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Joseph Priestley's equipment that he used for his experiments with gases

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Between 1868 and 1870, when attempting to classify the 56 known elements in preparation for a textbook, Mendeleev noticed patterns emerging; he claimed to have seen the completed periodic table in a dream. He predicted the existence of further elements and even what properties they might have. He was proven to be correct when Gallium and Germanium were discovered in 1875. The modern periodic table contains 118 known elements.

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Schiehallion experiment to determine the mass of the earth

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Schiehallion experiment to determine the mass of the earth

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I return to my defense of science as a synthesizer of mystical thought, and the de-hermetization that pre-scholastic thought provided. It is impossible to think of science as opposed to what cabalistics is, for example, but they are not contrary, they are not areas that claim contrary things, both reveal, but one uses methods better as long as reality requires them in positivists terms

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I love teaching Biology and I integrate my lessons with the use of my optical microscope so kids can observe the microscopic life and draw what they see analysibg the features of the microorganisms they observe. I believe that practical observation and the use of scientific tools is paramount for learning science from an early age.

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Kurt @ Ivy Tech Community College - Bloomington

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Kurt @ Ivy Tech Community College - Bloomington

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This is me, with my telescope at the 2017 solar eclipse that came through the US. Fear not - I have a solar filter on the tube.

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Self-volunteered to test a new medication

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Self-volunteered to test a new medication

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https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/07/world/asia/tu-youyou-chinese-scientist-nobel-prize.html

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Tu Youyou in the 1980s. Dr. Tu, 84, on Monday became the first citizen of the People's Republic of China to win a Nobel Prize in the sciences, for discovering artemisinin, a drug that is now part of standard antimalarial regimens. Credit... Yang Wumin/Xinhua, via Associated Press

BEIJING - During the upheaval of China's Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, when many of the country's Western-trained scientists were shunned and persecuted, the government had an urgent scientific problem that needed attention.

North Vietnam, an important ally that was in the middle of war with the United States, had asked for a way to reduce the deaths of its soldiers from malaria, which had become resistant to the drug chloroquine. Malaria was also killing large numbers of people in southern China.

Mao Zedong set up a secret military project, Project 523 - named after its starting date, May 23, 1967 - to find a solution. But China's top expert in the field of malaria research, like legions of other Chinese in this time of high political turmoil, had been labeled a "rightist" and shunted aside.

After making little headway on the problem, the government turned to the Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Beijing, and to a little-known scientist, Tu Youyou, who had studied both Western and Chinese medicine - and who found the solution in traditional Chinese healing.

Dr. Tu, 84, on Monday became the first citizen of the People's Republic of China to win a Nobel Prize in the sciences, for discovering artemisinin, a drug that is now part of standard antimalarial regimens. She shared the Nobel for medicine or physiology with two scientists who also developed antiparasitic drugs.

Dr. Tu, through the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica at the Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences where she works, issued a statement about the value of artemisinin and traditional Chinese medicine.

"Artemisinin is a gift for the world's people from traditional Chinese medicine," the statement said.

Four Chinese scientists born in mainland China have been awarded the Nobel in physics, but only after making their careers in the West. The Chinese government has long wanted a Nobel in the sciences for the sake of prestige and as a confirmation of the quality of its education system.

The Chinese government and state-run news media celebrated Dr. Tu's prize as an acknowledgment of the rising strength of Chinese science as well as a vindication of the value of traditional Chinese medicine. But some scientists and commentators also said that until now, China's scientific establishment had treated Dr. Tu somewhat dismissively.

Prime Minister Li Keqiang said that Dr. Tu's Nobel "was an expression of the prosperity and progress of Chinese science, and of the huge contribution that Chinese traditional medicine and pharmacy has made to the health of humankind."

But Dr. Tu had been denied a place as an academician in China's highest honorary body for scientists, apparently because of her lack of foreign training and a doctoral degree, other commentators noted.

"I think that Tu Youyou's prize should lead to deeper reflection about China's scientific efforts," Wang Yuanfeng, a professor in Beijing said in an online commentary. "There are many problems in the institutions and mechanisms of scientific work in China."

At the start of her research for Project 523, Dr. Tu, then 39, was sent to Hainan Island, in the southernmost region of China, to see how the disease was affecting the population. Her husband had been purged during the Cultural Revolution, and she put her 4-year-old daughter into a nursery. Her visit to Hainan was the start of a decade of work, she told New Scientist in an interview in 2011.

