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What was the purpose of the Lewis and Clark Expedition?

Which president sent Lewis and Clark on their expedition?

Who was Seaman in the Lewis and Clark expedition?

What plants and animals did Lewis discover?

Who was the Native American woman who accompanied the expedition?

Lewis and Clark Expedition, (1804-06), U.S. military expedition, led by Capt. Meriwether Lewis and Lieut. William Clark, to explore the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The expedition was a major chapter in the history of American exploration.

Commissioning and preparation

On January 18, 1803, U.S. Pres. Thomas Jefferson sent a secret message to Congress asking for $2,500 to send an officer and a dozen soldiers to explore the Missouri River, make diplomatic contact with Indians, expand the American fur trade, and locate the Northwest Passage (the much-sought-after hypothetical northwestern water route to the Pacific Ocean). The proposed trip took on added significance on May 2, when the United States agreed to the Louisiana Purchase- Napoleon's sale of 828,000 square miles (2,100,000 square km) of French territory for $27 million. Jefferson, who had already sponsored several attempts to explore the West, asked his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to lead the expedition. Lewis was dispatched to Philadelphia for instruction in botany, celestial navigation, medicine, and zoology. He also purchased supplies and spent $20 on a Newfoundland dog, Seaman.

Lewis procured weapons at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now in West Virginia), supervised the construction of a 55-foot (17-metre) keelboat, and secured smaller vessels, in addition to designing an iron-framed boat that could be assembled on the journey. As his co-commander he selected William Clark, who had been his military superior during the government's battles with the Northwest Indian Federation in the early 1790s. The U.S. secretary of war denied Lewis's request of a shared command, but Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clark chose to address one another as "captain" to hide this fact from the other members of the expedition. For his part, Clark recruited men in Kentucky, oversaw their training that winter at Camp River Dubois in Illinois, and served as the expedition's principal waterman and cartographer.

Expedition from May 14, 1804, to October 16, 1805

Over the duration of the trip, from May 14, 1804, to September 23, 1806, from St. Louis, Missouri, to the Pacific Ocean and back, the Corps of Discovery, as the expedition company was called, traveled nearly 8,000 miles (13,000 km). The entourage, numbering about four dozen men, covered 10 to 20 miles (16 to 32 km) a day-poling, pushing, and pulling their 10-ton keelboat and two pirogues (dugout boats) up the Missouri River. Lewis's iron-framed boat was later assembled and covered with skins near Great Falls (in present-day Montana) but had to be abandoned because the seams leaked and there was no pitch to seal them. The captains and at least five others kept journals. President Jefferson had instructed Lewis to make observations of latitude and longitude and to take detailed notes about the soil, climate, animals, plants, and native peoples. Lewis identified 178 plants new to science, including bitterroot, prairie sagebrush, Douglas fir, and ponderosa pine, as well as 122 animals, such as grizzly bear, prairie dog, and pronghorn antelope. The scientific names Philadelphus lewisii (mock orange), Lewisia rediva (bitterroot), and Clarkia pucella (pink fairy, or ragged robin) are but three examples of the men's discoveries. The expedition encountered immense animal herds and ate well, consuming one buffalo, two elk, or four deer per day, supplemented by roots, berries, and fish. They named geographic locations after expedition members, peers, loved ones, and even their dog (Seaman's Creek). They experienced dysentery, venereal disease, boils, tick bites, and injuries from prickly pear, yet only one man perished over the course of the journey.

Another primary objective involved diplomacy with Native Americans. The expedition held councils with Indians, in which the corps had military parades, handed out peace medals, flags, and gifts, delivered speeches, promised trade, and requested intertribal peace. There also was something of a magic show (magnets, compasses, and Lewis's air gun) and an invitation for Indian representatives to travel to Washington, D.C. Most tribes welcomed trading opportunities and provided the expedition with food, knowledge, guides, shelter, sex, and entertainment. The Lakota (encountered in South Dakota), however, already had British commercial ties and did not view American competition favourably, especially because it would make their enemies stronger. Their attempt to prevent the expedition from continuing upstream nearly turned violent, but Chief Black Buffalo's diplomacy defused the situation.

The expedition arrived at the Mandan and Hidatsa villages near present-day Bismarck, North Dakota, and constructed Fort Mandan in which to spend the winter. The captains prepared maps, artifacts, mineral samples, plant specimens, and papers to send back in the spring. On April 7, 1805, a small crew departed on a St. Louis-bound keelboat laden with boxes of materials for Jefferson that included live magpies and a prairie dog. Meanwhile, the permanent party proceeded up the Missouri in six canoes and two pirogues. It now consisted of 33 people, including soldiers, civilians, Clark's slave York, and two newly hired interpreters-a French Canadian, Toussaint Charbonneau, and his Shoshone wife, Sacagawea, who had given birth to a boy, Jean Baptiste, that February. The departure scene was described by Lewis in his journal:

This little fleet altho' not quite so rispectable as those of Columbus or Capt. Cook were still viewed by us with as much pleasure as those deservedly famed adventurers ever beheld theirs...we were now about to penetrate a country at least two thousand miles in width, on which the foot of civillized man had never trodden; the good or evil it had in store for us was for experiment yet to determine, and these little vessells contained every article by which we were to expect to subsist or defend ourselves.

