.; Newton, I.; Clement, P. & Arkhipov, V. (2010). "Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata". In Del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A. & Christie, D. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. Volume 15. Finches. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-84-96553-68-2.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The scaly-breasted munia or spotted munia ( Lonchura punctulata), known in the pet trade as nutmeg mannikin or spice finch, is a sparrow-sized estrildid finch native to tropical Asia. A species of the genus , it was formally described and named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.

# data[].attributes.body
Neram is the Malay name for the tree species Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, a fairly common inland riverside tree in the northern half of Peninsular Malaysia and also throughout most of the island of Borneo.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Neram tree ( Dipterocarpus oblongifolius) is a fairly common inland riverside tree in the north-eastern half of Peninsular Malaysia and also throughout most of Borneo (Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimantan, and parts of Sabah). It seems to be absent from the West Coast states, although strangely, seems to be present at the Ulu Kenas Recreational Forest park, near Kuala Kangsar in Perak (which is an exception). In Pahang itself, it is not found in all areas, and therefore can only be considered as locally common. In Sarawak, it is called the Ensurai tree.

The Neram tree is a dipterocarp which may surprise some people as dipterocarps are normally associated with straight and tall timber trees in the South East Asian rainforests. The Neram is anything but straight and tall, although it can grow to more than 2 meters in diameter and reach perhaps 40 meters tall. The trunk and branches tend to lean out over the water's edge in order to facilitate its fruit dispersal.

This beautiful tree is very important for protecting riverbanks which would otherwise get eroded away during floods. As such, the tree is accorded some form of protection status in Sarawak. The Neram also plays a vital role in Kelah ( Tor Tambroides) conservation as its fruit is eaten by those fishes (a fruiting drought some years ago decimated the Kelah population).

The fruit consists of 3 very short wings and two main pink colored wings that are about 8 - 10 cm long. The leaves are dark green and shiny, about 15 - 18 cm long, and with prominent ridge veins. The bark is fairly reddish-brown with dimples, and somewhat flaky as well.

Kayaking along inland rivers with the huge Neram trees arching over the river and providing much valued shade is a great experience, and only possible where they are found. Their boughs, branches, and trunks are often festooned with numerous epiphytes, ferns, and orchids, and when they fall into the river through old age, their enormous trunks provide a convenient natural bridge to ford the river.

Neram trees can be found throughout Taman Negara, where they line almost all the riverbanks there, although they seem to be absent from the other major conservation areas in Peninsular Malaysia, such as Endau Rompin National Park and Royal Belum State Park (as far as I know). They are impossible to miss throughout their range, as they are distinctive, large trees which tend to colonize entire riverbanks. Some magnificent stands of tall Neram trees may still exist along rivers flowing down the eastern flank of the Main Range in Pahang, such as at the beautiful Ulu Jelai (upper Jelai river), site of a proposed conservation area for many years, but which never got anywhere.

Categories: Rainforest flora | Tags: Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, ensurai tree, neram tree | Permalink

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Neram tree (Dipterocarpus oblongifolius) - Rainforest Journal

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Neram tree (Dipterocarpus oblongifolius) is a fairly common inland riverside tree in the north-eastern half of Peninsular Malaysia and also throughout most of Borneo (Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimantan, and parts of Sabah). It seems to be absent from the West ... Continue reading →

# data[].attributes.body
Concrete drains were converted to swales which allow rainfall to be absorbed by the earth and thus reduces runoff which can contribute to flooding.

# data[].attributes.body
Dragonflies are recognised as an iconic species for freshwater conservation, and provide important ecosystems services. To ensure the sustainability of Singapore’s dragonfly diversity and the services that they provide, the partnership between Temasek Foundation and NParks has two objectives.

The first was to create a 0.2-hectare dragonfly habitat at the Neram Streams in Jurong Lake Gardens. This would help researchers determine habitat factors that are necessary to maximise dragonfly diversity. These habitat enhancement efforts would also create an urban wetland which facilitates species conservation. The second objective is to study the potential for dragonflies to act as natural pest control against midges and mosquitoes in an urban environment.

# data[].attributes.headline
Dragonflies and Damselflies of Neram Streams

# data[].attributes.subject
Dragonflies and Damselflies of Neram Streams

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dragonflies and Damselflies of Neram Streams | SustainableFest 2021

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
You might have seen these pink lumps along water channels or by the edge of water bodies in some of the parks and reservoirs in Singapore.

Golden apple snails' eggs scattered all over the edge of reservoir

And even if you did, you might not have seen as many as what one person, Anne Yong, saw at the bank of a reservoir, which has caused quite a buzz even among nature lovers.

The bright pink eggs scattered indiscriminately on all the rocks can be a rather alarming sight to some.

Yong who took the photos said that the sight gave her "goosebumps" and she has not seen such a large cluster of snail eggs before.

One commenter described the eggs as "aliens from outer space".

The eggs look very much like mentaiko, which is edible and made from the roe of fish.

Yong also captured an egret at the reservoir looking nonchalantly at the pink eggs by the bank.

Among top 100 most invasive species in the world

The notorious golden apple snail ( Pomacea maculata) is native to South America.

The species likely entered Singapore's natural habitats through the aquarium trade in the 1980s.

The species can lay eggs in clusters of up to 1,000 eggs and this allows them to out-compete native species of apple snails, which lay eggs in smaller quantities.

Golden apple snails were introduced to Asia as a potential source of food but the species has become a major pest in rice fields.

When left uncontrolled, this highly invasive species can lead to more than 50 per cent yield loss.

They are listed among the top 100 most invasive species in the world.
Top image by Anne Yong/Nature Society Singapore Facebook group

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
'Mentaiko' along S'pore reservoir edge are golden apple snails' pink eggs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
You might have seen these pink lumps along water channels or by the edge of water bodies in some of the parks and reservoirs in Singapore. And even if you did, you might not have seen as many as what one person, Anne Yong, saw at the bank of a reservoir, which has caused quite a buzz even among nature lovers.

# data[].attributes.body
Heron island is a 4000m² island away from mainland that allows birds and other biodiversity to breed or roost without the intervention of humans. Natural platforms are installed as an enhancement to encourage our resident herons to roost and nest away from human disturbance. There are more than 10 species of herons recorded in Jurong Lake Gardens, such as the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Striated Heron (Butorides striata) and Chinese Pond Heron (Ardeola bacchus). Visitors can try to spot our resident herons and observe them safely from a distance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Scientific Name: Centropus bengalensis
Malay Name: Bubut Kecil Asia
Chinese Name: 小鸦鹃

Range:
Found from the Indian subcontinent to southern China and Southeast Asia

Taxonomy:
Polytypic. Subspecies are: bengalensis, lignator, javanensis, philippinensis, sarasinorum, medius.

