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In a 16 hour period, 148 tornadoes touched down in 13 states, including Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia and West Virginia. This event which took place on April 3rd-4th claimed 330 lives and injured 5,484 people, making it the worst tornado outbreak in the United States. Today, technology allows earlier warnings to help prevent such a high number of casualties.

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A powerful earthquake, measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale, shook San Francisco on April 18, 1906. The earthquake lasted only roughly 45 seconds but nearly 3,000 people lost their lives due to the tremor and the resulting fires that burned for 3 days. In some places, the ground was displaced 20 feet and the effects were felt from far away, from southern Oregon to south of Los Angeles and as far as central Nevada. Over 200,000 people were left homeless and the estimated damage cost was around $400,000.

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During the mid-1500's, Italian inventor Leonardo Da Vinci made drawings of an ornithopter flying machine that some experts say inspired the modern day helicopter. In 1784, French inventors named Launoy and Bienvenue created a toy with a rotary-wing that could lift and fly and proved the principle of helicopter flight.
Igor Sikorsky is considered to be the "father" of helicopters not because he was the first to invent it, but because he invented the first successful helicopter upon which further designs were based upon.

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During World War II, American physicists and engineers began a race against Nazi Germany to create the first atomic bomb. This secret endeavor lasted from 1942 until 1945 under the codename “the Manhattan Project.”
In the end, it would be a success in that it forced Japan to surrender and finally ended the war. However, it opened the world to the Atomic Age and killed or injured over 200,000 people in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The aftermath and consequences of the atomic bombs are not to be underestimated.

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The Hindenburg disaster at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937 brought an end to the age of the rigid airship.

The disaster killed 35 persons on the airship, and one member of the ground crew, but miraculously 62 of the 97 passengers and crew survived.

After more than 30 years of passenger travel on commercial zeppelins — in which tens of thousands of passengers flew over a million miles, on more than 2,000 flights, without a single injury — the era of the passenger airship came to an end in a few fiery minutes.

Almost 80 years of research and scientific tests support the same conclusion reached by the original German and American accident investigations in 1937: It seems clear that the Hindenburg disaster was caused by an electrostatic discharge (i.e., a spark) that ignited leaking hydrogen.

The spark was most likely caused by a difference in electric potential between the airship and the surrounding air: The airship was approximately 60 meters (about 200 feet) above the airfield in an electrically charged atmosphere, but the ship’s metal framework was grounded by its landing line

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The Model T   Ford incorporated the Ford Motor Company in 1903, proclaiming, "I will build a car for the great multitude." In October 1908, he did so, offering the Model T for $950. In the Model T's nineteen years of production, its price dipped as low as $280. Nearly 15,500,000 were sold in the United States alone. The Model T heralds the beginning of the Motor Age; the car evolved from luxury item for the well-to-do to essential transportation for the ordinary man.   Ford revolutionized manufacturing. By 1914, his Highland Park, Michigan plant, using innovative production techniques, could turn out a complete chassis every 93 minutes. This was a stunning improvement over the earlier production time of 728 minutes.   In 1914, Ford began paying his employees five dollars a day, nearly doubling the wages offered by other manufacturers. He cut the workday from nine to eight hours in order to convert the factory to a three-shift workday.   Ford's mass-production techniques would eventually allow for the manufacture of a Model T every 24 seconds. His innovations made him an international celebrity.   Ford's affordable Model T irrevocably altered American society. As more Americans owned cars, urbanization patterns changed. The United States saw the growth of suburbia, the creation of a national highway system, and a population entranced with the possibility of going anywhere anytime. Ford witnessed many of these changes during his lifetime, all the while personally longing for the agrarian lifestyle of his youth.   Henry Ford and his engineers used the first 19 letters of the alphabet to name their automobiles, although some of the cars were never sold to the public.

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The Model T   Ford incorporated the Ford Motor Company in 1903, proclaiming, "I will build a car for the great multitude." In October 1908, he did so, offering the Model T for $950. In the Model T's nineteen years of production, its price dipped as low as $280. Nearly 15,500,000 were sold in the United States alone. The Model T heralds the beginning of the Motor Age; the car evolved from luxury item for the well-to-do to essential transportation for the ordinary man.   Ford revolutionized manufacturing. By 1914, his Highland Park, Michigan plant, using innovative production techniques, could turn out a complete chassis every 93 minutes. This was a stunning improvement over the earlier production time of 728 minutes.   In 1914, Ford began paying his employees five dollars a day, nearly doubling the wages offered by other manufacturers. He cut the workday from nine to eight hours in order to convert the factory to a three-shift workday.   Ford's mass-production techniques would eventually allow for the manufacture of a Model T every 24 seconds. His innovations made him an international celebrity.   Ford's affordable Model T irrevocably altered American society. As more Americans owned cars, urbanization patterns changed. The United States saw the growth of suburbia, the creation of a national highway system, and a population entranced with the possibility of going anywhere anytime. Ford witnessed many of these changes during his lifetime, all the while personally longing for the agrarian lifestyle of his youth.   Henry Ford and his engineers used the first 19 letters of the alphabet to name their automobiles, although some of the cars were never sold to the public.

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Ferdinand Adolf Heinrich August Graf von Zeppelin (8 July 1838 – 8 March 1917) was a German general and later aircraft manufacturer, who founded the Zeppelin airship company.

Later in his career Zeppelin began developing preliminary concepts for the design of a steerable airship.  In 1874 Zeppelin made entries in his diary describing a rigid-framed, aerodynamically flown ship constructed of rings and longitudinal girders and containing individual gas cells.

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In 1954 , Romania was hit by the most fierce snowstorm in history. Bucharest , and dozens of other cities were simply covered with snow. At 100 kilometers from the capital , in the Fundata, people displaced by the communist regime in Banat , had to endure the winter of that year capricious in huts of straw and earth. "Great Blizzard " made havoc in early February 1954 , Romania was hit by a blizzard in terror . For a few days , the wind knocked down , the heavy snowfalls and temperatures plummeted , reaching -25 degrees Celsius to overcome . Anger nature of that year entered history as the "Great Blizzard " . The most affected city was Bucharest , where slush exceeded even 5 meters high, covering dozens of homes. In order to survive and exit the house, people dug tunnels through the drifts . The army and gendarmes were transformed winter with citizens in the sudden flood victims.

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The accident at the Gold Mine in Certej-Romania

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The accident at the Gold Mine in Certej-Romania

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This accident that led to the deaths of 89 people in the Romanian town of Hunedoara county – Certeju de Sus. The tailing dam collapsed and flooded the village causing Romania’s worst peacetime tragedy in the 70s. The scale of the disaster was kept secret at the time by the communist authorities so that they didn’t declare a  national day of mourning.

Eight possible causes were considered: from ground hogs to tectonic movements. It was noted however, that while the stability loss of the tailing pond was provoked by the beyond the limits increase of the dam. Following technical research and accident investigation to identify those responsible, the case was closed without any legal consequences. It is well known that the main cause that led to mining accidents in the past 25 years is the tailings’ dam failure.

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On March 4, 1977, Romania was shaken by a powerful earthquake with a recorded magnitude of 7.4 on the Richter scale. The tremor hit the southern part of Romania at 21.22 UTC +2. The epicentre was situated in the Vrancea Mountains, the most seismically active part of Romania at a recorded depth of 94 km. The devastating earthquake lasted 55 seconds. The shockwave was felt in the entire Balkan region.
In the nation's capital, Bucharest, a great deal of buildings collapsed. The city centre was particularly affected, the quake destroying iconic buildings such as the Scala building, the Continental-Colonadelor building, Dunarea, Casata, Nestor and others. Out of the 33 many-storeyed buildings that collapsed, 28 were built before the year 1940.

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Nearly 40 years ago, a young Belgian scientist travelled to a remote part of the Congolese rainforest - his task was to help find out why so many people were dying from an unknown and terrifying disease.

In September 1976, a package containing a shiny, blue thermos flask arrived at the Institute of Tropical Medicine in Antwerp, Belgium.

Working in the lab that day was Peter Piot, a 27-year-old scientist and medical school graduate training as a clinical microbiologist.

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Imagine you are staying in your bed listening to music and you sudenlly hear a The cernobyl nuclear bomb, located in Ukraine, exploded and burned 10 days,releasing radiation into the atmosphere compared too 200 Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs. 2530 people died. This figuren is expected to rise in years to come.

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The Texas City disaster was an industrial accident that occurred April 16, 1947, in the Port of Texas City. It was the deadliest industrial accident in U.S. history, and one of the largest non-nuclear explosions. Originating with a mid-morning fire on board the French-registered vessel SS Grandcamp (docked in the port), her cargo of approximately 2,200 tons(approximately 2,100 metric tons) of ammonium nitrate detonated,with the initial blast and subsequent chain-reaction of further fires and explosions in other ships and nearby oil-storage facilities. It killed at least 581 people, including all but one member of the Texas City fire department. The disaster triggered the first ever  class action lawsuit against the United States government, under the then-recently enacted Federal Tort Claims Act(FTCA), on behalf of 8,485 victims.