On June 2, 1805, the expedition party arrived at a fork in the river. Not knowing which waterway was the principal stream, they sent out reconnaissance parties up both forks. Although the evidence was not conclusive, the captains believed the south fork to be the major course while everyone else favoured the north. Lewis named the north fork Maria's River (now Marias River) and instructed the party to continue up the south fork. This choice proved correct when the expedition arrived at the Great Falls almost two weeks later. An 18-mile (29-km) portage around the falls was made even more difficult by broken terrain, prickly pear cactus, hailstorms, and numerous grizzly bears. On July 4, 1805, the party finished the portage and, to celebrate Independence Day, consumed the last of their 120 gallons of alcohol and danced into the night.

Arriving at the Three Forks of the Missouri River (the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers), Sacagawea recognized Beaverhead Rock and informed the others they would soon encounter some Shoshones. Lewis climbed Lemhi Pass, crossing the Continental Divide, only to have his hope for a single mountain portage dashed by the view of endless mountains stretching before him: "I discovered immence ranges of high mountains still to the West of us with their tops partially covered with snow." Fortunately, in mid-August he met a Shoshone band led by Sacagawea's brother Cameahwait, who provided the expedition with horses. The Shoshone guide Old Toby joined the expedition and led them across the Bitterroot Range. On the crossing, Clark lamented, "I have been wet and as cold in every part as I ever was in my life, indeed I was at one time fearfull my feet would freeze in the thin mockersons [moccasins] which I wore." Cold and hungry, the expedition finally spilled out of the mountains onto the Weippe Prairie, homeland of the Nez Percé. Upon the recommendation of a respected elderly woman, Watkuweis, the Nez Percé befriended the expedition. After leaving their horses with Chief Twisted Hair, the explorers hollowed out five cottonwood canoes and floated down the Clearwater and Snake rivers, reaching the Columbia River on October 16.

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Lewis and Clark Expedition | Summary, History, Members, Facts, & Map

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Lewis and Clark Expedition, U.S. military expedition (1804-06), led by Capt. Meriwether Lewis and Lieut. William Clark, to explore the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The expedition was a major chapter in the history of American exploration.

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Westward expansion

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History: Westward Expansion and the Old West for Kids

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Kids learn about the history of the Westward Expansion and the Old West of the United States as pioneers settled the west as the country expanded. Educational articles for teachers, students, and schools including daily life on the frontier, gold rush, Pony Express, timeline, glossary, and people.

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Opinion | The Myth of the Border Wall (Published 2019)

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The History of Black Cowboys and the Myth of the West was white 

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The History of Black Cowboys and the Myth of the West was white 

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A quick internet search of "American cowboy" yields a predictable crop of images. Husky men with weathered expressions can be seen galloping on horseback. They're often dressed in denim or plaid, with a bandana tied 'round their neck and a cowboy hat perched atop their head. Lassos are likely being swung overhead. And yes, they're all white.

Contrary to what the homogenous imagery depicted by Hollywood and history books would lead you to believe, cowboys of color have had a substantial presence on the Western frontier since the 1500s. In fact, the word "cowboy" is believed by some to have emerged as a derogatory term used to describe Black cowhands.

An ongoing photography exhibition at the Studio Museum in Harlem celebrates the legacy of the "Black Cowboy" while chronicling the unlikely places around the country where cowboy culture thrives today. Through their photographs, artists like Brad Trent, Deanna Lawson and Ron Tarver work to retire the persistent myth that equates cowboys with whiteness.

In the 1870s and '80s, the Village Voice reports, approximately 25 percent of the 35,000 cowboys on the Western Frontier were black. And yet the majority of their legacy has been whitewashed and written over.

One notable example of this erasure manifests in the story of Bass Reeves, a slave in Arkansas in the 19th century who later became a deputy U.S. marshal, known for his ace detective skills and bombastic style. (He often disguised himself in costume to fool felons and passed out silver dollars as a calling card.) Some have speculated that Reeves was the inspiration for the fictional Lone Ranger character.

Most people remain unaware of the black cowboy's storied, and fundamentally patriotic, past. " When I moved to the East Coast, I was amazed that people had never heard of or didn't know there were black cowboys," photographer Ron Tarver said in an interview with The Duncan Banner. "It was a story I wanted to tell for a long time."

In 2013 Tarver set out to document black cowboy culture, in part as a tribute to his grandfather, a cowboy in Oklahoma in the 1940s. "He worked on a ranch and drove cattle from near Braggs to Catoosa." Another artist, Brad Trent, shot striking black-and-white portraits of members of the Federation of Black Cowboys in Queens, New York, an organization devoted to telling the true story of black cowboys' heritage while providing educational opportunities for local youth to learn from the values and traditions of cowboy life.

Kesha Morse, the FBC president, described their mission as using " the uniqueness of horses as a way to reach inner-city children and expose them to more than what they are exposed to in their communities."

Trent's images capture how much has changed for black cowboys, who now dwell not only on the Western Front but on the city streets of New York and in rodeos held in state prisons. Yet certain values of cowboy culture remain intact. For Morse, it's the importance of patience, kindness and tolerance.