Local Subspecies: javanensis

Size: 38 cm

Identification:
Adult resembles Great Coucal but much smaller, duller and has pale streaks on head, neck and upperparts. Juvenile resembles adult but has brownish overall plumage with whitish-buff streaks and blackish bars on wings.

Similar looking species: Greater Coucal

Habitat: Grasslands.

Behaviour/Ecology: Frequently suns itself on bare branches with wings partly outstretched.

Local Status: Uncommon resident

Conservation Status: Least Concern (BirdLife International 2016)

Location: Kranji Marsh, Lorong Halus, Punggol Barat and Tampines Eco Green.

Photos:

External Links:
Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Page
Photos: Oriental Bird Images
Sound Recordings: xeno-canto Link
Wikipedia Entry: Wikipedia Link
eBird Species page: eBird (Lesser Coucal)

References:
BirdLife International. (2016). Centropus bengalensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22684254A93021566.en. Accessed on 19 December 2021

Jeyarajasingam, A., & Pearson, A. (2012). A Field Guide to the Birds of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Oxford University Press.

Robson, C. (2014). Field guide to the birds of South-East Asia (Second Edition). Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Scientific Name: Centropus bengalensis Malay Name: Bubut Kecil Asia Chinese Name: 小鸦鹃 Range: Found from the Indian subcontinent to southern China and Southeast Asia Taxonomy: Polytypic. Subspecies are: bengalensis, lignator, javanensis, philippinensis, sarasinorum, medius. Local Subspecies: javanensis Size: 38 cm Identification: Adult resembles Great Coucal but much smaller, duller and has pale streaks on head,...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Jurong Lake Gardens detailed Map Garden House to Neram Streams

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Classifications and Characteristics

Description and Ethnobotany

Ethnobotanical Uses
Edible Plant Parts (Edible Seeds)
Food (Fruit & Vegetable : Young translucent-white chewy seeds ('attap chee') edible, usually boiled in sugar syrup and added to local deserts. Inflorescence stalk cut off before flowers open, and tapped for a sweet liquid that can be boiled to yield a brown sugar called 'gula melaka', fermented into an alchoholic drink called 'toddy', or fermented for several more months to yield a vinegar. Flower sheaths can be made into an aromatic tea. Young palm shoots edible.)
Medicinal ( Juice from young shoots is used to treat herpes and the ash of the burned plant is used to treat toothache and headache.)
[Others]: Sap also used to fatten up pigs in parts of Indonesia during dry season when fodder is scarce. Sugar-rich sap can also be distilled into industrial ethanol and biofuel. Dried fronds used to make roof thatch (attap), or weaved into baskets, mats and hats. Young frondlets used to roll cigarettes. Ash collected from burnt frondlets can be used to make a type of salt. The leaflets are also used to manufacture brooms, baskets, mats and hats.

Landscaping Features

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Classifications and Characteristics Ethnobotanical Uses Edible Plant Parts (Edible Seeds)Food (Fruit & Vegetable : Young translucent-white chewy seeds ('attap chee') edible, usually boiled in sugar syrup and added to local deserts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The information in this website has been compiled from reliable sources, such as reference works on medicinal plants. It is not a substitute for medical advice or treatment and NParks does not purport to provide any medical advice. Readers should always consult his/her physician before using or consuming a plant for medicinal purposes.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Life History of the Common Grass Yellow ( Eurema hecabe contubernalis)

Hübner, 1819 Species: hecabe Linnaeus, 1758

Subspecies: contubernalis Moore, 1886
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 35-45mm
Caterpillar Local Host Plants: Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae, common name: Peacock Flower ), Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Hypericaceae, common name: Yellow Cow Wood), Cratoxylum formosum (Hypericaceae, common name: Pink Mempat), Pithecellobium duice (Fabaceae, common name: Madras Thorn), Falcataria moluccana (Fabaceae, common name: Albizia), Senna spp.

A Common Grass Yellow taking nectar from a flower of Leea indica.

A Common Grass Yellow resting at a leaf perch.

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly:

Above, the wings are deep lemon-yellow, each with a black border which is regularly scalloped and deeply excavated between veins 2 and 4 in the forewing. Below vein 2 of the forewing, the black border is featured at a right angle to the dorsum or sloping towards the base. Underneath, the wings are also yellow with freckled brown spots. There are typically two cell spots on the forewing - a characteristic that is mainly used to identify the lookalike species in the genus. However, some specimens of the Common Grass Yellow could exhibit variations in which only one or no cell spots are present. Males have a brand lying along the cubital vein on the forewing underside. Females are typically paler yellow with broader black border.

Another resting Common Grass Yellow.

A Common Grass Yellow taking nectar from a flower of Leea rubra.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:

Common Grass Yellow is one of the most common butterflies in Singapore. This is likely due to its many host plants being common in the wild or widely cultivated in parks and other public areas. The adults can be seen fluttering tirelessly in parks, wastelands and even urbanised areas. They regularly visit flowers for nectar and puddle on wet grounds for minerals.

The early stages of Common Grass Yellow are polyphagous with most of its host plants belonging to the Fabaceae family. The caterpillars feed on the young and tender leaves of the host plants.

Local host plant #1: Pithecellobium duice (Madras Thorn).

Local host plant #2: Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Peacock Flower).

Local host plant #3: Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Yellow Cow Wood).

Two mating pairs of the Common Grass Yellow.

The eggs of the Common Grass Yellow are laid singly on a leaf/leaflet of the host plant. The spindle shaped egg is laid standing at one end with a length of about 1.2-1.3mm. It is whitish in color and has quite a few shallow vertical ridges and indistinct horizontal striations. The micropylar sits at the tip of the standing egg.

A female Common Grass Yellow ovipositing on a leaf of the Madras Thorn.

An egg laid on a young leaf of the Peacock Flower growing in a hill park.

An egg of the Common Grass Yellow.

The egg takes about 2.5-3 days to hatch. The newly hatched has a length of about 1.8mm and has a pale whitish head capsule. It has a cylindrical and pale whitish green body covered with dorso-lateral and lateral rows of tubercles running lengthwise. Each tubercle has a setae emerging from the middle of it. A miniscule droplet of fluid can be found at the tip of each setae. The droplet-bearing setae is a feature seen in all five instars of the larval phase.

The dorsal view of a newly hatched caterpillar of the Common Grass Yellow, length: 1.9mm.