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The second war or the second World war lasted from 1939 to 1945,altough related conflicts began earlier. A lot of countries were implicated in this war and there were a lot of dameges in all the countries. Milions of people died just because Hitlar and the rest of men can t be friends and they had to hit each other untill someone says stop because all the people in their team died.

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Mobile phones, particularly the smartphones that have become our inseparable companions today, are relatively new. However, the history of mobile phones goes back to 1908 when a US Patent was issued in Kentucky for a wireless telephone.

Mobile phones were invented as early as the 1940s when engineers working at AT&T developed cells for mobile phone base stations. The very first mobile phones were not really mobile phones at all. They were two-way radios that allowed people like taxi drivers and the emergency services to communicate.

Instead of relying on base stations with separate cells (and the signal being passed from one cell to another), the first mobile phone networks involved one very powerful base station covering a much wider area.

Motorola, on 3 April 1973 were first company to mass produce the the first handheld mobile phone.

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The microwave oven eas invented by Percy Spencer. He heard about electryfing and this was so interesting for him. This thing made him to learn more about this science. He began learning what he could about it and managed to become one of three people who were hired to install electricity in the plant, despite having never received any formal training in electrical engineering nor even finishing grammar school.

At the age of 18,he became interested in wireless communications and studied the wireless operators aboard Titanic,the ship which sank.

One day, while Spencer was working on building magnetrons for radar sets,  he was standing in front of an active radar set when he noticed the candy bar he had in his pocket melted.  Spencer wasn’t the first to notice something like this with radars, but he was the first to investigate it.  He and some other colleagues then began trying to heat other food objects to see if a similar heating effect could be observed.  The first one they heated intentionally was popcorn kernels, which became the world’s first microwaved popcorn.  Spencer then decided to try to heat an egg.  He got a kettle and cut a hole in the side, then put the whole egg in the kettle and positioned the magnetron to direct the microwaves into the hole.  The result was that the egg exploding in the face of one of his co-workers, who was looking in the kettle as the egg exploded.

Nowadays,the microwave is one of the most important appliances whic people use.

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On 10 December,1967,it was a big underground  nuclear detonation which was carried out by United States Atomic Energy Comission,in New Mexico. This project was a program for finding peace and for this they used nuclear explosions.

The detonation took place after a couple of delays, the last one caused by a breakdown of the explosive refrigeration system. The detonation produced a rubble chimney that was 24 m wide and 102 m high above the blast center.

Project Gasbuggy stimulated gas production in greater quantities than in nearby conventional gas wells, but the natural gas was radioactive. Test results also indicated that the gas had a signi cantly lower heat value. Gas production tests and project evaluation activities were conducted from 1967 until 1976. Fracturing into the gas-bearing formation outward from the chimney (above the cavity) did not penetrate as extensively as expected.

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The Chernobyl nuclearpower plant, located in the Ukraine, exploded and burned for 10 days, releasing radiation into the atmosphere compared to 200 Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs. At least 30 plant workers died immediately and roughly 2,500 have died to date as a result of radiation-related disease. This figure is expected to rise in years to come.

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Antibiotics transformed medicine. The discovery of antibiotics began by accident. On the morning of September 3rd, 1928, was having a clear up of his cluttered laboratory. Fleming was sorting through a number of glass plates which had previously been coated with staphyloccus bacteria as part of research Fleming was doing. One of the plates had mould on it. The mould was in the shape of a ring and the area around the ring seemed to be free of the bacteria staphyloccus. The mould was penicillium notatum. Fleming had a life long interest in ways of killing off bacteria and he concluded that the bacteria on the plate around the ring had been killed off by some substance that had come from the mould.
Further research on the mould found that it could kill other bacteria and that it could be given to small animals without any side-effects. However, within a year, Fleming had moved onto other medical issues and it was ten years later that Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, working at Oxford University, isolated the bacteria-killing substance found in the mould – penicillin.
In 1941, a doctor, Charles Fletcher, at a hospital in Oxford had heard of their work. He had a patient who was near to death as a result of bacteria getting into a wound. Fletcher used some of Chain’s and Florey’s penicillin on the patient and the wound made a spectacular recovery. Unfortunately, Fletcher did not have enough penicillin to fully rid the patient’s body of bacteria and he died a few weeks later as the bacteria took a hold. However, penicillin had shown what it could do on what had been a lost cause. The only reason the patient did not survive was because they did not have enough of the drug – not that it did not work.
Florey got an American drugs company to mass produce it and by D-Day, enough was available to treat all the bacterial infections that broke out among the troops. Penicillin got nicknamed “the wonder drug” and in 1945 Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine. Post-1945 was the era of the antibiotics.

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On April 10, 1912 the luxury liner claimed to be "practically unsinkable" set sail for the first time from Southampton to New York. On April 14 shortly before midnight the Titanic hit an iceberg and 2 hours and 40 minutes later sank. Of the 2,223 people on board, only 706 survived and 1,517 lost their lives. If the ship had been filled to capacity, hundreds more would have died. Insufficient lifeboats played a major role in the majority of deaths..

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John Logie Baird and the invention of the television are part of History. But the idea of the television did not start with Logie Baird in the 1920’s. In the late C19th, a number of scientists had made important discoveries that Baird would use in his first version of a television. Henri Becquerel found that light could be changed into electricity and, importantly, Ferdinand Braun had invented the cathode ray tube. By the 1920’s there were 50 serious attempts to invent the television from Russia, America, Germany, Britain and Japan. Many researchers had well resourced and staffed laboratories but the man who invented the television did not.
John Logie Baird was born in 1888 near Glasgow. He had made money selling socks and soap. This business he sold off to follow his dream of inventing a television. It became an obsession and to survive he had to borrow money from friends and use whatever materials he could including scraps. By 1925, he was ready to give the first public display of a working television. The chosen place was Selfridges in Oxford Street, London. Shoppers saw slightly blurred but recognizable images of letters.
In 1927, Baird demonstrated colour television and a video-recording system he called a “Phonovision”. In 1928, Baird made the first transatlantic television transmission and one year later he started regular 30-line mechanical broadcasts.
In 1936, the BBC started the world’s first regular high-definition service from Alexandra Palace using the Baird system, though it was abandoned one year later in favour of a system developed by Marconi-EMI. BY 1939, 20,000 television sets were in use in Great Britain, just 14 years after Baird’s first public demonstration of his system at work. In 1940, Baird gave a demonstration of a high-definition full colour stereo television. The editor of the “Manchester Guardian” said at the beginning of the C20th when the word television was thought of that “the word (television) is half-Greek and half-Latin. No good will come of it.”One of the leading researchers into television in the 1930’s, Issac Shoenberg, told his research team (who had invented the world’s first practical television camera) that they “had invented the world’s biggest time-waster of all time.”

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On the morning of May 8, 1902 Mount Pelée erupted and wiped out the village of St. Pierre on the island of Martinique. It took less than 1 minute for the pyroclastic flow to reach the village and kill roughly 28,000 people. Only 2 people are known to survive. This is the highest number of deaths from a volcanic eruption in the 20th century.

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The inventor of the gas mask is Garrett Morgan. He was an inventor and a businessman from Cleveland who is best known for inventing a device called the Morgan safety hood and smoke protector in 1914. Indeed, it was Morgan’s experience while driving along the streets of Cleveland that inspired him to invent an improvement to traffic signals.
On July 25, 1916, Morgan made national news for using a gas mask he invented to rescue 32 men trapped during an explosion in an underground tunnel located 250 feet beneath Lake Erie.
Morgan and a team of volunteers had donned the new “gas mask” and went to the rescue. Afterwards, Morgan’s company received requests from fire departments around the country who wished to purchase the new masks.
The Morgan gas mask was later refined for use by U.S Army during World War 1. In 1914, Morgan was awarded a gold medal at the International Exposition of Sanitation and Safety and another gold medal from the International Association of Fire Chiefs.

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Imagine one second that you and your family go on a trip and never come back. It is tragic, isn t it? Then listen to this story.Titanic was a big boat with a lot of people on it. It has a lot of rooms , food, drinks and a lot of activities that people can do on their holiday.In 1912, Titanic hits an icebearg and it brokes. A lot of water comes in the boat and a lot of people died.After that, it was made a movie aboute this tragedy.