We would add: and a very cool hat.

BEFORE YOU GO

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A History Of Black Cowboys And The Myth That The West Was White

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Welcome! Texas Longhorn Ranch...
Unique We Open our Ranch for Guests ... Wednesday to Saturday Nights ... mid May the end of October! Guest Ranch B&B Getaway for Adults! ... & Horseback Trail Riding!
Peace & Quiet! Unwind, Relax, be a little pampered and of course, Eat Well!

Enjoy a Couples Getaway, Ladies Retreat, Friends Escape or Cyclists Respite! We love meeting Guests from all over the world. Many things keep visitors coming back...not the least of which is the Ranch's friendly hospitality.

*** We are a No Smoking Property! ***

For those of you who just can't seem to stop long enough to take a breath ... slow down, put your feet up ... See the stars and fireflies ... Listen to the birds and wake up to fresh coffee.

Our Texas Longhorn cattle and all the adventures we have had with them, and the people we have met along the way, have always been the heart of all we do, even now, when we are going a little less rustic and adding many more amenities to help pamper you during your stay. Fred's a cowboy (cowboy boots) & I'm a cottage girl (flip flops)! What a team we make!

We have gone from a rustic working cattle ranch ... to running a Western Kids Camp for 20 years ... and NOW to an ADULT Guest Ranch! (sometimes grownups enjoy a little time on their own!). We also have an Adult 45+ Seasonal Campground on the Ranch!...

... We are still a working Cattle Ranch! ... with our oldest son, Stewart & family, taking over most of that part of the business, but we get to play and work cattle whenever we get the urge. We love visiting with our new Guests and telling a bit of our history. Whether you come for a stay in your very own private Covered Wagon or come out for a Trail Ride ... you will be pleasantly surprised at the uniqueness of the Texas Longhorn Ranch.

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Unique We Open our Ranch for Guests ... Wednesday to Saturday Nights ... mid May the end of October! Guest Ranch B&B Getaway for Adults! ... & Horseback Trail Riding! Peace & Quiet! Unwind, Relax, be a little pampered and of course, Eat Well! Enjoy a Couples Getaway, Ladies Retreat, Friends Escape or Cyclists Respite!

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Subscribe to CLASSIC TRAILERS: http://bit.ly/1u43jDe Subscribe to TRAILERS: http://bit.ly/sxaw6h Subscribe to COMING SOON: http://bit.ly/H2vZUn Like us on FACEBOOK: http://bit.ly/1QyRMsE Follow us on TWITTER: http://bit.ly/1ghOWmt Stagecoach (1939) Official Trailer - John Wayne, John Ford Western Movie HD A group of people traveling on a stagecoach find their journey complicated by the threat of Geronimo and learn something about each other in the process.

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The first dime novels were initially published around the start of the American Civil War. These sensational stories were full of romance and adventure and became wildly popular in both the United States and in England, where they were known as "penny dreadfuls." Named for their cheap prices, dime novels were distributed in numerical series at newsstands and dry goods stores for a dime or a nickel a piece. The books were simple in appearance, bound in cheap paper with a brightly illustrated cover. They were lightweight at only about 100 pages long, easy to carry, and easy to pass around.

Because of the cheap price of the dime novels, publishers geared the books toward the uneducated lower class, producing stories with simple, formulaic plots that opened "new worlds" to their readers. Storylines were straight forward and told in physical language that brought to mind concrete pictures and people for the readers. There were no mind games or psychoanalysis in the novels, only simple story telling. For the less avid reader, story papers were published with abridged versions of dime novel-like stories. These were shorter and brightly illustrated. Most often they were about eight pages in length and serialized weekly in magazines or booklets.

The first of these stories were about the American Indians, but when Indians were placed on reservations, the public's fascination with them began to fade. Consequently, the novels morphed into stories of cowboys in the Wild West, outlaws and bandits, and train robbers. Detective mysteries and working-girl narratives followed later. In Victorian England, many "penny dreadfuls" were written in the macabre Gothic tradition to frighten and thrill readers. The entrance of Great Britain and the United States into World War I provided a whole new field of material from which publishers could draw for the novels.

Dime novels typically told the dramatic adventure stories of a single hero or heroine who often found himself or herself in the midst of a moral dilemma. The novels were ethically sound, endorsing good character and strong moral values when the novel's hero chose virtue over vice. Sometimes, the protagonist was a historical figure, sparking the young readers' interest in history.