After hatching, the young caterpillar eats the empty egg shell for its first meal, and then moves on to eat the leaf lamina for subsequent meals. The body colour turns yellowish green as growth progresses. The growth in this first instar is moderately paced and the body length reaches about 3.5mm in about 2-3 days before the moult to the 2nd instar.

Two view of a 1st instar caterpillar, length 3mm.

Top: A late 1st Instar caterpillar,dormant before its moult. Bottom: a newly moulted 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 3.5mm.

The 2nd instar caterpillar is yellowish green in body colour. The head capsule is similarly coloured and has the same tiny setae-bearing tubercles as those on the body surface. Compared to those in the previous instar, these setae carpeting the body and head capsule are proportionately shorter and greater in number. A pale white to yellowish band runs laterally along each side of the body. This instar is fast paced and lasts about 1-1.5 days with the body length reaching 6-6.5mm.

Two view of a 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 5.5mm

The body and the head capsule of the 3rd instar caterpillar are yellowish green. Its numerous setae are again proportionately shorter compared to the previous instar. The lateral white/yellowish bands, first appeared in the 2nd instar, has become broader and more distinct. This instar takes about 1-2.5 days to complete with body length reaching about 9mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, length: 7mm.

Two views of 3rd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 8mm.

The appearance of the 4th instar caterpillar is little changed from the 3rd instar. The colour of both the body and the head capsule takes on a stronger green tone. This instar lasts about 1.5 days with body length reaching about 14-15mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar feeding on a leaflet, lengths: 10mm(top), 9mm(bottom).

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 13mm.

The 5th and final instar caterpillar resembles the 4th instar caterpillar closely. The 5th instar lasts for 3-3.5 days, and the body length reaches up to 27mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 16mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, length: 20mm.

On the last day of the 5th instar, the body of the caterpillar shortens and changes to either a dull shade or bright shade of green. It ceases feeding and comes to a halt on the underside of a stem/stalk on the host plant. Here the caterpillar spins a silk pad and a silk girdle. With its posterior end secured to the silk pad via claspers, and the body suspended at the mid-section with the girdle, the caterpillar soon becomes immobile in this pre-pupatory pose.

An animated sequence showing how the caterpillar takes up the pre-pupatory pose.

A pre-pupatory larva of the Common Grass Yellow.

Pupation takes place about 0.5 day later. The yellowish green pupa secures itself with the same silk girdle as in the pre-pupal stage, but with the cremaster replacing claspers in attaching the posterior end to the silk pad, The pupa has a pointed head and a keeled wing pad, and its body is mostly unmarked except for a faint pale brownish and narrow dorsal band. Length of pupae: 18-20mm..

Two views of a pupa of the Common Grass Yellow.

Two views of a mature pupa of the Common Grass Yellow.
The now transparent wing pad shows the yellow forewing upperside with its black border.

After about 4 days of development, the pupal skin turns translucent as the development within the pupal case comes to an end. The yellow coloration and back borders on the forewing upperside are now discernible. The following day, the adult butterfly emerges from the pupal case.

A newly eclosed Common Grass Yellow clinging onto its empty pupal case.

[C&P4] The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, Malayan Nature Society.

Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 2nd Edition, 2012

A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Singapore, Khew S.K., Ink On Paper Communications, 2010.

Text by Horace Tan, Photos by Benjamin Yam, Bobby Mun, Simon Sng, Khew S K and Horace Tan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life History of the Common Grass Yellow ( Eurema hecabe contubernalis) Hübner, 1819 Species: hecabe Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: contubernalis Moore, 1886Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 35-45mm Caterpillar Local Host Plants: Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae, common name: Peacock Flower ), Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Hypericaceae, common name: Yellow Cow Wood), Cratoxylum formosum (Hypericaceae, common name: Pink Mempat), Pithecellobium duice (Fabaceae, common name: Madras Thorn), Falcataria moluccana (Fabaceae, common name: Albizia), Senna spp.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A Chocolate Pansy displaying its upperside.

A Chocolate Pansy giving us a view of its underside.

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly: A post-discal series of ocelli is present on both wings, and these ocelli are yellowish brown on pristine specimens.
Above, the wings are orangy brown with several indistinct but darker brown bands traversing from the costa towards the dorsum. There are two cell spots on the forewing and a prominent series of reddish brown post-discal ocelli on the hindwing. A much less prominent series of post-discal ocelli is also present on the forewing. Underneath, both fore- and hindwings are in duller brown but each has a dark stripe traversing from the costa to the dorsum. The stripes appear to be continuous across the two wings. A large white spot is present next to the stripe in space 7 of the hindwing.

A Chocolate Pansy visiting flowers.

An adult Chocolate Pansy taking up its position on a leaf.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:
This species is rather common across multiple habitats in Singapore, with ubiquitous presence in nature reserves as well as urban and suburban areas. It flies in the usual gliding manner of the Junonia spp. and typically several individuals can be seen together in one location. Under sunny conditions, they have a habit of opening their wings wide to sunbathe while resting on a perch.

Early Stages: Both plants belong to the Acanthaceae family, and occur as widespread weeds in Singapore. It is likely that more members of this family serve as the larval food plants for Chocolate Pansy.
The caterpillars of the Chocolate Pansy feed mainly on leaves of the two recorded local host plants, Ruellia repens and Hemigraphis reptans.

Local host plant #1: Hemigraphis reptans.

Local host plant #2: Ruellia repens.

A mating pair of the Chocolate Pansy.

A mother Chocolate Pansy laying an egg on the underside of a leaf of Hemigraphis reptans.

The eggs of the Chocolate Pansy are laid singly on the young leaves or shoots of the host plants. T he greenish egg is somewhat globular in shape but with a blunt top. Twelve raised ridges run from this top end to the base of the egg. Each egg has a diameter of about 0.75mm.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar, length: 1.5mm.

The 1st instar caterpillar feeds on the lamina of young leaves and grows rapidly. After reaching about 3mm in 1.5 days, the caterpillar moults to the 2nd instar.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, length: 2.8mm.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 3mm.

The body of the 2nd instar caterpillar is yellowish brown mainly and is darker brown on the dorsum. Moderately long and branched brownish processes run along the length of the body. Fine setae emanate from these processes and from other small tubercles on the body surface. The head capsule is yellowish to orangy brown and featuring two small dark brown lateral patches. This instar lasts about 2 days with the body length reaching about 5mm.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 2.5mm

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 4.5mm

The 3rd instar caterpillar has proportionately longer dorso-lateral and lateral processes. The body is mostly dark brown to black, except for the posterior end which is yellowish to orangy brown. This instar takes about 2 days to complete with body length reaching about 8.5mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 4.5mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 8mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, about to moult. Inset: head capsule.