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For the most part, electric cars have been slow, sexless and stolid to drive or stunningly expensive. So when BMW, the self-described maker of " the ultimate driving machine, " annonuced it would start selling them, it had a high bar to clear. The 13 delivers. In addition to getting 70 to 110 miles  ( 113 to 177 km) on a single three-hour charge, its novel design allows drivers to use a single pedal to both accelerate and brake ( press down to go, ease up to stop), which  results in more energy - efficient driving.  And because so called range anxiety - the fear of running aut of juice on the road - remains a top reason people don't buy electric, BMW is pioneering ways to ease customers' doubts. Among them: an optional backup gas motor that can recharge its batteries in a pinch and a program that lends owners a gas-powered vehicle for longer trips.

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Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish born scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator Who is credited with patenting the first practical Telephone and Telegraph Company., Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegrph had entered a formative stage, Bell experimented a pen like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibration. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical current that corresponded to sound waves. Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequences like a harp would be able to convert the currents. After a long time of thinking and working the phone appeared and in the 20 century there were the firts phones at the shops.

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Most smart watches have proved to be anything but; they try to shrink down the experience of using a cell phone, with clunky results. Apples s Watch, by contrast, wholly reimages the computer for the wrist, using a novel interface that combines a touchscreen and physical buttons. Besides telling time, the Watch can send messages, give directions, track fitness and make wireless payments. It is also an attractive piece of fashion, with high-end Edition models that feature 18-karat gold. Apple poured its heart and soul into the design, says Robert Brunner, founder of San Francisco desigm Ammunition and a former director of industrial design at apple.

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We already have wireless Internet and wireless phones. Why, then, are everyday appliances still shackled to the wall? To be sure, there are a few power-mat chargers for small gadgets like phones. But WiTricity, based in Watertown, Mass., is thinking big. Its technology—involving a plug-in coil that creates a magnetic field, which in turn powers objects as far away as 8 ft. (2.4 m)—has been tested on Toyota electric cars (with charging mats), Intel PCs (with charging pads) and more. Within 10 years, says CEO Alex Gruzen, rooms could be wired so that all appliances—lamps, TVs, stereos—pull power from a central charging base.

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The hoverboard- a type of skateboard that levitates like a magic carpet-had been a pipe dream since its fictional debut in 1989 Back to the Future Part 2. Now California-based firm Hando has built the real thing. Granted, there are caveats Hendo s hoverboard can float only an inch or so alone thr ground, and even then only over only over conductive material like copper or aluminium. Just 10 are being made to order, And battery life is 15 minutes-barely enough time to zoom past your enemies.

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A machine that can build any object. It sounds like a sci-fi fantasy, but thanks to the rise of 3D printers-devices that can build objects from digital blueprints, usually by layering plastic or other materials-it is rapidly becoming reality. That is born from costumers and Corporation alike. In the past year alone, middle-school students have 3D printed stock cars fpr physics lessons, scientists have 3D printed tissues for human organs and GE has used 3D printing to improve the efficiency of its  enginies

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Bucharest is among the European capitals most vulnerable to earthquakes. Although located at a relatively large epicentral distance from Vrancea area, Bucharest has suffered much destruction and loss of life during great Vrancea earthquakes. In the last century, November 10th,1940 earthquakes, caused thr completely collapse of Carlton building located in the central city area, killing over 300 people and many other high buildings were affected in capital city as in other cities closer to the spicenter. More than 1000 people were killed in a matter of minutes in all Romania during the earthquake, while city of Panciu was destroyed in 90% proportion.

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The 1959 Escumniac hurricane was considered the worst disaster in 100 years. It occurred due to the extratropical remnants of an Atlantic Hurricane. The storm was the third tropical cyclone and first hurricane of the 1959 Atlantic hurricane season, and developed from a tropical wave in the central Gulf of Mexico on June,18. It headed rapidly northeastward and stuck Florida later that day. Shortly after entering the Atlantic Ocean, it strengthened into a tropical storm later on june,18. By the following day, it had strengthened into a hurricane. However, it is transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about six hours later 35 people died.

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Arthur Schawlow and Charles Townes began thinking about ways to make infrared or visible light masers. In 1957 Schawlow and Townes constructed an optical cavity by placing two highly reflecting mirrors parallel to each other, and positioning the amplifying medium in between. In 1958, they published a seminal Physical Review paper on their findings and submitted a patent application for the so-called optical maser. Today, for example, LASERS are used in corrective eye surgery, providing a precise source of heat for cutting and cauterizing tissue.

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When the 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Tangshan at 3:42 a.m. on July 28, over a million people lay sleeping, unaware of the disaster that was to befall them. As the earth began to shake, a few people who were awake had the forethought to dive under a table or other heavy piece of furniture, but most were asleep and did not have time. The entire earthquake lasted approximately 14 to 16 seconds.
Once the quake was over, the people who could, scrambled out into the open, only to see the entire city levelled. After an initial period of shock, the survivors began to dig through debris to answer the muffled calls for help as well as find loved ones still under rubble. As injured people were saved from under the rubble, they were lain on the side of the road. Many of the medical personnel were also trapped under debris or killed by the earthquake. The medical centers were destroyed as well as the roads to get there.
Survivors were faced with no water, no food, and no electricity.

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In the early morning hours of April 26, 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine (formerly part of the Soviet Union) exploded, creating what has been described as the worst nuclear disaster the world has ever seen.
At 1:23 a.m. on April 26, when extremely hot nuclear fuel rods were lowered into cooling water, an immense amount of steam was created, which — because of the RBMK reactors' design flaws — created more reactivity in the nuclear core of reactor number 4. The resultant power surge caused an immense explosion that detached the 1,000-ton plate covering the reactor core, releasing radiation into the atmosphere and cutting off the flow of coolant into the reactor.
A few seconds later, a second explosion of even greater power than the first blew the reactor building apart and spewed burning graphite and other parts of the reactor core around the plant, starting a number of intense fires around the damaged reactor and reactor number 3, which was still operating at the time of the explosions.

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In response to severe flooding and to ensure electrical power generation in 1949 and 1950, China built the Banqiao Dam in the Huai river basin of the Henan province. It was completed in 1952. However, they never imagined the dangers that would follow.
Due to construction and engineering errors, numerous cracks in the dam appeared after completion and were repaired by Soviet engineers.
In 1975, after a period of rapid dam development, a perfect storm of factors came together to topple Henan Province's Banqiao Dam and kill an estimated 171,000 people.
On the night of Aug 8, 1975, a line of people frantically piled sandbags stop Henan Province's Banqiao Dam while being battered by the worst storm ever recorded in the region. They were in a race with the rapidly rising Ru River to save the dam and the millions of people that lay sleeping downstream. It was a race they were about to lose.

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Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. The Internet as we know it today first started being developed in the late 1960's and transmitted its first message on Friday, October 29, 1969. In 1993, the Internet experienced one of its largest growths to date and today is accessible by people all over the world.
The Internet is the world's largest network because it is a collections of computers and servers that are connected to each other using routers and switches around the world. The Internet works the same way a network would in a home or office just with millions of more computers and other routers and switches.
For most Internet users, electronic mail (email) practically replaced the postal service for short written transactions. People communicate over the Internet in a number of other ways including  Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony, instant messaging, or social media.
The Internet and the "WWW" are not the same thing. Files, pictures, songs, and video can be shared downloading (receiving) and uploading (sending).

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A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can also use it to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.Before we talk about different types of computers, let's talk about two things all computers have in common: hardware and software.
Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the keyboard or mouse. It also includes all of the computer's internal parts.
Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do and how to do it. Examples of software include web browsers, games, and word processors.
When most people hear the word computer, they think of a personal computer such as a desktop or laptop. However, computers come in many shapes and sizes, and they perform many different functions in our daily lives. When you withdraw cash from an ATM, scan groceries at the store, or use a calculator, you're using a type of computer.

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On May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens, located in the state of Washington, erupted creating the most destructive eruption in US history. This eruption was preceded by earthquakes and steam-venting episodes ( steam rose from the volcano).

At 8 am an earthquake caused the north face of the mountain to slide, being the largest landslide in the human history. The molten lava and high-pressured gas suddenly exploded, covering the avalanching north face. Volcanic ash rose in the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 states. Due to the molten lava the glaciers surrounding the volcano melted resulting in mudslides that travelled up to 80 km. Less severe outbursts occurred the following days.

Approximately 57 people died, hundreds square miles were destroyed and turned into wasteland, thousands of animals were killed and St. Helens was left with only 2 thirds of it’s original crater.

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In 1932, Ernest Rutherford discovered that “splitting” lithium atoms causes large amounts of energy to be released. However, he and fellow physicists Albert Einstein and Niels Bhor didn’t belive that harnessing power from the atom was a practical idea for the time. The same year James Chadwick discovered the neutron wich was immediately considered to be a tool for nuclear experimentation.

This newly discovered part of the atom led Frederic and Irene (Marie) Jiliot-Curie to descover induced radioactivity in 1934, wich made possible creating artificially radium-like elements at a cheaper price than natural radium. The neutron also led Enrico Fermi to discover plutonium (neutron-bombarded Uranium).