Women's dime novels typically dealt with romance and marriage, drawing on the social experience of the readers. Stories often set up a love between a working class girl and a noble and sometimes told of marriages and betrothals gone awry. Usually, these romantic ventures would end in disaster, warning the working class women that the emerging concept of an acceptable female sexuality was in fact, unacceptable. In these stories, virtue was protected at all cost, its importance emphasised for the sake of the readers.
The Dime Novel Craze
Several factors contributed to the explosion in dime novel production during the last half of the nineteenth century. First, updated technology allowed for the mass production and consumption of the works. The mechanization of printing and developments of new, cheaper types of paper allowed publishers to print more books in less time. These books were able to be distributed at a greater rate and to a further extent than before because of updated shipping methods. This updated transportation directly affected the reading public, as well. As more people used public transportation with railroad and streetcars for commuting, they had more latent time to spend with short, light reading. In addition to this, America was experiencing a significant rise in literacy rates. Coming off a decade of social reform, including a reform of schools and the enactment and enforcement of compulsory education law, the working class was more literate than ever before. A shift in the home from use of candles to oil lamps made it easier for readers to continue reading late into the night. Additionally, public interest in the subject matter of the dime novels was high. With the battles with the Indians and the events of the Civil War, readers were looking for high action stories of the West.
Publishers
There were a few publishers who decided to cash in on the high business of the dime novels. Irwin and Erasmus Beadle and Robert Adams published the first dime novel under their publishing house, Beadle and Adams, in 1860. It was a short novel entitled Malaeska, the Indian Wife of the White Hunter, written by Mrs. Ann S. Stephens. Between 1860 and 1865 alone, Beadle and Adams published more than five million dime novels. During this time, the Civil War made soldiers a prime audience for the publishers who produced books that catered to the men needing mental stimulation during the boredom that often came with camp life.

A falling out between the brothers of Beadle and Adams led Irwin to pull out of the partnership. He joined up with George Munro, a bookkeeper in the publishing house, and they founded their own house, Munro. Munro began to publish its own version of dime novels, calling them "Ten Cent Novels."

Another major publishing house for dime novels was Street and Smith. This company viewed fiction as a commodity, and editors had strict authority over the authors' works. Each author was allowed limited room for immense creativity and was required to follow specific formulae in the plot lines and styles of writing they used. A surprising number of authors were willing to do so. Authors like Horatio Alger, Upton Sinclair, and Jack London wrote for Street and Smith under pen names to make the money that would come with their published works.
Authors
Not all of the authors were writing under pen names to save their reputations. Many were simply semi-professional writers who were often journalists, teachers, or clerks simply looking to make a bit more money than they could with their current occupations. Sometimes, authors wrote under pen names in addition to their real names in an attempt to increase their financial intake.

Some of the most well-known dime novel writers were Thomas C. Harbaugh, Albert W. Aiken, Edward L. Wheeler, Joseph W. Badger, Jr., and Colonel Prentiss Ingraham. Ingraham was the most successful writer of the short novels as the creator of the famous character, Buffalo Bill. He completed more than 600 novels in his lifetime, in addition to a number of published plays and poems. He was a master of his craft, pulling from his own military and travel experiences to create the scenarios in his stories. It is said that one his dime novel stories was written on rush order, the completed work containing 40,000 words on only 24 hours' notice, without a typewriter. With the invention of the typewriter, authors were able to churn out stories at an unbelievable rate. Frederic Marmaduke Van Rensselaer Dey, the creator of street-savvy detective Nick Carter, was rumoured to put out 25,000 words every week for almost twenty years, using multiple pen names. The high demand for the novels meant the authors made $200-$300 for each successful submission.

This financial draw incited many respectable authors to contribute to the genre. Famous names like Louisa May Alcott, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Alfred Lord Tennyson left their mark on the deluge of cheap fiction pouring from the publishing houses.

Women writers gained surprising recognition during this time. When Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne were selling several thousand copies of their works a year, author Fanny Fern sold 70,000 copies of her book Fern Leaves and 50,000 copies of Ruth Hall. Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe, sold hundreds of thousands of copies. In 1872, seventy-five percent of books published were written by women.
Audience
The sale of dime novels was most highly concentrated in the industrial cities and mill towns of the North and West, where the largest groups of lower class people lived and worked in America. They were widely read by the lower classes, primarily by boys and young men, though some girls, grown men, and some groups in the middle class enjoyed the books, as well. Many people, especially of the middle class, were ashamed to admit they read the novels, as they were not necessarily quality reading material and were only mindless entertainment with which to while away the time.

While it is not as well-remembered today, there was an audience of women for dime novels, too. Many young, working and middle class girls and women enjoyed the stories of romances in the pioneer realm, sensational murder mysteries, and society romances. Bertha M. Clay, Geraldine Fleming, and Laura Jean Libbey were the more prominent female writers of novels like All for Love of a Fair Face, The Story of a Wedding Ring, A Charity Girl, The Unseen Bridegroom, and Only a Mechanic's Daughter.
The Lasting Influence of the Dime Novel
It would be hard to say that the nature of the dime novels has been lost. While the 1890s brought the entrance of pulp fiction magazines into the publishing arena, they were heavily influenced by the dime novels. Rising post rates may have caused a decline in the publication of the dime novel, but the content and sentiment behind the works continue to influence publications even to modern day. Sensationalist celebrity gossip magazines, romance paperbacks and romantic comedies, horror movies and ghost stories, and exaggerated tall tales are all directly or indirectly the result of the dime novel craze.
Further Reading Brief History of Street & Smith Dime Novels and Penny Dreadfuls Dime Novels Timeline Dime Novel Research at the Newberry Library
Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. Ed. Jessica Bomarito and Russel Whitaker. Vol. 160. Detroit: Gale, 2006. From Literature Resource Center.
The Dime Novel in American Life World War I and the Dime Novel The American Women's Dime Novel Project The History of the Paperback

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The first dime novels were initially published around the start of the American Civil War. These sensational stories were full of romance and adventure and became wildly popular in both the United States and in England, where they were known as "penny dreadfuls."