The 4th instar caterpillar closely resembles the 3rd instar caterpillar, except for the proportionately longer processes and the change to an orange base color for the head capsule. The body color is almost entirely black except for a short section of yellowish brown at the posterior end. A fair number of small white specks appear on the body surface. The 4th instar lasts 2-2.5 days with the body length reaching about 12mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 9mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 11mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, about to moult, length: 11.5mm.

The 5th (and penultimate) instar caterpillar is similar to the 4th instar caterpillar.One discernible difference is the presence of a dense set of moderately long fine setae covering the entire body surface. This instar lasts for 2.5-3 days, and the body length increases rather dramatically and reaches up to 23.5mm.

A 5th instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 11mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 12.5mm. Inset: head capsule.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, about to moult, length: 22mm.

The 6th (and final) instar caterpillar is similar to the 5th instar caterpillar but has an even denser carpet of whitish fine setae on the body surface. Upon closer examination, pitch black triangular patches, one to each body segment, can be discerned against a lighter shade of black for the body base colour. The head capsule is bright orange and has two black patches on both sides of the "face".

Two views of a 6th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 23mm.

Two views of a 6th instar caterpillar, length: 36mm.

The 6th instar lasts for 4-4.5 days, and the body length reaches up to 40mm. The caterpillar ceases feeding and wanders around. Eventually it stops at a spot on the underside of a leaf, young shoot/stem and spins a silk pad from which it hangs vertically to take on the pre-pupatory pose.

A pre-pupa of the Chocolate Pansy.

The pupation event of a Chocolate Pansy caterpillar.

Pupation takes place about 0.5 days later. The pupa suspends itself from the silk pad with no supporting silk girdle. It is entirely greyish brown with a series of dorso-lateral pairs of short and pointed processes, one pair to each segment. The dorsum is sharply raised at the mesothorax. Black markings are also featured in the wing pads. Length of pupae: 18-19mm.

Three views of a pupa of the Chocolate Pansy.

Three views of a mature pupa of the Chocolate Pansy.

After about 5 days of development, the pupal skin of the mature pupa turns translucent and the pupa turns dark brown as a result. Patches of orangy brown can also be noticed in the wing pad. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa the next day.

The eclosion event of a Chocolate Pansy caterpillar.

A newly eclosed Chocolate Pansy resting on its pupal case.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A Chocolate Pansy displaying its upperside. A Chocolate Pansy giving us a view of its underside. Physical Description of Adult Butterfly: A post-discal series of ocelli is present on both wings, and these ocelli are yellowish brown on pristine specimens.Above, the wings are orangy brown with several indistinct but darker brown bands traversing from the costa towards the dorsum.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Life History of the Lemon Emigrant ( Catopsilia pomona pomona)

Butterfly Biodata:
Genus: Catopsilia Hübner, 1819
Species: pomona Linnaeus, 1775
Subspecies: pomona Linnaeus, 1775
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 50-70mm
Caterpillar Local Host Plants: Senna fistula (Fabaceae, common name: Golden Shower), Senna siamea (Fabaceae, common name: Kassod Tree, Siamese Cassia), Senna alata (Fabaceae, common name: Seven Golden Candlesticks).

A female Lemon Emigrant, -f. pomona.

Two male Lemon Emigrants, -f. alcmeone.

A male Lemon Emigrant, -f. hilaria.

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly: Lemon Emigrant comes in a number of forms for both sexes, but generally they are moderately large with wing upperside appearing in either white or yellow and black-bordered on the costa and termen of the forewing. There are two groups of forms; namely the '
crocale' group and the ' pomona' group.

The 'crocale' group is characterized by having the upperside of antennae black, and the absence of silvery spots at cell-ends on the underside. The male -falcmeone is mostly white above but yellow in the basal third of the wings and thinly bordered at the forewing apex. The females could appear in the jugurtha or the crocale form. The -f jugurtha is creamy white above with yellow wing base and black border on the forewing costa and termen of both wings. It has a series of black submarginal markings and a black spot at cell-end on the forewing. The -f crocale has a broad black distal border with a series of whitish spots embedded on both wings.

The 'pomona' group is characterized by having the upperside of antennae red and the presence of red-ringed silvery spots at cell-ends on the underside. The male -fhilaria has similar upperside as the male -f alcmeone but with lesser extent of basal yellow area. The females could appear in the pomona, catilla or the nivescens form. The -f pomona has yellow wings with reduced black border and markings while -f nivescens is similar but with whitish wings. The -f catilla has large reddish patches on the underside.

A female Lemon Emigrant, -f. jugurtha.

A female Lemon Emigrant, -f. crocale.

A female Lemon Emigrant, -f. catilla.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:

The Lemon Emigrant is a common butterfly in Singapore. The fast flying adults can be found all over the island, at places such as the nature reserves, urban gardens, wastelands and housing estates. As with the other Catopsillia spp., the adults have the habit of visiting flowers and puddling on damp grounds.

A male Lemon Emigrant, -f. alcmeone.

A male Lemon Emigrant, -f. alcmeone.

A female Lemon Emigrant, -f. crocale.

Across the region, the Lemon Emigrant is known to utilize a number of host plants of the Senna genus. The most commonly utilized host plant in Singapore is the Golden Shower ( Senna fistula). This plant is commonly cultivated across Singapore in gardens, parks, park connectors and even on the divider along major expressways. The caterpillars of the Lemon Emigrant feed on the relatively young leaves of the host plant.

Local host plant #1: Golden Shower ( Senna fistula).

Local host plant #2: Senna siamea

A mating pair of the Lemon Emigrant (Left: female -f pomona; Right: male -f alcmeone).

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:
The eggs of the Lemon Emigrant are typically laid singly on the upperside of a leaf of the host plant. At times, more than one egg can be found on the same leaflet. The long spindle shaped egg is laid standing at one end with a length of about 1.4-1.5mm. It is white in color with vertical ridges and numerous indistinct and intermittent horizontal ridge lines. The micropylar sits at the tip of the standing egg.

A mother Lemon Emigrant laying an egg on Senna alata. Left: In the act of depositing an egg. Right: Egg deposited and visible.

The egg takes about 2 days to hatch. The newly hatched has a length of about 2-2.2mm. It has a white head capsule bearing several short setae. Its body is creamy white with a yellowish tint and featuring dorsal, dorso-lateral and lateral rows of small tubercles running lengthwise. Each tubercle has a short seta emerging from the middle of it.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar, length: 2.2mm.