German chemists Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicist Lise Meitner conducted more experiments on Fermi’s neutron-bombarded Uranium and found out that the neutron splitted the nucleus in 2 approx. equal pieces. They called this phenomenon “fission”. Further studies shown that through fission a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. This was proved by the Curie husband in 1939. This new discovery led to one of the most destructive wepons in the world: nuclear wepons. Many countries started studying and developing nuclear weaponry in preparation for Wold War 2.

The first man-made reactor was built in the US in 1942 and was known as Chicago Pile-1. This work was part of the Manhattan Project used to create nuclear bombs such as the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima.

Further studies of the nuclear power were made in the UK and USSR in the late ’40 and ’50. Energy was generated the first time in Idaho on December 20 1951, producing 100 KW.

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The start of the electronical and digital computer

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The start of the electronical and digital computer

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Electromechanical computers

Early digital computers were electromechanical ( elecric switches activated by mechanical relays to perform calculation). Two such computers were the Z2 and Z3 both designed by the German engineer Konrad Zuse. The Z3 was the first automatic and fully programable  electromechanical computer.

Due to their low processing speeds, the devices were replaced by the much faster all-electronic computers.

The usage of vacuum tubes, the Colossus and the ENIAC

During World War 2, Max Newman was tasked with building the Colossus, the world's first fully digital and programmable electronic computer to decode a high-level german Enigma machine. Colossus used a number of vacuum tubes (device that controls electric currents) and paper input to perform a variety of logical operations to decode. The first of the 10 Colossus computers was finished in January 1944.

Another computer that used vacuum tubes was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) wich was much faster than the Colossus. The ENIAC worked similarly to the Colossus.

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“The winter of terror “: In the winter of 1950-1951 , a disastrous number of avalanches rocked the Swiss- Austrian Alps. The avalanches killed over 265 people in the short span of three months. Called “Winter of Terror”, the series of 649 avalanches destroyed thousands of acres of foresta and over 900 buildings.

This dezastruous weather is tought to be a result of atypical weather conditions in the Alps :  high precipitation due to the meeting of an Atlantic warm front with a polar cold front  resulted in 10 – 15 feet of snowfall in a 2 – 3 day period.

It’s estimated that over 40.000 people were buried alive under avalanche snow.

The biggest damage and the greatest number of deaths was suffered by Austria , with 135 persons killed and many villages destroyed.

The Valais canton of Switzerland was affected too  with 92 human deaths , almost 500 livestock deaths,  destruction of 900 human-made structures and  economically important forests were also damaged.

The avalanches were so frequent that the town of Andermatt suffered six avalanches in one hour, killing 13 people.

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The lie detector : in 1902 ,James Mackenzie invented the first and less successful lie detector or polygraph machine , the modern one was invented by John Larson in 1921.

John Larson , a medical student of University of California, was the one who invented the modern lie detector , but his invention it’s controversial among psychologists and isn’t always judicially acceptable.

This invention is based on the theory that when a person lies it causes a certain amount of stress that produces some changes in serval involuntary physiological reactions  like a change in the blood pressure, in breathing, perspiration and pulse. This changes are measured by a series of different sensors that are attached to a persons body  and are recorded by pens that write the dates on graph paper.

A examination with this type of machine lasts about two hours in which  the operator ask a series of control questions that show how a individual  responses when giving true and false answers , after that the real test begins and the actual questions are asked , but they’re mixed with filler questions.

The examination is truly ended after the expert interprets the data.

The equation E=mc^2: Einstein’s formula it’s one of the most popular outcome from the Theory of Relativity. It says that energy ( E) equals mass ( m) times the speed of light ( c)  squared ,to be more precise it says mass is just one form of energy. If we want to calculate the speed of light squared what we would get is an colossal number ( 186.000 miles per second ) so a small amount of mass can be converted to a astonishing amount of energy or , if there’s a lot of energy

energy available, some energy can be converted to mass and a new particle can be created.

As an example we have nuclear reactors that work because nuclear reactions convert only small amounts of mass into large amounts of energy.

Einstein wrote a paper with a new understanding of the structure of light in which he argued that light can act as though it consists of independent particles of energy, in some ways like the particles of a gas, but his theory contradicted the universal theory that light consists of smoothly oscillating electromagnetic waves. Einstein demonstrated that his theory was right because what he was proposing was already observed and he just explained it wholly . He had reinforced the Kinetic Theory and created a new tool for studying the movements of the atoms.

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Nuclei with an odd mass or odd atomic number have "nuclear spin" (in a similar fashion to the spin of electrons). This includes 1H and 13C (but not 12C). The spins of nuclei are sufficiently different that NMR experiments can be sensitive for only one particular isotope of one particular element.  The NMR behaviour of 1H and 13C nuclei has been exploited by organic chemist since they provide valuable information that can be used to deduce the structure of organic compounds. These will be the focus of our attention.

Since a nucleus is a charged particle in motion, it will develop a magnetic field.  1H and 13C  have nuclear spins of 1/2 and so they behave in a similar fashion to a simple, tiny bar magnet.  In the absence of a magnetic field, these are randomly oriented but when a field is applied they line up parallel to the applied field, either spin aligned or spin opposed.  The  more highly populated state is the lower energy spin aligned situation.
In NMR, EM radiation is used to "flip" the alignment of nuclear spins from the low energy spin aligned state to the higher energy spin opposed state. The energy required for this transition depends on the strength of the applied magnetic field (see below) but it is small and corresponds to the radio frequency range of the EM spectrum.

| The basic arrangement of an NMR spectrometer is shown to the left.  The sample is positioned in the magnetic field and excited via pulsations in the radio frequency input circuit. The realigned magnetic fields induce a radio signal in the output circuit which is used to generate the output signal.  Fourier analysis of the complex output produces the actual spectrum.The pulse is repeated as many times as necessary to allow the signals to be identified from the background noise.

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The term “computed tomography”, or CT, refers to a computerized x-ray imaging procedure in which a narrow beam of x-rays is aimed at a patient and quickly rotated around the body, producing signals that are processed by the machine’s computer to generate cross-sectional images—or “slices”—of the body. These slices are called tomographic images and contain more detailed information than conventional x-rays. Once a number of successive slices are collected by the machine’s computer, they can be digitally “stacked” together to form a three-dimensional image of the patient that allows for easier identification and location of basic structures as well as possible tumors or abnormalities.

How does CT work?

Unlike a conventional x-ray—which uses a fixed x-ray tube—a CT scanner uses a motorized x-ray source that rotates around the circular opening of a donut-shaped structure called a gantry. During a CT scan, the patient lies on a bed that slowly moves through the gantry while the x-ray tube rotates around the patient, shooting narrow beams of x-rays through the body. Instead of film, CT scanners use special digital x-ray detectors, which are located directly opposite the x-ray source. As the x-rays leave the patient, they are picked up by the detectors and transmitted to a computer.

Each time the x-ray source completes one full rotation, the CT computer uses sophisticated mathematical techniques to construct a 2D image slice of the patient. The thickness of the tissue represented in each image slice can vary depending on the CT machine used, but usually ranges from 1-10 millimeters. When a full slice is completed, the image is stored and the motorized bed is moved forward incrementally into the gantry. The x-ray scanning process is then repeated to produce another image slice. This process continues until the desired number of slices is collected.

Image slices can either be displayed individually or stacked together by the computer to generate a 3D image of the patient that shows the skeleton, organs, and tissues as well as any abnormalities the physician is trying to identify. This method has many advantages including the ability to rotate the 3D image in space or to view slices in succession, making it easier to find the exact place where a problem may be located.

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Many people think that the internet and the world wide web are the same thing. While they are closely linked, they are very different systems.

The internet is a huge network of computers all connected together. The world wide web (‘www’ or ‘web’ for short) is a collection of webpages found on this network of computers. Your web browser uses the internet to access the web.

So when you get home from school and ask to go on the internet, you should really say, ‘Can I look at some of the world wide web?’.
In 1989 the world wide web was invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. He was trying to find a new way for scientists to easily share the data from their experiments.

Hypertext and the internet already existed at this point but no one had thought of a way to use the internet to link one document directly to another.
The world wide web opened up the internet to everyone, not just scientists.

It connected the world in a way that was not possible before and made it much easier for people to get information, share and communicate.

It allowed people to share their work and thoughts through social networking sites, blogs and video sharing.

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Timeline

1939

Hitler invades Poland on 1 September. Britain and France declare war on Germany two days later.

1940

Rationing starts in the UK.

German 'Blitzkrieg' overwhelms Belgium, Holland and France.

Churchill becomes Prime Minister of Britain.

British Expeditionary Force evacuated from Dunkirk.

British victory in Battle of Britain forces Hitler to postpone invasion plans.