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Who Was George Custer?

George Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, in 1839. During the Civil War he commanded several different cavalry divisions and distinguished himself with his bravery in some of its most important battles. In 1866 Custer joined the 7th Cavalry in Kansas, and on June 25, 1876, he led 210 men against Lakota and Cheyenne warriors at the Battle of Little Bighorn, where he and all of his men were killed.

Ambitions

George Armstrong Custer was born December 5, 1839, in New Rumley, Ohio. One of five children, at a young age he was sent to live with an older half sister and brother-in-law in Monroe, Michigan, and spent much of his youth bouncing between the two states. After high school, he attended the McNeely Normal School and worked odd jobs to help pay his way, eventually earning a teaching certificate.

But Custer had greater ambitions than being a grammar school teacher and soon set his sights on the military academy at West Point. While he lacked the qualifications that many of the other candidates had, his confidence eventually won over a local congressman, and with his recommendation, in 1857 Custer was enrolled at the school.

A Lackluster Cadet

But West Point was not a perfect fit for Custer, who, though he longed to climb to a higher rank in life, possessed a deep rebellious streak. A poor student prone to misbehavior, he was frequently disciplined, nearly expelled and ultimately finished last in his graduating class in June 1861.

Compounding his poor academic showing, just a few days after graduation, Custer failed as officer of the guard to prevent a fight between two cadets. Nearly court-martialed in the aftermath, Custer was ultimately saved by the outbreak of the Civil War and the desperate need for officers.

Custer's Luck

Custer was placed in command of a cavalry unit as a second lieutenant, and in July 1861 quickly earned recognition for himself with his brilliant direction of its actions at the First Battle of Bull Run. He also seemed to possess a gift for avoiding injury, which he came to call "Custer's luck." (Unfortunately, the men under his command weren't always so lucky, suffering disproportionately high casualties during the war.)

Having only recently been an unremarkable student, with his brave actions at Bull Run and elsewhere Custer soon earned the positive attention of high-ranking officers and earned himself an assignment to General George B. McClellan's staff. In turn, the visibility of that post led to his promotion to brigadier general in 1863.

The Boy General

Placed in command of the Michigan Cavalry Brigade, over the next few years Custer distinguished himself at such important battles as Gettysburg and Yellow Tavern and earned himself the nickname "Boy General," in reference to his relatively young age. "Future writers of fiction will find in Brigadier General Custer most of the qualities which go to make up a first-class hero," gushed the New York Tribune in 1864.

By the war's end, Custer had been promoted yet again, to the rank of major general, and his cavalry units were crucial in blocking the movements of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's retreating forces, which helped hasten his surrender at Appomattox, on April 9, 1865.

In recognition of his heroism, Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan gave the young military hero the table used to sign the war's peace terms, including with it a note to Custer's wife, Libbie, in praise of her husband. "Permit me to say, Madam," he wrote, "that there is scarcely an individual in our service who has contributed more to bring about this desirable result than your gallant husband."

Little Bighorn

Following the war, as the still-young country looked to settle the West, it needed to defeat the Lakota Sioux and Southern Cheyenne that dominated parts of the frontier. To that end, the 7th Cavalry was created and Custer was placed in its command. After serving a brief suspension for deserting his post in 1867, Custer returned to action the following year and participated in several small battles against Native Americans in the region over the next several years.

But Custer's legendary bravery in battle would prove to be his undoing when, in 1876, the United States ordered an attack intended to crush the Lakota and Cheyenne. Though the plan was for three separate forces-one of which was led by Custer-to surround and overwhelm them, Custer and his men advanced more quickly than the other two units, and on June 25 Custer ordered his 210 men to attack a large Indian village.

On the other side of the attack was Sitting Bull, the revered Lakota chief who had originally wanted peace at Little Bighorn. Custer, however, was determined to fight. Against the onrush of thousands of Lakota, Arapaho and Cheyenne warriors, Custer and all of his men were surrounded, overwhelmed and killed.

Last Stand and Legacy

The Battle of Little Bighorn was a stinging embarrassment to the U.S. government, which redoubled its efforts and quickly and cruelly defeated the Lakota.

For his role in the battle, Custer earned himself his place in American history, though certainly not in the way he would have wished for. During her final years, Custer's wife wrote accounts of her husband's life that cast him in a heroic light, but no story could overcome the debacle that became known as Custer's Last Stand.

In 2018, Heritage Auctions announced that it had sold a lock of Custer's hair for $12,500. The lock came from the collection of artist and American West enthusiast Glen Swanson, who said that it was preserved when Custer saved his hair following a trip to the barber, in case he needed a wig.

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George Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, in 1839. During the Civil War he commanded several different cavalry divisions and distinguished himself with his bravery in some of its most important battles.

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Indian Wars is the name generally used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between the colonial or federal government and the indigenous peoples.

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The Price of Freedom: Printable Exhibition

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In 1874, however, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer led an expedition of 1,000 men and 110 wagons to explore the Black Hills. His stated goal was to identify a site for a fort to protect this Indian land. In fact, he was also interested in rumors that the Black Hills contained gold deposits.