After hatching, the young caterpillar proceeds to devour the remnant of the egg shell. The leaf diet will soon follow, and with that the body turns yellowish green. The growth is fast paced and the body length reaches about 4.5mm in this 1st instar which lasts about 1-1.5 days before the moult.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 4.5mm.

The 2nd instar caterpillar is yellowish green on all body segments and the head. The body is covered in rings (about five for each body segment) of numerous small dark tubercles from which very short setae emerge. The head capsule also features numerous similar tubercles. A whitish lateral band spanning the spiracles makes its debut in this instar. The 2nd instar lasts about 1-1.5 days with the body length reaching about 9mm.

Two view of a 2nd instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 4.8mm.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, length: 6mm.

Two views of a late 2nd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 8.8mm.

The 3rd instar caterpillar resembles the 2nd instar caterpillar closely. This instar takes about 1-1.5 days to complete with body length reaching about 16mm.

Two view of a 3rd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 8.6mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 16mm.

Two views of a late 3rd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 15.2mm.

In the 4th instar caterpillar, the whitish lateral band has a thin yellowish band lying above. Furthermore, above this yellowish band, some of the black tubercles come in much larger size than those further away, giving an impression of a black border to the whitish band. The thickness of this black border varies from specimen to specimen. This penultimate instar lasts 1.5-2 days with body length reaching about 23-26mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 16mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, length: 19mm.

Two views of a late 4th instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 26.5mm.

The 5th instar does not usher in any significant change in the appearance. The whitish lateral band is typically broader and more prominent in this instar and the black border above it can vary from one which is very thick to one that is hardly distinguishable. This 5th instar lasts for 2.5-3 days, and the body length reaches up to 47mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 24mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar with thick black lateral band, length: 29mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar with a very thin black lateral band, length: 41mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 46mm.

On the last day of the 5th instar, the body of the caterpillar gradually shortens. It ceases feeding and comes to rest on the midrib on the underside of a leaflet or the stem/stalk on the host plant. Here the caterpillar spins a silk pad and a silk girdle to secure itself and then becomes immobile in its pre-pupatory pose.

A pre-pupatory larva of the Lemon Emigrant on the underside of a leaf.

Another pre-pupatory larva of the Lemon Emigrant on the underside of a leaf.

A Lemon Emigrant caterpillar moults to its pupal stage.

Pupation takes place about 0.5-1 day later. The pupa secures itself with the same silk girdle as in the pre-pupal stage, but with a cremaster replacing claspers in attaching its posterior end to the silk pad on the stem. The pupa has a blacked-tipped yellow pointed head, and its yellowish green body has a whitish yellow lateral line on each side. There is a dorsal protrusion with a thin yellow ridge line on the thorax. Length of pupae: 28-30mm.

Two views of a pupa of the Lemon Emigrant, dull yellowish green in colour.

Two views of a mature pupa of a female -f crocale Lemon Emigrant.

After about 5 days, the pupal skin turns translucent as the development within the pupal case comes to an end. The coloration and black borders on the forewing upperside are now discernible. The following day, the adult butterfly emerges from the pupal case.

A Lemon Emigrant butterfly emerges from its pupal case.

A newly eclosed female -f crocale Lemon Emigrant.

A newly eclosed male -f. alcmeone Lemon Emigrant.

References:

[C&P4] The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, Malayan Nature Society, 1992.

Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 2nd Edition, 2012.

A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Singapore, Khew S.K., Ink On Paper Communications, 2010.

Text by Horace Tan, Photos by Wong CM, Loke PF, Khew SK and Horace Tan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life History of the Lemon Emigrant ( Catopsilia pomona pomona) Butterfly Biodata: Genus: Catopsilia Hübner, 1819 Species: pomona Linnaeus, 1775 Subspecies: pomona Linnaeus, 1775 Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 50-70mm Caterpillar Local Host Plants: Senna fistula (Fabaceae, common name: Golden Shower), Senna siamea (Fabaceae, common name: Kassod Tree, Siamese Cassia), Senna alata (Fabaceae, common name: Seven Golden Candlesticks).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life History of the Striped Albatross ( Appias libythea olferna ) Butterfly Biodata: Genus: Appias Hübner, 1819 Species: libythea F...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Fruhstorfer , 1899
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 65mm
Caterpillar Host Plants: Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Hypericaceae), Pterocarpus indicus ( Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Talipariti tiliaceum (Malvaceae), Ceiba speciosa (Malvaceae), Erythroxylum cuneatum (Erythroxylaceae, common names: Inai Inai, Wild Cocaine).

A Short Banded Sailor visiting Ixora flowers.

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly:
Above, this species resembles various Neptis species in having similar white markings against dark brown to black background. On the forewing, the white cell streak is narrow and short, and the spot in space 1a elongated. On the hindwing, the broad discal band does not reach the costa. In the male, vein 8 of the hindwing ends on the termen just below the apex (in contrast, this vein ends on the costa for Neptis species). The speculum on the hindwing upperside is prominent. Underneath, the white markings are set against yellowish brown background.

A Short Banded Sailor taking nectar from Ixora flowers.

A Short Banded Sailor resting on a leaf perch with closed wings.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour: This species is not uncommon in Singapore and can be found in both urban parks and nature reserves. The sun-loving adults are often observed gracefully gliding in weak sailing flights, often settling on sun-lit spots with wings fully open. The adults visit flowers and ripening fruits for energy intakes, and the males also puddle for mineral intakes on damp patches. This species bears a close resemblance to the Common Sailor (Neptis hylas papaja), and two can only be distinguished with a closer scrutiny of the white markings on the wings. Generally, the Short Banded Sailor is larger than a typical Common Sailor.

Host plant : Cratoxylum cochinchinense Leaves (left) and flowers (right).

Early Stages:
The local host plants, Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Yellow Cow Wood), Pterocarpus indicus (Angsana) and Talipariti tiliaceum (Sea Hibiscus) can be readily found across the island in varied habitats. This probably accounts for the rather wide local distribution of this species. Caterpillars of Short Banded Sailor feed on both middle-aged and older leaves of these hosts.

A mating pair of the Short Banded Sailor.

The eggs of the Short Banded Sailor are laid singly at the tip of a leaf/leaflet on the host plant. During a typical oviposition stopover, the mother butterfly first lands on a chosen leaf/leaflet of the host plant and slowly reverses along the leaf surface towards the leaf tip where an egg is then deposited.