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Tu Youyou Reacts to Nobel Prize

In an interview with China's state news media, the Nobel laureate said the award was a recognition of her country and its traditional medicine.

TK

In an interview with China's state news media, the Nobel laureate said the award was a recognition of her country and its traditional medicine. Credit Credit... China Stringer Network/Reuters

She visited traditional medical practitioners across China, and from those conversations, compiled a notebook, "A Collection of Single Practical Prescriptions for Anti-Malaria." Among 2,000 traditional Chinese recipes, she said, one compound was found to be effective: sweet wormwood, or Artemisia annua, which was used for "intermittent fevers," a hallmark of malaria.

In the interview, Dr. Tu told New Scientist that she reread a particular recipe, written more than 1,600 years ago in a text titled "Emergency Prescriptions Kept Up One's Sleeve." The directions were to soak one bunch of wormwood in water and then drink the juice.

But Dr. Tu said she realized that her method of preparation - boiling the wormwood - probably damaged the active ingredient. So she made another preparation using an ether-based solvent, which boils at 35 degrees Celsius, or 95 degrees Fahrenheit. When tested on mice and monkeys, she said, it proved 100 percent effective.

After the successful animal tests, Dr. Tu volunteered to be the first human subject, along with two colleagues. Satisfied that she had suffered no ill effects, she conducted clinical trials with patients.

"We had just cured drug-resistant malaria," Dr. Tu told New Scientist. "We were very excited."

Ten years after Mao founded Project 523, her work was published, though anonymously.

Western aid agencies did not take advantage of artemisinin for decades, even after its effectiveness was established. Older drugs were cheaper, but resistance to them was growing and some experts said the delay endangered lives.

The Nobel is not the first recognition for Dr. Tu's work. In 2011, when she won the $250,000 Lasker Award for clinical medical research, which named her the discoverer of artemisinin, some Chinese and Western malaria experts protested.

The Nobel is not the first recognition for Dr. Tu's work. In 2011, when she won the Lasker Award for clinical medical research, which named her the discoverer of artemisinin, some Chinese and Western malaria experts protested. Credit... China Network/Reuters

Dr. Nicholas J. White, a prominent malaria researcher at Oxford, said that others involved in the research equally deserved the honor. He suggested that the clinical trial leader, Dr. Li Guoqiao, and a chemist, Li Ying, had contributed just as much. A malaria researcher from Hong Kong, Dr. Keith Arnold, agreed.

But Dr. Tu said in an interview that she had done the decisive work. As the leader of a small team within the large Project 523, she was the first to isolate the active ingredient, and the one who had thought of using ether to extract it rather than the boiling method, she said.

The Lasker citation had noted that the research under Project 523 was collaborative. In 1978, she was singled out to accept an award from the Chinese government to Project 523.

By all accounts, Dr. Tu, who was born in Ningbo, a port city in the province of Zhejiang, is modest and shuns the limelight. She was born in 1930, the only daughter among five children, and was admitted to the Beijing Academy of Medical Sciences. She said she was "very lucky" to go to university as a woman, according to a blog post by Songshuhui, a nongovernmental organization focused on writing about science.

New Scientist described Dr. Tu as diminutive, with wisps of black curls, and passionate about her work. In 2008, a Phoenix television reporter described meeting her in her office in central Beijing, where there was an old couch and barely any heating. A phone and a refrigerator for storing medicines were the only modern touches, the reporter said.

Some analysts have said that Chinese scientists have not had the stability and long-term funding needed to establish a tradition of excellence in research. The lack of a Nobel Prize for science has been particularly galling in recent years, as the government has tried to emphasize that China can be as innovative as the West in the technology and medical sectors.

Liu Xiaobo, the Chinese writer, dissident and literary critic, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010, the first Nobel of any kind to be given to a citizen of China. Mr. Liu was serving an 11-year prison sentence for "subversion of state power" at the time of the designation, and he remains in prison. The Chinese novelist Mo Yan won the Nobel for literature in 2012.

Despite her age, and some health problems associated with osteoporosis, Dr. Tu has continued to work, said her son-in-law, Lei Mao, who works at a pharmaceutical company in North Carolina. He said Dr. Tu lives quietly in Beijing with her husband, an engineer, and works on scientific projects on a part-time basis.