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The Indian Wars and the Battle of the Little Bighorn (article) | Khan Academy

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In the late nineteenth century, the US Army clashed with Native Americans, and General Custer took his last stand.

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SHOTGUN LOVESONGS by Nickolas Butler | Kirkus Reviews

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A debut novel that delves so deeply into the small-town heartland that readers will accept its flaws as part of its charm.

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Lonesome Dove, by Larry McMurtry (Simon & Schuster)

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"The day I found out that Lonesome Dove had been awarded the Pulitzer Prize, I happened to be lecturing at a small college in Uvalde, Texas. I think I may have been the first writer to speak in Uvalde, home of John Nance Garner, Roosevelt's outspoken vice president (for a while) who remarked famously that the vice presidency 'wasn't worth a bootful of warm spit.'

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Lonesome Dove book. Read 6,429 reviews from the world's largest community for readers. A love story, an adventure, and an epic of the frontier, Larry McM...

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The Territory book. Read 75 reviews from the world's largest community for readers. At the end of State Road 170 and just past a ghost town lies Artemis,...

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The Territory

Book One in the Josie Gray Mystery Series

What sacrifices would you make to triumph over evil? Would you sacrifice love? Your home? Would the risks be worth the payoff? Chief of Police, Josie Gray, becomes a personal target for the Medrano Cartel and puts the town she vowed to protect at risk. How does an understaffed border town cop face a brutal organization with infinite resources and win?

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Book One in the Josie Gray Mystery Series What sacrifices would you make to triumph over evil? Would you sacrifice love? Your home? Would the risks be worth the payoff? Chief of Police, Josie Gray, becomes a personal target for the Medrano Cartel and puts the town she vowed to protect at risk.

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Cowboys, they're not someone who just puts on a hat and gets on a horse. They don't just walk around with boots on wearing a western shirt and have people recognize them as a cowboy. No, cowboys are a rare breed, individuals who understand the meaning of respect, integrity, and what a person's word means.

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Immigration enforcement and drug smuggling continue to be top priorities for the Department of Homeland Security, and the Border Patrol's budget has swelled accordingly, increasing from just $262,647 in 1990 to over $3.5 million dollars in the 2012 fiscal year. They've added more agents, more technology, and higher fences.

Despite such progress, human smugglers and drug traffickers have simply pushed further into mountainous, difficult terrain to avoid detection.

That's where horses come in.

Since the Border Patrol was founded in 1924, horseback patrols have been widely utilized. In fact, mounted patrols are said to have begun as early as 1904, in El Paso, where men on horseback policed against Chinese immigrants. Horse patrol units now exist along the border in various sectors, through California, Arizona, and Texas.

In the San Diego sector, the Horse Patrol unit is based out Imperial Beach. The unit's office is housed in a dull brown portable trailer, and 35 four-legged "vehicles" live within a nearby beige building. Each stall is outfitted with individual turnout paddocks.

Agents on the unit are tasked with everything from riding on patrol to mucking stalls, and general horse care. Their days, they say, are typically well over eight hours long. It's common for mounted agents in the San Diego sector to trailer their horses to the east, where they typically work during the night.

Just 18 of San Diego's 2,623 border patrol agents ride on the horse patrol, a popular and competitive detail. Jaime Cluff, the supervisory agent in charge, says the horse patrol is an important recruiting tool for the Border Patrol.

Monica Slack is a mounted agent and riding instructor with a decade of experience working for the agency. "We spend a lot of time together, 10-12 hrs a day, 5 days a week," she says. "So, we do well with each other."

And agency-wide, the use of horses is apparently on the rise. According to statistics on the Customs of Border Patrol website, in 2011, there were 334 horse units in the Border Patrol. That's a 33 percent rise from 2008.

Yet the Border Patrol refused to say why more horses are being used-or how effective horse patrols actually are at catching human and drug smugglers.

The vagueness is nothing new. This past December, two separate Government Accountability Reports criticized the agency, analyzing its lack of accountability regarding performance. The Border Patrol was also chastised for high levels of employee misconduct and corruption.

And more U.S. citizens than ever before are now being caught smuggling, according to the Center for Investigative Reporting. In fact, 75 percent of people caught with drugs by the Border Patrol are U.S. citizens, according to the report. It examined 40,000 seizures and suspect information, and drew the conclusion that 80 percent had involved U.S. citizens. The rate has increased every year from 2005 until 2011.

Although millions are being spent on "securing" the border, apprehensions are at an all-time low. In San Diego, according to statistics from the Border Patrol, around 119,000 people were apprehended. Most recently, in 2012, just 29,000 people were arrested.

Those who get to work from Imperial Beach clearly enjoy their job. Supervisory agent Cluff admits that there's more downtime than there used to be, since the "traffic levels" are "a lot less" then they were five years before. "If I could stay here and do it for another 20 years, I would," he says.

Agent Slack reflected a similar sentiment.

"I think the Queen of England is 88 years old and she still rides," she says. "So as long as I'm physically able, I'll be riding horses."

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U.S. Border Patrol: More Agents, Fences...and Horses?

