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The integrated circuit (IC) chip was invented during 1958–1959.

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The integrated circuit (IC) chip was invented during 1958–1959.

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The idea of integrating electronic circuits into a single device was born when the German physicist and engineer Werner Jacobi developed and patented the first known integrated transistor amplifier in 1949 and the British radio engineer Geoffrey Dummer proposed to integrate a variety of standard electronic components in a monolithic semiconductor crystal in 1952. A

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During and immediately after World War II a phenomenon named "the tyranny of numbers" was noticed, that is, some computational devices reached a level of complexity at which the losses from failures and downtime exceeded the expected benefits.[5] Each Boeing B-29 (put into service in 1944) carried 300–1000 vacuum tubes and tens of thousands of passive components.[notes 4] The number of vacuum tubes reached thousands in advanced computers and more than 17,000 in the ENIAC (1946).[notes 5] Each additional component reduced the reliability of a device and lengthened the troubleshooting time.[5] Traditional electronics reached a deadlock and a further development of electronic devices required reducing the number of their components.

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Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG)[8] filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device[9] showing five transistors on a common substrate in a 3-stage amplifier arrangement with two transistors working "upside-down" as impedance converter. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. An immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported.

On May 7, 1952, the British radio engineer Geoffrey Dummer formulated the idea of integration in a public speech in Washington:

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220px-Интегральный_генератор_Харвика_Джонсона_1953

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The leading US electronics companies (Bell Labs, IBM, RCA and General Electric) sought solution to "the tyranny of numbers" in the development of discrete components that implemented a given function with a minimum number of attached passive elements.[17] During the vacuum tube era, this approach allowed to reduce the cost of a circuit at the expense of its operation frequency. For example, a memory cell of the 1940s consisted of two triodes and a dozen passive components and ran at frequencies up to 200 kHz. A MHz response could be achieved with two pentodes and six diodes per cell. This cell could be replaced by one thyratron with a load resistor and an input capacitor, but the operating frequency of such circuit did not exceed a few kHz.[18]

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Surface passivation, the process by which a semiconductor surface is rendered inert, and does not change semiconductor properties as a result of interaction with air or other materials in contact with the surface or edge of the crystal, was first developed by Mohamed Atalla at Bell Labs,[32][33] in 1957.[34][35] Atalla discovered that the formation of a thermally grown silicon dioxide (SiO₂) layer greatly reduced the concentration of electronic states at the silicon surface,[33] and discovered the important quality of SiO₂ films to preserve the electrical characteristics of p–n junctions and prevent these electrical characteristics from deteriorating by the gaseous ambient environment.[36] He found that silicon oxide layers could be used to electrically stabilize silicon surfaces.[30] He developed the surface passivation process, a new method of semiconductor device fabrication that involves coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below. By growing a layer of silicon dioxide on top of a silicon wafer, Atalla was able to overcome the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer.[32][37]

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In autumn 1958, Texas Instruments introduced the yet non-patented idea of Kilby to military customers.[49] While most divisions rejected it as unfit to the existing concepts, the US Air Force decided that this technology complies with their molecular electronics program,[49][61] and ordered production of prototype ICs, which Kilby named "functional electronic blocks".[62] Westinghouse added epitaxy to the Texas Instruments technology and received a separate order from the US military in January 1960.[63]

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In late 1958, Kurt Lehovec, a scientist working at the Sprague Electric Company, attended a seminar at Princeton where Wallmark outlined his vision of the fundamental problems in microelectronics. On his way back to Massachusetts, Lehovec found a simple solution to the isolation problem which used the p-n junction:[70]

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In early 1959, Noyce solved another important problem, the problem of interconnections that hindered mass-production of ICs.[85] According to the colleagues from the traitorous eight his idea was self-evident: of course, the passivating oxide layer forms a natural barrier between the chip and the metallization layer.[86] According to Turner Hasty, who worked with Kilby and Noyce, Noyce planned to make the microelectronic patents of Fairchild accessible to a wide range of companies, similar to Bell Labs which in 1951–1952 released their transistor technologies.[87]

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In August 1959, Noyce formed at Fairchild a group to develop integrated circuits.[90] On May 26, 1960, this group, led by Jay Last, produced the first planar integrated circuit. This prototype was not monolithic – two pairs of its transistors were isolated by cutting a groove on the chip,[91] according to the patent by Last.[92] The initial production stages repeated the Hoerni's planar process. Then the 80-micron-thick crystal was glued, face down, to the glass substrate, and additional photolithography was carried on the back surface. Deep etching created a groove down to the front surface. Then the back surface was covered with an epoxy resin, and the chip was separated from the glass substrate.[93]

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The above logic ICs were built from standard components, with sizes and configurations defined by the technological process, and all the diodes and transistors on one IC were of the same type.[100] The use of different transistor types was first proposed by Tom Long at Sylvania during 1961–1962.

In 1961, transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was invented by James L. Buie.[101] In late 1962, Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) ICs, which became a commercial success.[102] Bob Widlar from Fairchild made a similar breakthrough in 1964–1965 in analog ICs (operational amplifiers).[103] TTL became the dominant IC technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[101]

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The MOSFET (metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[104] The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits.[105] Nearly all modern ICs are metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuits, built from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistors).[106] The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[107]

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1.Texas Instruments v. Westinghouse
2.Texas Instruments v. Sprague
3.Raytheon v. Fairchild
4.Hughes v. Fairchild
5.Texas Instruments v. Fairchild
6.Japan v. Fairchild
7.Japan v. Texas Instruments

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In this time we are using very powerful SOC's in daily life
eg.
Apple A14 bionic chip
Max. CPU clock rate: 1.8 GHz to 3.1 GHz

Min. feature size: 5 nm

Common manufacturer: TSMC

Transistors: 11.8 billion

Predecessor: Apple A13

GPU(s): Apple-designed 4 core
these are the future of our society in which we live