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Answering an Appeal by Mao Led Tu Youyou, a Chinese Scientist, to a Nobel Prize (Published 2015)

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BEIJING - During the upheaval of China's Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, when many of the country's Western-trained scientists were shunned and persecuted, the government had an urgent scientific problem that needed attention.

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The area of medicine that I worked in for over 38 years. There were huge advances in both the imaging equipment and the radiopharmaceuticals used

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"I have become death...the destroyer of worlds. I suppose we all thought that, one way or another."   -

J. Robert Oppenheimer

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1535 Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés: La historia general de las Indias (with first picture of the pineapple)
Libro 7, capitulo 13 manuscript from Real Academia de Historia Madrid (l.), as in book (r.)

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"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." - Albert Einstein

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This NASA photo represents science well. It shows Akihiko Hoshide working on a DNA sequencing experiment, and the International Space Station is the result of scientific discovery.

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Louis Pasteur, one of my heroes in science, who produced the first rabies vaccine and did pioneering work in microbiology.

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May 7, 1895 - Russian physicist Alexander Popov conducts the first radio communication session using a radio receiver he created. It detected the emission of electromagnetic waves at a distance of up to 60 m from the transmitter. As an antenna, Popov used a wire raised by balloons to a height of 2.5 meters. The researcher was able to transmit the words Heinrich Hertz typed in Morse code from a transmitter to a receiver of his own design.

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May 7, 1895 - Russian physicist Alexander Popov conducts the first radio communication session using a radio receiver he created. It detected the emission of electromagnetic waves at a distance of up to 60 m from the transmitter. As an antenna, Popov used a wire raised by balloons to a height of 2.5 meters. The researcher was able to transmit the words Heinrich Hertz typed in Morse code from a transmitter to a receiver of his own design.

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The discovery of penicillin involved observation and the use of scientific instruments for example microscopes and petri dishes.

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picture experimental science

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Producing vaccines

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Desarrollo, pruebas y reglamentos para las vacunas | La Historia de las Vacunas

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El desarrollo de una vacuna es un proceso largo y complejo que a menudo tarda de 10 a 15 años, e involucra la participación combinada de organizaciones públicas y privadas.
…

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"In science all conclusions are provisional, subject to new evidence and better arguments, the very antithesis of religious faith." (Michael Shermer)

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The moment when a huge part of physics we know today was realised.

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Preparing Electrode for grounding of a mobile laboratory somewhere in the Negev Desert. That's me a good several years ago C1988. I'm a chief Electrician. Grounding is also for Electro Static Discharge. Keeping the crew safe.
Bob Schneider

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With the possible exception of a priest's clerical collar, there is no workplace clothing as threaded with symbolism as a doctor's white coat. Trained surgeons, soon followed by physicians, began wearing white lab coats in the late 1800s to distinguish themselves from the quacks and snake-oil healers who did not practice evidence-based medicine.

These days, depending on who you ask, the white coat might stand for professionalism, integrity, and the highest commitment to caring for the sick and suffering. Or it might represent elitism and the reckless spreading of germs.

While 97% of medical schools have a white coat ceremony, the use of the white coat in clinical settings varies considerably between institutions and specialties. Pediatricians and psychiatrists have been more vocal about avoiding them, for example, in part because patients find them threatening. The Mayo Clinic instructs its physicians to wear business attire only, citing a need to break down the barrier between physicians and patients.

Now, in the largest study of its kind, researchers at the University of Michigan surveyed 4,000 patients at 10 U.S. academic medical centers and found that a physician's clothing affects how patients view their doctor, as well as how satisfied they are with their care. Physicians who wore a white coat over business attire (navy blue suit and dress shoes) were deemed more knowledgeable, trustworthy, caring, and approachable, particularly by patients 65 and older. Doctors who wore scrubs with a white coat scored next highest, followed by those in business attire with no coat. Some exceptions: In both operating and emergency rooms, more patients preferred doctors in scrubs only.

"What we wear is such an easy thing to modify," says Christopher Petrilli, MD, assistant professor of hospital medicine at the University of Michigan Medical School and lead author of the study. "At a time when we're all trying to be more patient-centered, doesn't it make sense to do what people want?"