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Immigration enforcement and drug smuggling continue to be top priorities for the Department of Homeland Security, and the Border Patrol's budget has swelled accordingly, increasing from just $262,647 in 1990 to over $3.5 million dollars in fiscal year 2012. They've added more agents, more...

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Why horse patrols bring advantage to U.S. Border Patrol agents

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Keeping our border safe takes more than just all-terrain vehicles and the latest technology.U.S. Border Patrol agents also use horses.In a world with drones and motorized vehicles, agents still rely on the four-legged animals.Thad Wayne Jackson, horse patr

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Border Patrol Horse Unit - Best Photos Of Border Imagedge.Org

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Border patrol agents performing atv image to enlarge ivie family photo border patrol one of the few jobs in united states that truly requires horses us border patrol s horseback units make use mustangs gathered from range and pot found ...

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Horse patrol units train to protect our borders

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James P. Owen is Founder and Chief Inspiration Officer of the Center for Cowboy Ethics and Leadership, the foundation he created to help spread the message that "we can all be heroes in our own lives." He is also an inspirational speaker, author, and social entrepreneur. Jim's book credits include the best-selling first edition of Cowboy Ethics (2004), Cowboy Values (2008), and The Try (2010), a collection of profiles highlighting the character qualities that enable ordinary people to do extraordinary things.

It was not until later in life that Jim found his "true purpose." After more than thirty-five years in business, he was so dismayed by the country's spreading epidemic of corporate scandals and social discord that he felt compelled to speak out, urging a return to the basic core values that all Americans can share. Ever since, he has dedicated his time to projects offering inspiration to those who want to be their best selves, with a special focus on young people and those in business. He also logs thousands of miles each year as he travels the country, speaking to groups of all kinds.

Jim is a summa cum laude graduate of Regis University. He and his wife, Stanya, have two grown children and reside in Austin, Texas.

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James P. Owen is Founder and Chief Inspiration Officer of the Center for Cowboy Ethics and Leadership, the foundation he created to help spread the message that "we can all be heroes in our own lives." He is also an inspirational speaker, author, and social entrepreneur.

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James P. Owen is Founder and Chief Inspiration Officer of the Center for Cowboy Ethics and Leadership, the foundation he created to help spread the message that "we can all be heroes in our own lives." He is also an inspirational speaker, author, and social entrepreneur. Jim's book credits include the best-selling first edition of Cowboy Ethics (2004), Cowboy Values (2008), and The Try (2010), a collection of profiles highlighting the character qualities that enable ordinary people to do extraordinary things.

It was not until later in life that Jim found his "true purpose." After more than thirty-five years in business, he was so dismayed by the country's spreading epidemic of corporate scandals and social discord that he felt compelled to speak out, urging a return to the basic core values that all Americans can share. Ever since, he has dedicated his time to projects offering inspiration to those who want to be their best selves, with a special focus on young people and those in business. He also logs thousands of miles each year as he travels the country, speaking to groups of all kinds.

Jim is a summa cum laude graduate of Regis University. He and his wife, Stanya, have two grown children and reside in Austin, Texas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
James P. Owen is Founder and Chief Inspiration Officer of the Center for Cowboy Ethics and Leadership, the foundation he created to help spread the message that "we can all be heroes in our own lives." He is also an inspirational speaker, author, and social entrepreneur.

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Clear explanations about how to make the Present Perfect Tense in English, with lots of practice exercises.

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Edward S. Curtis, in full Edward Sheriff Curtis, (born February 16, 1868, near Whitewater, Wisconsin, U.S.-died October 19, 1952, Los Angeles, California), American photographer and chronicler of Native American peoples whose work perpetuated an influential image of Indians as a "vanishing race." The monumental The North American Indian (1907-30), published under his name, constitutes a major compendium of photographic and anthropological material about those indigenous peoples of the trans- Mississippi West who, as Curtis stated in his preface, "still retained to a considerable degree their primitive customs and traditions."

Curtis's rise

Curtis was born in Wisconsin, was raised in Minnesota, and in 1887 migrated to the Pacific Northwest to help break ground for a family homestead on the edge of Puget Sound. By the mid-1890s he had married and left home to found a successful photographic portrait studio in the burgeoning city of Seattle. His love of outdoor pursuits enabled him to become a competent mountaineering and landscape photographer, but it was the award of prizes for his pictures of scenes from local Indian life that led to wider recognition. He was adept at making friends and influencing people, and his career on the national stage was boosted immeasurably when he got himself appointed official photographer to the Harriman Alaska Expedition of 1899. Curtis's encounters with the natural history specialists recruited for that voyage by the railroad tycoon Edward H. Harriman-especially George Bird Grinnell, amateur anthropologist and editor of Forest and Stream-enabled him to conceive a comprehensive record of the tribes of western North America.