Two views of an egg laid at a leaf tip. Diameter: 1.1mm.
T he eggs are somewhat globular in shape. Each has its surface marked with hexagonal pits and bearing spines at pit corners. The micropylar sits atop. Freshly laid eggs are green in colour, but turning pale green and then yellowish green when maturing. Each egg has a diameter of about 1.1mm.

Two views of a mature egg.

The egg takes about 3-4 days to hatch. The young caterpillar emerges by eating away part of the egg shell. The rest of the egg shell becomes the first meal for the newly hatched, which has a cylindrical pale green body covered with many small tubercles and short setae. Four pairs of subdorsal tubercles, on the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments and the 2nd and 8th abdominal segments, are much larger and prominent. The head capsule is brown in color.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar eating the egg shell, length: 2.5mm.

1st instar caterpillar, after a new nibbles of leaf lamina adjacent to the oviposition site, length: 2.6mm.

After consuming the egg shell, the caterpillar proceeds to feed on the leaf lamina from the leaf tip. Typically the midrib is left intact as lamina on both sides is eaten. A small strip of lamina at the tip is also left intact as the caterpillar uses the site as a base for rests between feeds. Another interesting habit displayed by the caterpillar is the systematic cutting of leaf fragments and suspension of these fragments with silk threads, prior to eating them.

A 1st instar caterpillar resting at its base near its masterpiece of dangling leaf fragments.

As the caterpillar grows in this instar, the body turns increasingly green in base colour and tubercles on the body turn yellowish green in contrast. After reaching 5.0-5.5mm in 4 days, the caterpillar moults to the 2nd instar.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, later in this stage, length: 4.2mm.

The body of the 2nd instar caterpillar features a faint outline of a dorsal saddle from the 3rd thoracic segment to the 8th abdominal segment, with the saddle being in light yellowish brown and the rest of the body in brown. Besides tiny tubercles covering most of its body surface, the 2nd instar caterpillar also features longer spines on the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segment as well as on the 2nd and 8th abdominal segment. The head capsule is light brown with darker lateral shadings. Its surface is dotted with a number of paler conical tubercles. The elongated face is wide at the base and narrow towards the apex. A pair of longer and more pointed tubercles sit at the top. The caterpillars of Short Banded Sailor in all instars have the habit of adopting a head-down posture with the dorsum of the thorax forward facing. This instar lasts about 3-5 days with the body length reaching about 8mm.

2nd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 5mm

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, late in this stage, length: 7.5mm

The 3rd instar caterpillar has similar body markings as the 2nd instar with the following changes: The subdorsal spines are much longer, more pointed and featuring prominent branches, with the pair on the 3rd thoracic segment much longer than the other three pairs. The long dorsal saddle is now more prominent. Faint oblique and dark stripes also appear on the middle portion of the saddle. Its head capsule is longer vertically, featuring dark lateral and median stripes with the earlier apical spines now longer, more pointed and yellowed tipped. This instar takes about 3-4 days to complete with body length reaching about 10mm. Towards the end of the instar, one or two small white lateral patches appear on the 7th abdominal segment.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, early in this stage, length: 7.5mm

Two views of 3rd instar caterpillar, late in this stage. Lengths: 8mm (top); 9.5mm (bottom).

The 4th instar caterpillar resembles the 3rd instar caterpillar closely. The dorsal saddle is now more distinct with it being a much light shade of olive brown than the lower part of the body. The subdorsal pair of spines on the 3rd thoracic segment has become proportionally much longer than the remaining three pairs, with the pair on the 2nd abdominal segment shortest. and hardly noticeable The head capsule is almost white to light pink in base colour and tiny circular dark pits dot its frontal surface. The two apical spines (horns) are orange-tipped. This instar lasts 5-7 days with body length reaching about 16mm.

Two views of a newly moulted 4th instar caterpillar.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, length: 14.5mm.

The 5th instar caterpillar is little changed from the 4th instar in most body markings and features. The subdorsal pair of branch spines on the 3rd thoracic segment, in darker brown, is again proportionately longer, and the pair on the 2nd abdominal segment degenerates further to near negligible size. Most 5th instar caterpillars also feature two small lime-green lateral patches on the 7th abdominal segment. The 5th instar caterpillar does not keep the earlier habit of cutting and hanging leaf fragments. Typically the caterpillar rests on the leaf upperside near the base of the leaf and feeds on the leaf lamina at the distal end.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, early in this tage, length: 14mm.
One noticeable change from the 4th to the 5th instar is in spines and horns on the head capsule which are now proportionally shorter.

Frontal view of head capsules of Short Banded Sailor caterpillars. Left: 4th instar. Right: 5th instar.
Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, length: 24mm.

The 5th instar lasts for about 7-9 days, and the body length reaches up to 25-26mm. On the last day, the color of the body decolorizes to pale/pinkish brown. The caterpillar ceases feeding and wanders around for a pupation site which typically is a small branch or stem. Here the caterpillar spins a silk mound to which it attaches its posterior end, and hangs vertically to take on the pre-pupatory pose.

A 5th instar caterpillar found on a Cratoxylum leaf of in Sourthern Ridges.

Two views of a pre-pupa of the Short Banded Sailor.

Pupation takes place a day later. The pupa suspends itself via a cremastral attachment to the silk mound with no supporting silk girdle. It is almost entirely pale brown in color. The abdominal segments are slender. The thoracic portion being larger with wing cases dilated laterally. The dorsum of the thorax is angular. The head is bluntly cleft at its front edge with small pointed lateral vertices. A pair of silver oval-shaped patches occurs on the dorsum of the metathorax, and a much smaller pair on the 1st abdominal segment. The pupa has the ability to flex laterally when disturbed. Length of pupae: 16-18mm.

Pupation Event of a Short Banded Sailor caterpillar

Three views of a pupa of the Short Banded Sailor.

After about 6 days of development, the pupal turns dark as the development within the pupal case comes to an end. The spots and streak on the forewing upperside also become discernible. The following day, the adult butterfly emerges from the pupal case.

Three views of a mature pupa. Markings on the forewings are now visible.

A newly eclosed Short Banded Sailor expanding its wings on its pupal case.

A newly eclosed Short Banded Sailor expanding its wings on its pupal case.
Re ferences:

The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, The Malayan Nature Society.

Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 1st Edition, 2006

The Butterflies of Hong Kong, Bascombe et al, Academic Press, 1999.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Fruhstorfer , 1899Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 65mmCaterpillar Host Plants: Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Hypericaceae), Pterocarpus indicus ( Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), Talipariti tiliaceum (Malvaceae), Ceiba speciosa (Malvaceae), Erythroxylum cuneatum (Erythroxylaceae, common names: Inai Inai, Wild Cocaine). A Short Banded Sailor visiting Ixora flowers.

# data[].attributes.body
NParks | Oncosperma tigillarium

# data[].attributes.body
NParks | Typha angustifolia

# data[].attributes.body
NParks | Cyperus papyrus

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Jurong Lake Gardens (inc. Chinese Garden and Japanese Garden), SG - eBird Hotspot

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore a complete list of bird species observations in this area.

# data[].attributes.body
The Lone Tree stands tall amongst the grasses and forms a feature point that punctuates the expanse of the grasslands. Its branches offer an unobstructed view of the grasslands, making it an ideal perch for raptors such as the Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus). The Lone Tree is also made from recycled iron reinforcement bars salvaged from old park pathways during the construction of Lakeside Garden. This sculpture is also inspired by the industrial origins of Jurong.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Artificial nesting sites were built to enable herons to nest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Range: Found from Europe, Africa, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, China, Korea, Japan to Southeast Asia with most northerly populations wintering south

Identification: Non-breeding adult has grey upperparts, mostly white head and neck with prominent broad black head-stripes and blackish streaks down centre of foreneck, black nape-plumes, whitish underparts, black shoulder-patch and dull yellowish bill. Breeding adult has bright orange-yellow bill, legs and feet. Juvenile resembles non-breeding adult but is duller and has less contrasting head and neck pattern and much shorter head-plumes.

Habitat: Mangroves and various inland and coastal wetlands.

Behaviour/Ecology: Feeds on large fish.

Local Status: Very common resident

Conservation Status: Least Concern (BirdLife International 2019)

Location: Sungei Buloh, Mandai Mudflat, Lower Seletar Mudflat, Lorong Halus, Chinese Gardens, Pulau Ubin and any suitable patch of habitat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
raw][/raw] Scientific Name: Ardea cinerea Malay Name: Pucung Seriap Biasa Chinese Name: 苍鹭 Range: Found from Europe, Africa, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, China, Korea, Japan to Southeast Asia with most northerly populations wintering south Taxonomy: Polytypic. Subspecies are: cinerea, jouyi, monicae, firasa. Local Subspecies: jouyi Size: 90-98 cm Identification: Non-breeding adult has grey upperparts, mostly...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Scientific Name: Amaurornis phoenicurus
Malay Name: Ruak-ruak Biasa
Chinese Name: 白胸苦恶鸟

Range:
Found from the Indian subcontinent, Southern China to Southeast Asia with northern population wintering in Southeast Asia.

Taxonomy:
Polytypic. Subspecies are: phoenicurus, insularis, leucomelana.

Local Subspecies: phoenicurus

Size: 28.5-36 cm

Identification:
Adult has white face and underparts contrasting with dark slaty-grey upperparts, chestnut undertail-coverts and distinctive yellowish-green bill with red base. Juvenile has browner upperparts, dark spots on ear-coverts and less white over eye.

Habitat: Various kinds of well-vegetated wetlands, pools and streams in open forest, mangroves and adjacent open areas, track, roadsides, gardens and parks.

Behaviour/Ecology: Not shy and frequently forages in the open.

Local Status: Common resident and migrant

Conservation Status: Least Concern (BirdLife International 2016)

Location: Any patch of suitable habitat.

Photos:

External Links:
Conservation Status: IUCN Red List Page
Photos: Oriental Bird Images
Sound Recordings: xeno-canto Link
Wikipedia Entry: Wikipedia Link
eBird Species page: eBird (White-breasted Waterhen)

References:
BirdLife International. (2016). Amaurornis phoenicurus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692640A95217833.en. Accessed on 19 December 2021

Jeyarajasingam, A., & Pearson, A. (2012). A Field Guide to the Birds of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Oxford University Press.

Robson, C. (2014). Field guide to the birds of South-East Asia (Second Edition). Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Scientific Name: Amaurornis phoenicurus Malay Name: Ruak-ruak Biasa Chinese Name: 白胸苦恶鸟 Range: Found from the Indian subcontinent, Southern China to Southeast Asia with northern population wintering in Southeast Asia. Taxonomy: Polytypic. Subspecies are: phoenicurus, insularis, leucomelana. Local Subspecies: phoenicurus Size: 28.5-36 cm Identification: Adult has white face and underparts contrasting with dark slaty-grey upperparts, chestnut...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Scientific Name: Todiramphus chloris

Malay Name: Pekaka Bakau Biasa

Chinese Name: 白领翡翠

Range: Found from northeast Africa, Middle East, India, Southeast Asia to northern Australia

Identification: Adult has rich blue upperparts, distinctive white collar and underparts and black bill with pale pinkish-white lower mandible. Juvenile resembles adult but has duller/greener-tinged upperparts and dark vermiculations on collar and breast.

Habitat: Waterbodies in or near forests edge, parks, gardens, open woodlands, grasslands and mangroves.

Behaviour/Ecology: Feeds on fish, lizards, insects, and small amphibians.

Local Status: Very common resident

Conservation Status: Least Concern (BirdLife International 2019)

Location: Singapore Botanic Gardens, Bidadari, Lorong Halus, Pasir Ris Park, Sungei Buloh, Pulau Ubin and any patch of suitable habitat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
raw][/raw] Scientific Name: Todiramphus chloris Malay Name: Pekaka Bakau Biasa Chinese Name: 白领翡翠 Range: Found from northeast Africa, Middle East, India, Southeast Asia to northern Australia Taxonomy: Polytypic. Subspecies are: abyssinicus, kalbaensis, vidali, davisoni, occipitalis, humii, armstrongi, laubmannianus, chloropterus, azelus, palmeri, collaris, chloris, teraokai. Local Subspecies: humii Size: 24-26 cm Identification: Adult has rich blue...

# data[].attributes.body
NParks | Pandanus amaryllifolius

# data[].attributes.body
NParks | Pandanus tectorius

# data[].attributes.headline
Dragonflies and Damselflies of Sungai Buloh Wetland Reserve

# data[].attributes.subject
Dragonflies and Damselflies of Sungai Buloh Wetland Reserve

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Dianella ensifolia, also known as Flax Lily, is a perennial herb that is native to Singapore. It is commonly found in forests and along rocky shores and forms grassy clumps of long sword-shaped leaves. Flower spikes bear white, yellow or light purplish blue star-shaped flowers that are followed by glossy bluish purple berries. The striking fruit are thought to be toxic. In parts of Southeast Asia, the plant parts are used in traditional medicine to treat skin infections, parasitic worms, wounds and fatigue.