1941

Hitler begins Operation Barbarossa - the invasion of Russia.

The Blitz continues against Britain's major cities.

Allies take Tobruk in North Africa, and resist German attacks.

Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, and the US enters the war.

1942

Germany suffers setbacks at Stalingrad and El Alamein.

Singapore falls to the Japanese in February - around 25,000 prisoners taken.

American naval victory at Battle of Midway, in June, marks turning point in Pacific War.

Mass murder of Jewish people at Auschwitz begins.

1943

Surrender at Stalingrad marks Germany's first major defeat.

Allied victory in North Africa enables invasion of Italy to be launched.

Italy surrenders, but Germany takes over the battle.

British and Indian forces fight Japanese in Burma.

1944

Allies land at Anzio and bomb monastery at Monte Cassino.

Soviet offensive gathers pace in Eastern Europe.

D Day: The Allied invasion of France. Paris is liberated in August.

Guam liberated by the US Okinawa, and Iwo Jima bombed.

1945

Auschwitz liberated by Soviet troops.

Russians reach Berlin: Hitler commits suicide and Germany surrenders on 7 May.

Truman becomes President of the US on Roosevelt's death, and Attlee replaces Churchill.

After atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrenders on 14 August.

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Causes of World War I:
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia.

Ties and treaties bound countries to assist each other in time of war. When the time came, they started choosing sides. The United States declared neutrality until German submarine warfare threatened American commercial shipping.

The Central Powers consisted of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, and Ottoman Empire (now Turkey).

The Allied Powers consisted of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and the United States.Other Military Casualties by Country:
(Source: Encyclopedia Britannica)
Austria-Hungary: 1,200,000 dead; 3,620,000 wounded
Belgium: 13,716 dead; 44,686 wounded
Bulgaria: 87,500 dead; 152,390 wounded
France: 1,357,800 dead; 4,266,000 wounded
Germany: 1,773,700 dead; 4,216,058 wounded
Great Britain: 908,371 dead; 2,090,212 wounded
Greece: 5,000 dead; 21,000 wounded
Italy: 650,000 dead; 947,000 wounded
Japan: 300 dead; 907 wounded
Montenegro: 3,000 dead; 10,000 wounded
Ottoman Empire (Turkey): 325,000 dead; 400,000 wounded
Portugal: 7,222 dead; 13,751 wounded
Romania: 335,706 dead; 120,000 wounded
Russia: 1,700,000 dead; 4,950,000 wounded
Serbia: 45,000 dead; 133,148 wounded
Grand total (including US): 8,528,831 dead; 21,189,154 wounded

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the Holocaust Disaster During the World War Two

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the Holocaust Disaster During the World War Two

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Remembering the HolocaustSix million Jews and millions of others, including Gypsies, Slavs, homosexuals, the mentally ill and the infirm were murdered by the Nazis between 1933 and 1945. The magnitude of brutality, the remorseless cruelty, and the mass murder during the Holocaust are unique. However the root causes of the Holocaust continue. Racial hatred, economic crises, human psychological and moral flaws are still ominously common. Saying this, we must have the courage to remember the Holocaust, no matter how disturbing the memories may be. For only informed, understanding, and morally committed people can prevent such persecution from happening again. There will never be enough remembrance of the Holocaust. To forget about the holocaust is to ignore the tragedies many millions suffered, to bring about a possibility it could be repeated, and to agree with Adolf Hitlers philosophy. "Never think there is an easy way to make an end to such bitter memories...Never think there is a way to forgive the hate in the human heart...or an easy way to believe that the worst has occurred and is past. Only know that hope lives when people remember." (Simon Wiesenthal) The persecution of people is always and everywhere intolerable and to act against it is a beginning for hope. Jewish communities existed continuously in Europe for over 2,000 years. Many of these communities were older than the countries in which they existed. Nevertheless, as the countries of Europe developed, Jews were rarely given complete citizenship status. At best they were tolerated as guests. Their social and religious distinctiveness made them persistent targets for persecution and such persecution, in turn, intensified the cohesiveness of Jewish communities. Jews were starved, beaten, experimented on, tortured, and killed. They were forced to face an almost certain death. The Jewish people were persecuted for their religion.

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In 1931,in China,the floods brought about a major catastrophe which killed aproximately 4 milions of people. This catastrophe is considered the biggest natural disaster because of the people who died and the huge damages,everything being destroyed. This nightmare happened between july and november,1931. The famous rivers from China,namely Huang He and Yangtze went out from their river bed,causing a major flood which called many casualties amoung the Chinese population

What cause the floods was the change of weather which started in the winter of 1930. It was snowing so much and with the coming of spring which brought heavy rains which in turn caused the sudden melt of snow. These are the principal causes of these floods,because the level of water grew and rivers went out and sank a big part of the country.

The survivors were left without houses and crops which led to faminy and proverty. The main flooded areas were Huang He and Yangtze valleys,the main areas where the rice was cultivated.Nevertheless,the Chinese population manage to surpass the catastrophe becoming the world power that it is today.

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The name of the laser come from „Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission  of Radiation”.This instrument is used for producing light through stimulated emission method.

The concept of laser was invented by Albert Einstein in 1917. The rest of the project cosisted in the discovered of necessary atoms and in the use mirrors utilization to help stimulate emission. In 1958,Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow made a device named maser which means Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. This instrument maser was used to consolidate radio`s signals.

If maser wasn`t the same idea with what Albert Einstein wanted,Theodore Maiman would be the person who invented the first laser using a ruby. The improvement of laser evolved over the years. For example,in 1960,Ali Javal invented the laser with gas,helium and neon. Then,Robert Hall made the semi-conducter laser in 1962.After this,it follwed the laser with carbon dioxide which was invented by Hal Walker.

Now,the laser is an evolved instrument which is especially used in medicine and in science. For example,he can treat the eye problems. We can say that it is vital for the  world as it is used in provding the lights at concerts,it is used in surgeries,by printers and others appliances.

So,we must be grateful to Albert Einstein,the parent of the laser.

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INVENTIONS AND CATASTROPHES FROM THE 20TH CENTURY

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Anastase Dragomir(1896–1966) was a distinguished Romanian inventor, most famous for his "catapultable cockpit" patent (with Tănase Dobrescu) as an early form of ejection seat, although preceded by Everard Chaltrop's 1916 compressed air ejection seat, and others.

After several attempts, Dragomir managed to obtain financing and began construction of his "catapulted cockpit". The invention was tested in a Farman airplane piloted by Lucien Bossoutrot at Paris-Orly, France airport on 28 August 1929. French newspapers later reported on the invention's success. Dragomir returned home to Romania after the Paris-Orly experiment where, with Romanian aviation engineer captain Constantin Nicolau, he successfully repeated the experiment in an Avia airplane at Băneasa Airport in Bucharest, Romania on 26 October 1929. He continued to refine his invention and obtained Romanian patent #40658 in 1950 for his "parachuted cell". In 1960, he received Romanian patent #41424 for a transport aircraft equipped with ejection cabins. Anastase Dragomir died in Bucharest, Romania in June 1966.

The photograph shown on the stamp is of a British-designed and built Martin-Baker ejection seat. Founded by Sir James Martin, Martin-Baker ejection seats are used by more than 80 air forces around the world today with over 16,500 seats currently in service. The Martin-Baker Aircraft Company is still run by the Martin family today.

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The november 2017 Paris attacks were a series of coordinated terorist attacks that occured on Friday,13 november 2015 in Paris,France, three suicide bombers stuck outside the stade de France, during a football match. This was followed by several mass shootings, and a suicide bombing, at cafes and restaurants.The attakers killed 130 people. Another 413 people were injured, almost 100 seriously. Seven of the attackers also died, while the authorities continued to search for accomplices.The attacks were the deadliest on France since the Second World War, and the deadliest in the European Union since the Madrid train bombings in 2004.

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Nicolae Paulescu was a Romanian scientist who claimed to have been the first person to discover insulin, which he called pancreine.

When Frederick Banting and John James Rikard Macleod were awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for creating usable insulin, Paulescu wrote to the Nobel Prize committee claiming that he had discovered and used insulin first.

His claims were rejected, but thanks to a British professor called Ian Murray Paulescu’s achievements are now recognised as being significant in the history of insulin.

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Desaster:Nevada del Ruiz Nevado del ruiz is a volcano located on the border of the departmentsof Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, about 129 kilometers (80 mi) west of the capital city Bogotá.Beginning November 1984, geologists observed an increasing level of seismic activity nearNevado del Ruiz.  In the latter, hot magma came in contact with water, resulting in explosions asthe water was almost instantly turned into steam. The most notable of these events was an ashejection on September 11, 1985. The activity of the volcano decreased in October 1985.At 3:06 pm, on November 13, 1985,  Nevado del Ruiz began to erupt,ejecting dacitic tephra more than 30 kilometres (19 mi) into the atmosphere. The total mass ofthe erupted material (including magma) was 35 million tonnesOne of the lahars virtually erased the small town of Armero in TolimaThe second lahar, which descended through the valley of Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800people and destroyed about 400 homes in the town of Chinchiná, In total, over 23,000 peoplewere killed and approximately 5,000 were injured. More than 5,000 homes were destroyed.