Image versus infection

Not everyone is on board with the white coat, though. "Asking patients what they want doctors to wear isn't even a valid question," says Mike Edmond, MD, chief quality officer and clinical professor of infectious diseases at University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics. "No patient picks their doctor that way."

He recalls wearing jeans to work one day early in his career, "because I'd just be doing paperwork. A patient needed me, so I apologized for not being in my 'doctor clothes.' He said, 'I don't care if you are in your pajamas. I just want you to help me.'"

Besides, Edmond points to the robust evidence that white coats harbor potentially dangerous microbes, especially around the cuffs and pockets. Following an initial study in the United Kingdom in 1991, numerous other researchers have confirmed how germy white coats can be. By 2007, the BBC pronounced white coats as more or less dead. And in 2008, Britain's National Health Service, which had already discouraged white coats because they created a barrier between patient and physician, insisted that those who chose white coats must be bare to the elbows. By 2009, the American Medical Association even toyed with the idea of banning white coats in hospitals.

Some argue that white coats might be safer if doctors laundered them more often. While almost everything else that comes in contact with a patient is sanitized or tossed, doctors typically wash their lab coats once every 12 days and only 70% of physicians admitted to ever laundering their neckties.

Some infection specialists, while acknowledging that there is no evidence yet to support the idea that all these white coat germs are making patients sick, say the answer is simply to roll up the sleeves. A 2017 study, led by Amrita John, MD, an infectious disease specialist at University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, showed that long sleeves cause cross-contamination.

Her team had 34 health care workers wear coats with both long and short sleeves. First, they examined a dummy contaminated with DNA from the cauliflower mosaic virus and then one that wasn't. (Harmless to people, the virus is similar to more destructive pathogens.) With long sleeves, 25% of the workers wound up with contamination on their coats. And 5% of the long-sleeved coats transferred the bugs to the clean dummies.

John's stance on white coats is middle of the road. "In my medical school training in India, we didn't want to have a barrier between patients and us. But it's true many people expect doctors to wear them." As a compromise, she supports wearing short-sleeved coats. "In medical school, we wore short sleeves because of the weather. Now, it's because I don't want to transmit pathogens."

"In my medical school training in India, we didn't want to have a barrier between patients and us. But it's true many people expect doctors to wear [white coats]."

Amrita John, MD
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center

Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine has been out front in this area, providing doctors with a sleeveless black neoprene vest, which serves many of the practical needs of having a white coat without any of the infection risks, says Gonzalo Bearman, MD, chair of the division of infectious diseases.

With plenty of pockets, the vest keeps doctors warm but doesn't restrict movement. "We chose black because the university's colors are black and gold," he says. "And we've now got between 70 to 80% compliance with bare-below-the-elbows, without a hard mandate. There's no evidence this reduces infections," he says, "but it's a common-sense intervention."

White coat alternatives may also help with the century-old "white coat syndrome." First documented in 1896, experts have long known anxiety about doctors can cause high blood pressure readings in as many as 30% of patients. And new research says it's dangerous to write white coat syndrome off as benign: A mortality study found the risk of death is twice as high for patients with white coat hypertension as it is for those with normal blood pressure.

Rethinking the medical training hierarchy

For first-year residents, white coats are short, typically hip length. Once they've completed that first year, they wear a longer coat, reaching toward their knees. Patients might not pick up on the difference, but insiders do. And that tradition, too, is under fire.

Osler Medical Residency Training Program at The Johns Hopkins Hospital, the country's oldest, is abandoning its tradition of requiring first-year residents - those who have just finished medical school - to wear short white coats. These new doctors complained that it established a hierarchy that placed them beneath more experienced residents and doctors wearing long coats.

Hopkins' short coat "stems from a unique tradition that just because you earned your MD doesn't yet mean you are a clinician," says Sanjay Desai, MD, director of the residency program (and a white coat fan.) "And that first year, probably the most meaningful year of a doctor's education, is all about being a learner."

Students interpreted the short white coat "as a physical symbol of hierarchy and rigidity, so we eliminated it. Our values haven't changed. But I am perfectly willing to compromise on symbols."

Sanjay Desai, MD
Johns Hopkins Hospital

But he says today's students interpreted it "as a physical symbol of hierarchy and rigidity, so we eliminated it. Our values haven't changed. But I am perfectly willing to compromise on symbols."