The production and nature of The North American Indian

Relying on his contacts with the wealthy Harriman family and their associates and supported by expedition scientists and writers-including Grinnell, John Muir, the celebrated environmentalist author and campaigner, and C. Hart Merriam, the expedition's director-Curtis began to seek funding for his Indian project, initially from such public bodies as the Smithsonian Institution. His ultimately successful efforts resulted in The North American Indian, 20 volumes of illustrated text accompanied by 20 portfolios of large photogravures. Curtis's benefactor, the immensely powerful banker J. Pierpont Morgan, who had agreed to finance the fieldwork for the project, insisted that the lavish set of leather-bound volumes be sold on a subscription basis-and the subscription price had to be high. As a result, The North American Indian entered the homes of only the very rich. It did reach major libraries too, either through direct subscription or as donated by the wealthiest in society, such as Gifford Pinchot, then head of the U.S. Forest Service, who bought a copy for Yale University, or the tycoon Henry Huntington, who purchased it for his own growing library. The publication's business arrangement nonetheless doomed Curtis to incessant salesmanship that he somehow had to sandwich between extended field trips.

Curtis, Edward S.: Before the White Man Came-Palm Cañon Courtesy of the Newberry Library, Chicago, Ayer Collection

The North American Indian, although credited as "written, illustrated and published by Edward S. Curtis," was actually a collective product of the North American Indian, Inc., a subsidiary company of the Morgan Bank. Curtis was the driving force and did take virtually every image reproduced in it, but he was not responsible for the bulk of the ethnological research on which it was based and wrote only some of the text. William E. Myers, a former newspaperman, served as the principal ethnologist and wrote most of volumes 1 through 18, and the final two volumes were the work of Stewart C. Eastwood. Frederick Webb Hodge of the U.S. Bureau of American Ethnology was recruited as the credited editor for the whole series; Pres. Theodore Roosevelt agreed to write a foreword for the first volume; and several academics, including historian of the West Edmond S. Meany, lent their expertise for parts of the publication. Equally important, the Morgan largesse permitted the employment of Native American assistants and informants, most conspicuously Alexander B. Upshaw ( Crow), who worked on the northern Plains volumes. Other noteworthy cultural brokers attached to the project were George Hunt ( Tlingit-Scottish), on the Northwest Coast; Charlie Day, son of a trading family that had intermarried into the Navajo community of the Southwest; and Henry B. Allen (Skokomish), who helped out in Washington state. Ethnological as well as administrative assistance came from William W. Phillips, Curtis's cousin through marriage, and, later, from Edmund A. Schwinke, who also operated a movie camera for Curtis.

Curtis took thousands of photographs for The North American Indian-predominantly portraits but also landscapes, still lifes, scenes of everyday life, and more. In an article published in 1914, at the height of his fame, he wrote, "We want the documentary picture of the people and their homeland-a picture that will show the soul of the people." In retrospect it should be obvious that such an aim was far from straightforward. Very many images depict people who were actually reconstructing for the camera ways of life that had died out. Sometimes-as Curtis confessed was the case among the Navajos-the reenactment of ceremonies "broke down" traditional beliefs and led to divisiveness among the people. But in the main, despite often sounding an elegiac note, the pictures are profoundly respectful of Native American people, presenting them and their varied cultures with dignity and pride. Encampment scenes, such as that of the Crow On the Little Bighorn (1908), were composed to stress the people's ease with the natural world. Commonplace items were arranged to draw viewers' attention to their craftsmanship and beauty; thosephotographs of baskets, for example, reveal the tightness of weave and the intricacy of their patterning. Frequently Curtis's human subjects are so powerfully present in the picture that they seem to return the observer's gaze. Of particular note are the portraits Chief Joseph-Nez Perce (1903), Two Strike-Oglala (1907), and Kenowun-Nunivak (1928), each of which both challenges and engages the viewer.

The North American Indian was significant both as a publication-it treated over 80 distinct peoples representative of all the culture areas of the trans-Mississippi West-and as a cultural phenomenon. It constituted a huge repository of ethnographic information, much of it unavailable anywhere else-outlines of social organization, myths, language vocabularies, (auto)biographies of leaders, and much else-all systematically ordered according to the best anthropological practice of the time and written in an atmospheric but accessible style. But its representation of Native Americans-as already depleted in population, deprived of the resources to withstand white expansion, and incapable of dynamic change-should not be thought of as "true." Its representation had political, economic, ideological, and aesthetic determinants. It was inflected, even conditioned, by the attitudes of the dominant or mainstream culture. Reciprocally, the project contributed to those attitudes in ways both specific and nebulous. The Vanishing Race (1904), Curtis's keynote image of a line of Navajo riders receding into the shadows of a canyon, was widely circulated, and, as Curtis wrote, it symbolized the passing of a people "into the darkness of an unknown future." President Roosevelt described the project as a "real asset in American achievement." In a double-edged way, that is a fair assessment. The project truly was nationwide in scope and had connections, if mostly informal, to the national policies executed by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, policies that, seen from the vantage of the 21st century, proved extremely damaging-economically as well as psychologically-to Native peoples.

Curtis, Edward S.: Vanishing Race-Navaho Los Angeles County Museum of Art, The Marjorie and Leonard Vernon Collection, gift of The Annenberg Foundation, acquired from Carol Vernon and Robert Turbin(M.2008.40579), www.lacma.org

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Edward S. Curtis | American photographer

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Edward S. Curtis, American photographer and chronicler of Native American peoples whose work perpetuated an influential image of Indians as a "vanishing race." The monumental The North American Indian (1907-30), published under his name, constitutes a major compendium of photographic and

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Turner: The Frontier In American History