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Desaster:Nevada del Ruiz Nevado del ruiz is a volcano located on the border of the departmentsof Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, about 129 kilometers (80 mi) west of the capital city Bogotá.Beginning November 1984, geologists observed an increasing level of seismic activity nearNevado del Ruiz.  In the latter, hot magma came in contact with water, resulting in explosions asthe water was almost instantly turned into steam. The most notable of these events was an ashejection on September 11, 1985. The activity of the volcano decreased in October 1985.At 3:06 pm, on November 13, 1985,  Nevado del Ruiz began to erupt,ejecting dacitic tephra more than 30 kilometres (19 mi) into the atmosphere. The total mass ofthe erupted material (including magma) was 35 million tonnesOne of the lahars virtually erased the small town of Armero in TolimaThe second lahar, which descended through the valley of Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800people and destroyed about 400 homes in the town of Chinchiná, In total, over 23,000 peoplewere killed and approximately 5,000 were injured. More than 5,000 homes were destroyed.

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Desasters:Bhola Cyclone                                                                          A 1970 tropical cyclone that killed 300,000 people in East Pakistan — now Bangladesh — hasofficially been declared the worlds all-time deadliest weather event.The disaster had vast political consequences: The Pakistani government poor response to thecyclone helped Bengali nationalists take power in the 1970 elections and fanned the flames ofthe bitter civil war that created Bangladesh. At least 300,000 people in the low-lying region near the Bangladesh coast were killed bymassive flooding from the powerful cyclone. Over 45 percent of the population of 167,000 in thecity of Tazumuddin was killed.India became one of the first nations to offer aid to Pakistan, despite the generallypoor relations between the two countries, and by the end of November had pledged$6.9 million US President Richard Nixon allocated a $62 million grant to provide food and other essentialrelief to the survivors of the storm.

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Desasters:Bhola Cyclone                                                                          A 1970 tropical cyclone that killed 300,000 people in East Pakistan — now Bangladesh — hasofficially been declared the worlds all-time deadliest weather event.The disaster had vast political consequences: The Pakistani government poor response to thecyclone helped Bengali nationalists take power in the 1970 elections and fanned the flames ofthe bitter civil war that created Bangladesh. At least 300,000 people in the low-lying region near the Bangladesh coast were killed bymassive flooding from the powerful cyclone. Over 45 percent of the population of 167,000 in thecity of Tazumuddin was killed.India became one of the first nations to offer aid to Pakistan, despite the generallypoor relations between the two countries, and by the end of November had pledged$6.9 million US President Richard Nixon allocated a $62 million grant to provide food and other essentialrelief to the survivors of the storm.

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The november 2017 Paris attacks were a series of coordinated terorist attacks that occured on Friday,13 november 2015 in Paris,France, three suicide bombers stuck outside the stade de France, during a football match. This was followed by several mass shootings, and a suicide bombing, at cafes and restaurants.The attakers killed 130 people. Another 413 people were injured, almost 100 seriously. Seven of the attackers also died, while the authorities continued to search for accomplices.The attacks were the deadliest on France since the Second World War, and the deadliest in the European Union since the Madrid train bombings in 2004.

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Catastrofes:North Korean famine                                                    Durring the great famine of the 1990s, between 600,000 and 2.5 milion people died of hunger.According to the commission report, the North Korean regime, then headed by Kim Jong-il,obstructed the delivery of aid to the hungriest regions until 1997, and punished those who triedto earn enough food to survive. The regime was "well aware of the countrys deteriorating foodsituation" as it stocked airfields, reactors and palaces, rather than food stores.According to one expert witness testemonial before the commission, the North Korean regime,at the height of the famine had its annual military buget at $6 billion. The term Arduous March, or The March of Suffering became a metaphor for the faminefollowing a state propaganda campaign in 1993.The story, referred to as the Arduous March, is described as fighting against thousands ofenemies in 20 degrees below zero, braving through a heavy snowfall and starvation, the red flagfluttering in front of the rank."As part of this state campaign, uses of words such as famine and hunger were banned becausethey implied government failure. Citizens who said deaths were due to the famine could be inserious trouble with the authoritiesThe famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Sovietsupport caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughtsexacerbated the crisis.

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Catastrofes:North Korean famine                                                    Durring the great famine of the 1990s, between 600,000 and 2.5 milion people died of hunger.According to the commission report, the North Korean regime, then headed by Kim Jong-il,obstructed the delivery of aid to the hungriest regions until 1997, and punished those who triedto earn enough food to survive. The regime was "well aware of the countrys deteriorating foodsituation" as it stocked airfields, reactors and palaces, rather than food stores.According to one expert witness testemonial before the commission, the North Korean regime,at the height of the famine had its annual military buget at $6 billion. The term Arduous March, or The March of Suffering became a metaphor for the faminefollowing a state propaganda campaign in 1993.The story, referred to as the Arduous March, is described as fighting against thousands ofenemies in 20 degrees below zero, braving through a heavy snowfall and starvation, the red flagfluttering in front of the rank."As part of this state campaign, uses of words such as famine and hunger were banned becausethey implied government failure. Citizens who said deaths were due to the famine could be inserious trouble with the authoritiesThe famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Sovietsupport caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughtsexacerbated the crisis.

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Invention:Post-it notes                                                       The great little self-stik notepapers are one of the most popular office product available. Mostpeople have Post-it®  Notes.   Most people use them.  Most people love them. But less know thatthis product was developed by mistake like most of the greatest inventions.Spencer Silver worked in the 3M laboratories trying to develop a very strong adhesive. Silverdeveloped a new adhesive, but it was even weaker than what 3M already manufactured.  Itstuck to objects, but could easily be lifted off. It was super weak instead of super strong.Four years later, another 3M scientist named Arthur Fry was singing in the church choir.  Heused markers to keep his place in the hymnal, but they kept falling out of the book. Remembering Silvers adhesive, Fry used some to coat his markers.With the weak adhesive, the markers stayed in place, yet lifted off without damaging thepages.  3M began distributing Post-it ® Notes nationwide in 1980 -- ten years after Silverdeveloped the super weak adhesive.The Post-it Notes have been used for both work and fun. In schools and offices are used toorganise ideas, while in the free-time they are used to create art, make pranks, communicate etc.While the theologyis taking over our lives, virtual Post-It notes have been created for computerin the form of desktop notes. These include 3Ms own Post-it Brand Software Notes,Stickiesin Mac OS or Sticky Notes in Windows.

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Invention:Post-it notes                                                       The great little self-stik notepapers are one of the most popular office product available. Mostpeople have Post-it®  Notes.   Most people use them.  Most people love them. But less know thatthis product was developed by mistake like most of the greatest inventions.Spencer Silver worked in the 3M laboratories trying to develop a very strong adhesive. Silverdeveloped a new adhesive, but it was even weaker than what 3M already manufactured.  Itstuck to objects, but could easily be lifted off. It was super weak instead of super strong.Four years later, another 3M scientist named Arthur Fry was singing in the church choir.  Heused markers to keep his place in the hymnal, but they kept falling out of the book. Remembering Silvers adhesive, Fry used some to coat his markers.With the weak adhesive, the markers stayed in place, yet lifted off without damaging thepages.  3M began distributing Post-it ® Notes nationwide in 1980 -- ten years after Silverdeveloped the super weak adhesive.The Post-it Notes have been used for both work and fun. In schools and offices are used toorganise ideas, while in the free-time they are used to create art, make pranks, communicate etc.While the theologyis taking over our lives, virtual Post-It notes have been created for computerin the form of desktop notes. These include 3Ms own Post-it Brand Software Notes,Stickiesin Mac OS or Sticky Notes in Windows.

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Invention:The Teddy Bear                                                     In November of 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt was on a hunting trip in Mississippi whiletrying to settle a boundary dispute between Mississippi and Louisiana.However, his hunt was going poorly that day, and he couldn’t seem to find anything worthy ofdischarging his rifle. His staff, captured a Louisiana black bear cub for the President to shoot.But he did not. The president thought that there was nothing to be proud of in killing aninnocent bear cub.A famous political cartoonist for the Washington Star, Mr. Clifford Berryman, drew a cartoontitled, "Drawing the Line in Mississippi" which used the story of the President refusing to shootthe bear as a metaphor for how he dealt with the boundary dispute.The cartoon in the Washington Star showed Teddy Roosevelt, rifle in hand, with his backturned on a cute, cowering baby bear. Morris Michtom, owner of a Brooklyn toy store, wasinspired by the cartoon to make a stuffed bear cub. Intending it only as a display, he placed thestuffed bear in his toy store window, and next to it placed a copy of the cartoon from thenewspaper.It surprised Michton when people wanted to buy it. He asked for and received PresidentRoosevelt’s permission to use his name for the hand-sewn bears that he and his wife made.Various TV shows and movies have a teddy bear depicted, such as Super Ted and Mr. Bean, Tedand Ted 2, Winnie-the- Pooh.Because police, fire and emergency officials found that giving a teddy bear to a child during acrisis stabilized and calmed them, NAPLC created the Teddy Bear Cops program to distributeteddy bears to police, fire, and emergency officials throughout the United States, for their use inproviding teddy bears to children in emergencies.