The Malayan Horned Frog has a snout that is distinctly pointed and horn-like skin flaps present above the eyes, giving it excellent camouflage on the forest floors of the Central Nature Reserves, where they are confined to in Singapore. It has a loud call that sounds like a metallic honk.

Versatility of Simpoh Air

Simpoh Air is a free-flowering large shrub that produces striking large yellow flowers, which only last for a day. When ripe, its fruit splits open revealing seeds encased in a fleshy red aril and enjoyed by birds. Did you know that this pioneer species has a trove of versatile uses? Its deep taproot allows it to access underground water sources, and its presence could sometimes indicate groundwater sources. This quick-growing plant creates shade in otherwise barren environments, supporting the growth of shade-loving species and promoting the diversity and development of forests. Simpoh Air's large waxy leaves are also traditionally used in Peninsular Malaysia to wrap and contain food like tempeh.

Versatility of Simpoh Air

Waterlily or Lotus?

Did you know that Waterlily and Lotus are different plant species? Waterlilies belong to the genus Nymphaea and their leaves are typically found on the water's surface, while Lotuses belong to the genus Nelumbo and their leaves are held on stalks that can extend up to 2 m above water. Additionally, waterlily leaves are often deeply notched with some having purple, yellow or white variegation, while lotus leaves are completely circular and green.

The 3 Musketeers and the Fourth

Did you know that there is not 1 but 3 species of Resam ( Dicranopteris sp.) in Singapore? They are namely D. curranii, D. linearis var. linearis and D. subpectinata. Often found growing together along forest edges and exposed grounds, the sprawling ferns are fast-growing which form large dense bushes known as thickets. Another species that looks similar and is often mistaken to be a Resam is Sticherus truncatus. It can be distinguished by its fully foliated branching while the branching of Resam species remain bare.

Tasty Tamarind

Did you know the Tamarind tree is the source of Asam commonly used in Southeast Asian cooking? Part of the legume family (Fabaceae), the tree can be found along the streets of Singapore. The mildly fragrant flowers are pollinated by insects and develop into bean pods. Within the fruit is the tasty pulp, prized for its complex and sour flavour, giving dishes their characteristic Asam taste. Outside of Asia it is a component in the renowned Worcestershire sauce. The Tamarind tree is hardy and long lived, making it an ideal urban tree. There are currently three individuals in Singapore that have been registered as Heritage Trees!

Tasty Tamarind

A Fern or not a Fern?

Did you know the Common Tassel Fern ( Phlegmariurus phlegmaria) grouped under Fern allies are not ferns at all? Fern allies or Lycophytes are the earliest group of seedless vascular plants with a wide range of growth forms. Fern allies are versatile plants, some even have the ability to survive desert conditions! Fern allies are identified by their small leaves or microphylls that come with a single unbranched vein whereas true ferns have megaphylls with complex, branched veinlets. Similar to most Lycophytes, the Common Tassel Fern produces cone-like structures at the tips of their stems known as strobili - these contain and release spores upon maturity.

Sunda Pangolin

Video of wild Sunda Pangolin in Singapore, captured on Night Vision Equipment.

Flora & Fauna News

Rediscovery of Singapore Natives

Indian Abutilon (Abutilon indicum), a native shrub thought to be nationally extinct was rediscovered on Coney Island. Its subspecies, A. indicum subsp. indicum was found on Coney Island, an area predominated by Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) trees. Similarly, Cyperus dubius, a sedge rediscovered in various local coastal parks in 2022 was also found among Casuarina groves. Casuarina trees are known to release allelopathic compounds that inhibit seed germination, this poses a barrier for the survival of rare native species that share the same habitat. As such, conservative measures like selective replacement with non-allelopathic native species can potentially aid the survival and regeneration of these rediscovered Singapore natives.

Gesneriaceae Treasures - Vietnam's Newest Finds

In recent years, several new species of flowering plants have been discovered in Vietnam, particularly in the far north and the Central Highlands region. Notably, four Gesneriaeae species have been uncovered, namely, lithophytic Allocheilos villosus with dense hairs covering on all parts of the plant, Didymocarpus tamdaoensis which is only known from one collection made at Tam Dao National Park, Didymocarpus dalatensis with downy stems and white tubular flowers, and Loxostigma vietnamensis which is endemic to the montane forest of Vietnam. These discoveries deepen our understanding of Vietnam's rich biodiversity.

Identifying Pathogenic Fungi to Protect Mature Trees

A collaboration between NParks and researchers across Singapore has identified pathogenic fungi that attack mature trees in our urban landscape. The DNA sequence of tissue samples from trees with rot, the fungal fruiting bodies and surrounding soil were analysed for unique patterns associated to individual fungal species. By comparing the results with healthy trees, 17 fungal species that cause root and trunk rot in commonly planted tree species were identified. This information leads the way for development of early detection and intervention tools of fungal disease in trees.

# data[].attributes.body
The flowers provide a beautiful blue dye that is used in local desserts.

# data[].attributes.body
Turmeric is a species belonging to the ginger family. The roots can be used in curries while the leaves can be used in local dishes like rendang .

# data[].attributes.body
Children can conquer a maze set within an undulating landscape filled with butterflies. Unlike a traditional hedge maze, children will find themselves traversing an open landscape with changing views as they climb up and down the mounds in search of a way out. Young adventurers will enjoy themselves exploring the maze, discovering surprises and hidden treasure along the way. This includes quiet corners, rest areas, slides and signs throughout the maze for children to learn about pollination and the lifecycle of butterflies.

The maze also adjoins the children’s section of the Therapeutic Garden to provide young visitors more opportunities to experience the therapeutic effects of greenery, as well as help with the facilitation of therapeutic horticulture programmes for children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Butterfly Maze in Jurong Lake Gardens | SustainableFest 2022

# data[].attributes.body
Jurong Lake Gardens is a 90-hectare gardens which comprises three segments that includes:

1.      Lakeside Garden

2.      Chinese Garden

3.      Japanese Garden

Lakeside Garden is the 53-hectare western section of the Jurong Lake Gardens. Opened in 2019, visitors can now enjoy the first phase of Singapore’s third national gardens, and the first national gardens in the heartlands. Lakeside Garden was developed with a strong emphasis on nature, community and play. The garden is designed in consultation with residents while also trying to promote a sustainable and healthy living environment amidst nature.

# data[].attributes.body
Fish, terrapin