That more egalitarian approach not only appeals to millennials, who tend to prefer more casual clothing, but also to those who believe that using coat lengths as rank gets in the way of patient safety. "The problem," says Edmond, "is that it prevents doctors in short coats from speaking up when they see doctors in long coats about to make a mistake."

So will the white coat vanish anytime soon? Probably not, but that won't stop physicians from talking about it. Paul Sax, MD, an infectious disease specialist at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, says he's taken aback by the vehement responses he gets - both pro and con - whenever he blogs about the issue.

In the end, much of it comes down to personal preference. Desai, for one, likes his white coat. "I don't wear it every day," he says, "but I do when I am in front of patients. It's part of the process for me. It's almost a uniform for when we want to help patients feel better."

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The white coat: Symbol of professionalism or hierarchical elitism?

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With the possible exception of a priest's clerical collar, there is no workplace clothing as threaded with symbolism as a doctor's white coat. Trained surgeons, soon followed by physicians, began wearing white lab coats in the late 1800s to distinguish themselves from the quacks and snake-oil healers who did not practice evidence-based medicine.

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Watson and Crick pose in the early 90's with a replica of their model of the double helix. They developed their understanding of the structure of DNA using crystallographic images produced by Rosalind Franklin who would almost certainly have been nominated jointly for their Nobel prize had it not been for her early death. The picture represents the essential contribution of collaboration between experimenters and theoreticians to scientific progress.

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Iron smelting by night c1800

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August Kekulé was one of the most prominent organic chemists of the 19th Century. He famously realised the structure of benzene in a day-dream.

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The now-famous Photgraph 51, and Rosalind Franklin who realised its significance. A truly iconic image, which led the way to and through the Double Helix.

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Science is seeing what the eyes can't see

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Encapsulating the world in a test tube and studying it under a microscope -- science would not be science without the skills of gathering data for purposes of observation and study and then sharing the new knowledge with others and applying it to improve the world we live in.

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Humanity shared science is power.

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When I think science I immediately think of my dad, He is a scientist and a researcher for wetsus. European centre of excellence for sustainable water technology.

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Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek had learned himself how to make lenses and developed a kind of microscope. Although he was not a real scientist, this discovery was groundbreaking for science.

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Science reminds me of NEMO, a science museum in Amsterdam where I came once when I was little.

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Isaac Newton, seeing the apple falling from the tree and discovering gravity

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What you see here, is the injection of a certain substance into a lab rat. I chose this image, because I think it is useful in explaining the core of the phenomenon science. What you see here is an isolated reconstruction of a certain process. Lab rats are used to test new pharmaceutics on. Scientists have reason to suspect that the substance they have created, brings about a certain effect in a human being. To check this, the scientists try to recreate the environment that the substance is supposed to be going to be used for as best as possible, and thus the environments in which they expect the drug to work. This is why they use lab rats (for they have some similarities to humans). After they inject the lab rat, they regularly check the rats for both the positively expected effects, as well as for the negative effects. The rats are kept out of nature, so that they can 1.) minimize the factors influencing the results of the experiment and 2.) monitor whatever factors do influence the experiment as best as possible. This experiment is the first step into checking the safety of many pharmaceuticals.

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I immediately think of the human brain, not only because there is so much about it unknown to us, but because without it, science wouldn't be possible.

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Through conducting experiments, Ivan Pavlov found out that certain stimuli could be linked together and be associated with one another. This could be done in such a way that the original stimulus could be removed in its entirety, and the same original reaction would still be provoked through the second stimulus that was introduced. This he called the Classical Condition.

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Science reminds me of laboratory.

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Science makes me think of glass bottles with various liquids in all colors.

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This experiment shows for me how science can in a relative easy way discover something very complex.

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This is an experiment in chemistry. The image with little bottles containing substances for doing experiment is iconic, I think.

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This is an experiment in chemistry. The image with little bottles containing substances for doing experiment is iconic, I think.

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Sphygmomanometer

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There are several paintings that illustrate scientific progress.  This is one of the most iconic.  I feel that the paintings that come to my mind illustrate the 'magic' of scientific discovery and advancement which is the thing that drew me to doing this course.

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Certainty cannot be reached !!