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Invention:The Teddy Bear                                                     In November of 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt was on a hunting trip in Mississippi whiletrying to settle a boundary dispute between Mississippi and Louisiana.However, his hunt was going poorly that day, and he couldn’t seem to find anything worthy ofdischarging his rifle. His staff, captured a Louisiana black bear cub for the President to shoot.But he did not. The president thought that there was nothing to be proud of in killing aninnocent bear cub.A famous political cartoonist for the Washington Star, Mr. Clifford Berryman, drew a cartoontitled, "Drawing the Line in Mississippi" which used the story of the President refusing to shootthe bear as a metaphor for how he dealt with the boundary dispute.The cartoon in the Washington Star showed Teddy Roosevelt, rifle in hand, with his backturned on a cute, cowering baby bear. Morris Michtom, owner of a Brooklyn toy store, wasinspired by the cartoon to make a stuffed bear cub. Intending it only as a display, he placed thestuffed bear in his toy store window, and next to it placed a copy of the cartoon from thenewspaper.It surprised Michton when people wanted to buy it. He asked for and received PresidentRoosevelt’s permission to use his name for the hand-sewn bears that he and his wife made.Various TV shows and movies have a teddy bear depicted, such as Super Ted and Mr. Bean, Tedand Ted 2, Winnie-the- Pooh.Because police, fire and emergency officials found that giving a teddy bear to a child during acrisis stabilized and calmed them, NAPLC created the Teddy Bear Cops program to distributeteddy bears to police, fire, and emergency officials throughout the United States, for their use inproviding teddy bears to children in emergencies.

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INVENTION : The instant camera (Polaroid)

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INVENTION : The instant camera (Polaroid)

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The instant camera is a type of camera which uses self-developing film to create a chemically developed print shortly after taking the picture. Polaroid Corporation pioneered (and patented) consumer friendly instant cameras and film, and were followed by various other manufacturers.

The invention of commercially viable instant cameras which were easy to use is generally credited to American scientist Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera, the model 95 Land Camera, in 1948, a year after unveiling instant film in New York City. The earliest instant camera, which consisted of a camera and portable wet darkroom in a single compartment, was invented in 1923 by Samuel Shlafrock.

In February 2008, Polaroid filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection for the second time and announced it would discontinue production of its instant film and cameras, shut down three factories, and laid off 450 workers. Sales of chemical film by all makers have dropped by at least 25% per year in the first decade of the 21st century. In 2009, Polaroid was acquired by PLR IP Holdings, LLC which uses the Polaroid brand to market various products often relating to instant cameras. Among the products it markets are a Polaroid branded Fuji Instax instant camera, and various digital cameras and portable printers. As of 2017 film continues to be made by the Polaroid Originals (previously the Impossible Project) for several models of Polaroid camera, and for the 8×10 inch format.

USAGE

Instant cameras have found many uses throughout their history. The original purpose of instant cameras was motivated by Jennifer Land's question to her father (Edwin Land): "Why can't I see them now?" Many people have enjoyed seeing their photos shortly after taking them, allowing them to recompose or retake the photo if they didn't get it right. But instant cameras were found to be useful for other purposes such as ID cards, passport photos, ultrasound photos, and other uses which required an instant photo. They were also used by police officers and fire investigators because of their ability to create an unalterable instant photo. Medium and large format professional photographers have also used the higher end instant cameras to preview lighting before taking the more expensive medium and/or large format photo. Instant film also has been used in ways that are similar to folk art, including the transfer of the images/emulsion and image manipulation.

Script supervisors in film production used instant cameras as standard to aid visual continuity by photographing characters or sets, producing photographs that could be instantly referred to when a particular set or character's appearance needs to be reset and shot again, or recalled later due to the non linear shooting schedule of a film or television production (that is, a film is rarely shot in the order of chronology in the film, due to time, location or financial restraints). Script supervisors no longer use instant cameras due to digital technology.

With the advent of digital photography, much of the instant camera's consumer appeal has been transferred to digital cameras. Passport photo cameras have gone to digital, leaving instant cameras to a niche market.

POINT OF VIEW

To put it all in a nutshell, I think that the instant camera are still a great invention, because in this way people can have a material memory of an important event that happened in their past. Therefore, people should still use the Polaroid cameras (which have become a trend recently) in order to be sure that their “live” memory will survive through everything.

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3 INVENTIONS AND 3 CATASTROPHES

THAT MARKED THE 20TH CENTURY

the three inventions and the three

catastrophes that I thought  to introduce

are:



Inventions :



Insulin



Penicillin



hepatitis B vaccine



Catastrophes:



cyclone Bhola in Bangladesh



the  earthquake in Chile



Hurricane  Mitch

Insulin



Insulin is a hormone, which is composed of 2 peptide chains,

consisting of 20-30 amino acids, joined together by two

bisul&de bonds. Insulin molecules are similar in mammals, so

many diabetes patients are treated with insulin extracted from

pigs. These molecules tend to form dimers in the solution.



Nicolae Constantin Paulescu (November 11, 1869, Bucharest -

July 19, 1931, Bucharest) was a Romanian scientist, physician

and physiologist, professor at the University of Medicine in

Bucharest, who contributed to the discovery of the antidiabetic

hormone released by pancreas, later called insulin.

Penicillin



Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin

G (intravenous use), penicillin V (penicillin V), procaine penicillin, and

benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). Penicillin antibiotics were

among the &rst drugs to be e7ective against many bacterial

infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. Penicillins are

still widely used today, although many types of bacteria have

developed resistance following extensive use.



Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander

Fleming. People began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are

several enhanced penicillin families that are e7ective against

additional bacteria; these include antistaphylococcal penicillins,

aminopenicillins and antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived

from Penicillium fungi.
Hepatitis B vaccine

Hepatitis B vaccine is a hepatitis B vaccine. The

&rst dose is recommended within 24 hours of

birth, followed by two or three doses thereafter,

including those with immunosuppression such

as HIV / AIDS and those born prematurely . 95%

of healthy immunized individuals are protected.

The &rst anti-hepatitis B vaccine was approved

in the United States in 1981. In 1986, a safer

version appeared on the market.

Hurricane  Mitch

Hurricane Mitch was the most hurricane hurricane of

the Great Hurricane from 1780 to the present day,

underlining Hurricane Galveston in 1900. Almost eleven

thousand people were con&rmed dead and almost as

many missing persons. The deaths were caused mostly

by Boods and landslides. Floods and landslides have

damaged or destroyed tens of thousands of homes with

total damage worth more than $ 5 billion (1998 USD, $

6 billion in 2006 USD), with most damage being caused

in Honduras and Nicaragua. Prior to Mitch, the most

hurricane-hurting killer in Central America was

Hurricane Fi& in 1974, which killed about 8,000-1,000.

the  Earthquake in Chile

The 1960's Valdivia earthquake or the May 22

earthquake is the most powerful earthquake

ever recorded. It had a magnitude of 9.5

degrees. It was recorded at 15:11 local time,

with a duration of about 10 minutes. The

tsunami generated a7ected regions such as

Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, New

Zealand, Australia and the Aleutian Islands.

There were 6,000 victims

Bhola Cyclone

Bhola cyclon was a devastating tropical cyclone that hit East Pakistan
and West Bangladesh , India on november 13 ,1970 .Up to 500.000 people lost their lives during the storm.

Hurricane  Mitch



Hurricane Mitch was the most hurricane hurricane of

the Great Hurricane from 1780 to the present day,

underlining Hurricane Galveston in 1900. Almost eleven

thousand people were con&rmed dead and almost as

many missing persons. The deaths were caused mostly

by Boods and landslides. Floods and landslides have

damaged or destroyed tens of thousands of homes with

total damage worth more than $ 5 billion (1998 USD, $

6 billion in 2006 USD), with most damage being caused

in Honduras and Nicaragua. Prior to Mitch, the most

hurricane-hurting killer in Central America was

Hurricane Fi& in 1974, which killed about 8,000-1,000.

the  Earthquake in Chile



The 1960's Valdivia earthquake or the May 22

earthquake is the most powerful earthquake

ever recorded. It had a magnitude of 9.5

degrees. It was recorded at 15:11 local time,

with a duration of about 10 minutes. The

tsunami generated a7ected regions such as

Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, New

Zealand, Australia and the Aleutian Islands.