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The ground work for information theory done by Claude Shannon.
How much information is there in DNA, Noise, etc. What is information?
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon

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Claude Elwood Shannon ( Petoskey ( Michigan), 30 april 1916 - Medford (Massachusetts), 24 februari 2001) was een Amerikaans wiskundige en elektrotechnicus en wordt wel de "vader van de informatietheorie" genoemd.

Shannon werd geboren in Petoskey als zoon van de zakenman Claude Sr. (1862-1934) en Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890-1945), dochter van Duitse immigranten. Hij was een ver familielid van Thomas Edison. In zijn jeugd werkte hij als boodschapper voor Western Union. Hij begon aan de studies elektronica en wiskunde aan de universiteit van Michigan in 1932, en behaalde zijn bachelorsgraad in 1936. Hij studeerde daarna aan het MIT, waar hij - nadat hij had gereageerd op een advertentie die op een prikbord hing - werkte aan de 'Differential Analyser' van Vannevar Bush, een analoge computer.

Door dit werk zag hij in dat de booleaanse algebra heel goed kon worden toegepast op de schakelingen die hiervoor nodig waren en zijn doctoraalscriptie uit 1937 aan het MIT A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, legde de basis voor de wetenschap van het ontwerpen van digitale schakelingen.

In 1940 verwierf Shannon een doctorstitel (Ph.D.) in de wiskunde aan het MIT met een proefschrift over wiskundige aspecten van de genetica An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics. Na een jaar verbonden te zijn geweest aan het Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton ging hij in 1941 werken voor Bell Labs, totdat hij in de vijftiger jaren terugkeerde naar het MIT.

Van 1958 tot 1978 was Claude Shannon professor aan het MIT. Daarnaast was hij privé een succesvol investeerder, mede door toepassing van wiskundige technieken, en had hij belangstelling voor de speltheorie. Hij publiceerde een van de eerste programma's voor computerschaak, het maakte gebruik van een minimax- algoritme. Op latere leeftijd leed hij aan de ziekte van Alzheimer, waardoor hij de bloei van het computertijdperk, dat hij zelf had helpen ontketenen, niet meer bewust heeft meegemaakt.

In zijn doctoraalscriptie toonde hij aan dat binair rekenen en booleaanse algebra (een algebraïsche structuur met de logische operatoren AND, OR en NOT) konden worden gebruikt om de onderlinge verbindingen van schakelaars voor het tot stand brengen van telefoonverbindingen te vereenvoudigen. Hij breidde vervolgens het concept uit en toonde aan dat de verbindingen konden worden gebruikt voor het oplossen van alle problemen die de booleaanse algebra kan oplossen. Het gebruik van de eigenschappen van dergelijke schakelingen op deze manier is de basis van alle digitale computers. Shannons theoretisch formalisme kwam in de plaats van de empirische technieken die tot dan toe werden gebruikt.

Professor Howard Gardner van de Harvard-universiteit noemde zijn afstudeerscriptie "possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century", (mogelijk de belangrijkste, en de bekendste, afstudeerscriptie van de eeuw). Een uittreksel ervan werd in 1938 gepubliceerd in de Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, en in 1940 ontving hij voor deze scriptie de 'Alfred Nobel Award' van het 'American Institute of American Engineers'.

In 1948 publiceerde hij A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Deze publicatie behandelt het vraagstuk van het reconstrueren van het door een zender verstuurd signaal. Shannon gaf een definitie van entropie (die niet verward moet worden met die in de thermodynamica) als een maat voor hoeveelheid informatie die een signaal kan bevatten. Ook formuleerde hij een theorema voor de maximale informatietransmissiecapaciteit van een communicatiekanaal bij een gegeven frequentie bandbreedte en hoeveelheid ruis. Het boek, samen met Warren Weaver geschreven, is beknopt en verrassend toegankelijk voor de niet-specialist. Dankzij deze publicatie kan Shannon worden beschouwd als de grondlegger van de informatietheorie.

Een andere belangwekkende publicatie, uit 1949, is Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems, waarin feitelijk de basis werd gelegd voor de wiskundige theorie van de cryptografie.

In 1966 ontving hij de IEEE Medal of Honor. Hij was buitenlands lid van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen KNAW.

Zelf was Shannon een goed jongleur. In de gangen van Bell Labs was hij regelmatig te zien op een eenwieler jonglerend met drie ballen. Met zijn wetenschappelijke achtergrond ontwikkelde hij een wiskundige theorie van het jongleren. Deze jongleerstelling van Shannon luidt:

Waarbij

F = tijd dat een bal in de lucht blijft

D = tijd dat een bal in de hand blijft

V = tijd dat een hand leeg is

N = aantal ballen

H = aantal handen

Deze stelling valideerde Shannon regelmatig aan de werkelijkheid. Nieuwe collega-jongleurs begroette hij dan ook met de vraag: "Mag ik je jongleren meten?"

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Claude Elwood Shannon ( Petoskey ( Michigan), 30 april 1916 - Medford (Massachusetts), 24 februari 2001) was een Amerikaans wiskundige en elektrotechnicus en wordt wel de "vader van de informatietheorie" genoemd. Shannon werd geboren in Petoskey als zoon van de zakenman Claude Sr. (1862-1934) en Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890-1945), dochter van Duitse immigranten.

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An Einstein ring is a proof of General Relativity and is created when light from a galaxy or star passes by a massive object en route to the Earth. Due to the curve in space-time (gravitational lensing) the light is diverted, making it seem to come from different places. If source, lens, and observer are all aligned, the light appears as a ring. Taken by the Hubble Space telescope, itself one of the most successful measuring devices ever built.

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https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/biographies/marie-curie.html

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The pioneer plaque was created largely by scientists of Earth to communicate with scientific extra terrestrials. It contains chemical, physical and biological phenomena. Ambitious but flawed, still an iconic representation of scientific knowledge on this planet.
Image credits:
Vectors by Oona Räisänen (Mysid); designed by Carl Sagan & Frank Drake; artwork by Linda Salzman Sagan, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

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The most brilliant minds in the world working together.

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I'm retired now, and the last place I worked didn't allow photography.

This is a picture of my daughter working in the field. She is a glacier scientist with the US Geological Survey in Anchorage, Alaska. Her group studies the mass balance of glaciers: Over years are they gaining or losing ice?  Part of the data collection involves automated stations that record weather. The picture shows her working on one of the stations. She obviously enjoys "doing" science.

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The amount of think work that was put into creating the "turing computer" by Alan Turing.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing

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a basic design with simple measurement, easy to repeat, also elsewhere.

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a basic design with simple measurement, easy to repeat, also elsewhere.

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stil in everyday use.

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Dr Frankenstein’s laboratory - literature and films have coloured the public’s perception of scientist‘s and their work - no more so than Frankenstein

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First photographic representation of a black hole

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While researching Newton's Laws of Gravity at the Royal Society Library in London, I came across this later version of the Principia, meant for public consumption, called A Treatise on the System of the World (1728). This diagram explains the trajectory due to gravity and acceleration of a rock thrown from an extremely tall mountain (without the interference of air resistance). Outlandish but Newtons theories and cementing of the scientific method transformed science.

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Bacon would be pleased to know that so many followed in his footsteps...

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Louis Pasteur gave a final blow to the theory of spontaneous generation

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Chemical structure (pic curtesy of holger)

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Chemical structure (pic curtesy of holger)

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Galileo

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http://www.clipartpanda.com/clipart_images/downloads-1620044

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Cute Sheep Lamb Vector | Clipart Panda - Free Clipart Images

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Video at: https://youtu.be/EPXYUR5TqAQ
(You can skip the advert...)

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Hypatia positing an ellipse as the path of the Earth around the Sun, using sand, sticks, rope, and thought, an event which is itself conjecture.

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A brand new world was unveiled with the discovery of the DNA molecule.

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The invention of the spectroscopy opened the door for the understanding of the physics of atoms and molecules.

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We can now see further into the skies than ever before.The Hubble Space Telescope has made repeat visits to a tiny patch of sky throughout the last 10 years, collecting over 2,000 images over a total of 50 days with a total exposure time of two million seconds. Astronomers have now combined these images to create eXtreme Deep Field (XDF), the deepest image ever taken of our Universe.Approximately 5,500 galaxies can be seen in the image, including our neighbouring Andromeda Galaxy, spiral galaxies similar to the Milky Way and fuzzy red galaxies where new star formation has ceased. The repeated exposures have enabled the telescope’s infrared camera to capture faint galaxies that are one ten-billionth the brightness of what the human eye can see.This is also a glance back into the Universe’s distant past, as the XDF reveals galaxies that span back 13.2 billion years in time — an impressive feat when you remember that the Universe itself is estimated to be 13.7 billion years old. So most of the galaxies we can see in this image would have been young, small and growing as they collided and merged.

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We can now see further into the skies than ever before.The Hubble Space Telescope has made repeat visits to a tiny patch of sky throughout the last 10 years, collecting over 2,000 images over a total of 50 days with a total exposure time of two million seconds. Astronomers have now combined these images to create eXtreme Deep Field (XDF), the deepest image ever taken of our Universe.Approximately 5,500 galaxies can be seen in the image, including our neighbouring Andromeda Galaxy, spiral galaxies similar to the Milky Way and fuzzy red galaxies where new star formation has ceased. The repeated exposures have enabled the telescope’s infrared camera to capture faint galaxies that are one ten-billionth the brightness of what the human eye can see.This is also a glance back into the Universe’s distant past, as the XDF reveals galaxies that span back 13.2 billion years in time — an impressive feat when you remember that the Universe itself is estimated to be 13.7 billion years old. So most of the galaxies we can see in this image would have been young, small and growing as they collided and merged.

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AN ARTIFICIAL UTERUS FOR VERY PREMATURE BABIES BY KOUASSI N’NANCOCQUOT CHRYSTELLE

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AN ARTIFICIAL UTERUS FOR VERY PREMATURE BABIES BY KOUASSI N’NANCOCQUOT CHRYSTELLE

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Has the solution been found to provide premature infants with better chances of healthy survival? Researchers at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (USA) designed an artificial uterus, an airlock for babies born too early, between the maternal womb and the open air. Preliminary tests on premature lambs are encouraging, according to a study published in Nature Communications.

A photo of tests of the artificial uterus on lambs, published in "Nature" on April 25th 2017.

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Years of innovation and discovery led to the moon landing. I'm still so impressed that they even managed to  reach the moon despite the  very basic technology they had at the time.

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John Dalton built upon the suggestion proposed by Democritus on the existence of atoms. In 1808, John Dalton presented his theory:
1: All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
2: All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
3: Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
4: A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.

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A densitometer is a device that measures the degree of darkness  of a photographic or semitransparent material or of a reflecting surface. It is basically one  result of the foundation of the prisma (breaking up light to divide colors). This particular one is used in the printing industry to measure the density of the basic colors.

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This was Ptolemy's basis system he constructed based on dogma and observation. That his epicycle system was in effect constructing the first few terms of a Fourier series approximating the actual apparent orbits (mathematics that wouldn't be developed for two millenia) is astonishing and humbling to me. A reminder of how even in getting things wrong, we can make enlightening progress.

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My first experience observing subatomic particles interacting with gas molecules.

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I believe that the microscope was a pivotal moment in sc
ientific discovery that led to immeasurable amounts of valuable  information that changed lives.

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Ernst Borse

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The Foucault pendulum or Foucault's pendulum is a simple device named after French physicist Léon Foucault and conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the Earth's rotation. The pendulum was introduced in 1851 and was the first experiment to give simple, direct evidence of the earth's rotation. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in science museums and universities.

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I've chosen an orrery as an example of how scientists construct and analyse models in order to gain understanding of the natural world. From physical models, scale models, or mathematical models, the ability of scientists to use something that may not accurately represent the system they are modelling or may be based on a lot of idealised assumptions but still be able to come to an understanding of a real system, is fascinating.

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I'm currently studying for an MSc in the conservation of museum artefacts at Cardiff University. This degree starts with the basics of conservation science, such as what objects are made from and how they degrade and it doesn't assume any prior scientific background. Here I am (Mandy Garratt) looking at a silver gelatin print photograph circa 1909 under the microscope to observe the damage that has occurred to it, before I can decide upon the best treatment to slow down the decay process.

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This relatively simple chemical device invented by Liebig in 1831 was the breakthrough for chemical analytics.

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Science is the study of many things in detail, especially the intricate workings of nature which continues to fascinate and which also tend to dominate man.

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determining mathematical relationships between phenomena is fundamental to science (image from Wikipedia)

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Intrstin

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I think of Evolution when I hear science, but not necessarily something that is a positive development, but a theory that - in a way - pitted science against Biblical teachings:

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I saw this quote at the Science Center in Boston and it spoke to me of Tesla's visionary mind. True men of genius don't just break the rules, they make new ones.