There were 6,000 victims

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Invention:LIQUID PAPER                                                           It was originally called "mistake out" and was the invention of Bette Nesmith Graham, adivorcee who went to work in 1951 to support herself and her son.Though she found work as a typist, she unfortunately wasn't a very good one and developed awhite tempura paint to hide her mistakes. Using her kitchen and garage as laboratory andfactory. Starting on a basis of tempera paint she mixed with a common kitchen blender, shecalled the outcome fluid Mistake Out and started to provide her co-workers with small bottleson which the brands name was displayed.While continuing to work as a secretary, she educated herself in business methods, promotion,and research until she was satisfied that the product she had developed was really worthwhile.She then offered Mistake Out to IBM which turned it down.Undaunted, Bette Graham changed the name from Mistake Out to Liquid Paper and keptselling it from her kitchen-garage for the next 17 years. By 1968 she was making a profit. And in1979, the Gillette Corporation bought Liquid Paper for $47.5 million plus royalties.

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Invention:LIQUID PAPER                                                           It was originally called "mistake out" and was the invention of Bette Nesmith Graham, adivorcee who went to work in 1951 to support herself and her son.Though she found work as a typist, she unfortunately wasn't a very good one and developed awhite tempura paint to hide her mistakes. Using her kitchen and garage as laboratory andfactory. Starting on a basis of tempera paint she mixed with a common kitchen blender, shecalled the outcome fluid Mistake Out and started to provide her co-workers with small bottleson which the brands name was displayed.While continuing to work as a secretary, she educated herself in business methods, promotion,and research until she was satisfied that the product she had developed was really worthwhile.She then offered Mistake Out to IBM which turned it down.Undaunted, Bette Graham changed the name from Mistake Out to Liquid Paper and keptselling it from her kitchen-garage for the next 17 years. By 1968 she was making a profit. And in1979, the Gillette Corporation bought Liquid Paper for $47.5 million plus royalties.

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On March 4, 1977 Romania was hit by an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.4 on the Richter scale at 21:22. The damages were huge,1578person lost their lives and more than 11 000 were injured.  The shockwave was felt in the entire Balkan region.  In the nation's capital, Bucharest, a great deal of buildings collapsed. The city centre was particularly affected, the quake destroying iconic buildings such as the Scala building, the Continental-Colonadelor building, Dunarea, Casata, Nestor and others.

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Invention-The World’s First Aerodynamic Car

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Invention-The World’s First Aerodynamic Car

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Aurel Persu has invented the first aerodynamic car in the world. The car was invented around 100 years ago and nobody until now managed to create a better design with this purpose.
In the 1920s Persu started to build an aerodynamic car financed with his own money. The design was inspired by a water drop. The cars during that time looked quite different from his design. The car he invented had the wheels integrated into the car frame. The car Persu invented has reached the aerodynamic coefficient of 0,22. Now, cars such as a Ferrari 458 reach a coefficient of 0,33.

Persu has driven the car 120,000 kilometers with a speed of 80 kilometers per hour. The car had an engine of 1400 cubic centimeters and 10 horsepower.

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catastrophe: The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Alaska

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catastrophe: The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Alaska

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On March 24, 1989, Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska when the oil tanker carrying nearly 50 million US gallons of crude oil crashed and spilled 11 million US gallons of oil into the water which was recorded as one of the most devastating environmental disasters by humans. It was the largest oil spill in the 20th century on U.S waters which killed several sea birds, sea and river otters, salmon, herring, bald eagles, etc. After a study in 2003, it was found that the oil was still trapped and resulted in the long-term loss of marine life. About 100 tonnes of oil remained in the area which was discovered in a 2006 study. In 2010, it was estimated that at least 20,000 US gallons of the Valdez crude oil remained in Alaska’s water.

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In 1984, the streets of Bhopal suddenly clouded with the poisonous gray gases coming from the Union Carbide Plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. 40 tonnes of toxic gas methyl isocyanate (MIC) was suddenly released by the plant, and it spread all over the city. With adults and children choking and suffocating they reached the medical outlets blind and severely injured. The gas affected almost all the systems of the body as well as affected the genetic model of the people, whose results we still find in the later generations. According to Madhya Pradesh government, about 4,000 humans alongside many cattle were found dead in the streets who were unable to reach the hospitals. It is regarded as one of the most horrible accidents ever in the history of hazards in India.

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In March 1991, shaken by the fall of the Berlin Wall and the rise of nationalist-separatist movements in the Soviet Baltic and Caucasus republics, Mikhail Gorbachev held a historic referendum. He proposed the creation of a new union treaty to save the USSR. The gambit failed. Although a majority of the Soviet population voted yes, some key republics refused to participate. And so began the dissolution of the USSR, the event that current Russian President Vladimir Putin has called the the “greatest geopolitical catastrophe” of the 20th century.

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The Yellow River in China has a long history of flooding. It is about 3,000 miles long and millions of people live nearby in harm's way. In 1931, after a long period of drought, vast rainstorms from July to November caused the river to flood roughly 42,000 square miles of land. About 140,000 people died from the floods; however, the death toll reached nearly 4 million from famine and diseases as a result of the flood. Seven years later in 1938, another flood claimed a million more lives

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On the morning of May 8, 1902 Mount Pelée erupted and wiped out the village of St. Pierre on the island of Martinique. It took less than 1 minute for the pyroclastic flow to reach the village and kill roughly 28,000 people. Only 2 people are known to survive. This is the highest number of deaths from a volcanic eruption in the 20th century.

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Air France flight 4590 aviation disaster, Gonesse, France [2000]

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Air France flight 4590 aviation disaster, Gonesse, France [2000]

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Air France flight 4590, flight of a Concorde supersonic airplane that crashed in Gonesse, a suburb of Paris, on July 25, 2000. The airplane went down in flames almost immediately after takeoff, killing all 109 people on board and 4 others on the ground. It was the first fatal crash of a Concorde in 24 years of regular passenger service. The event is believed to have hastened the end of all Concorde operations in 2003.

Flight 4590 was a charter flight from Paris to New York City. The aircraft was an Air France Concorde, registration number F-BTSC. Most of the passengers were German tourists on their way to board a Caribbean-bound cruise ship in New York City. At approximately 4:43 pm the plane began its takeoff from Charles de Gaulle Airport. However, as it accelerated down the runway, ground observers noticed a fire on the left side, under the wing. The aircraft veered left on the runway, and, at about the time it left the ground, one of the two left-side engines failed. The pilot was unable to climb higher than about 200 feet (60 metres), and, about 90 seconds after the commencement of takeoff, the other left-side engine failed. At this point the aircraft dropped from the sky and crashed into a small hotel and restaurant in suburban Gonesse. All on board—100 passengers and 9 crew members—died. In addition, four people on the ground perished, and six others suffered injuries.

Air France grounded its remaining Concordes immediately; British Airways, the only other operator of the aircraft, followed suit in August. Both airlines resumed service in November 2001, but less than two years after that, all Concorde service ceased permanently.

A French government investigation into the crash later determined that the Concorde ran over a strip of metal on the runway, causing a tire to blow out. A large fragment of rubber then struck a fuel tank on the underside of the wing. (Fuel accounted for more than half the total weight of the fully loaded Concorde.) The impact most likely led the completely full tank to rupture from within. The spilling fuel quickly ignited, probably from an electrical arc in the landing gear wiring, and the fire caused the engines to fail.

The strip of metal on the runway was found to be a jet engine part that had fallen from a Continental Airlines DC-10 in the course of its own takeoff, a few minutes ahead of the Concorde. The engine part (a thrust reverser wear strip) had recently been replaced in routine maintenance. The mechanic who did the work used a strip made of an alloy with 90 percent titanium content, not stainless steel as specified by the manufacturer of the engine.

Critics of the official report pointed out other possible contributory factors that had been largely discounted by the French investigators. The aircraft exceeded recommended takeoff weight, and it was missing a “spacer” in the landing gear mechanism, possibly causing the aircraft to skid down the runway. There also had been a wind shift before takeoff, resulting in an undesirable tailwind. In addition, the flight crew may have shut down an engine prematurely.

In 2010 a French court ruled that Continental Airlines (by this time involved in a merger with United Airlines) and its mechanic were guilty of involuntary manslaughter, citing poor workmanship and use of improper materials. The court disregarded claims by defense lawyers that the fire had started before the tire encountered the metal strip. An appeals court overturned the criminal convictions two years later but kept a fine on the airline in force.

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Chernobyl disaster accident in 1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in the Soviet Union, the worst disaster in the history of nuclear power generation. The Chernobyl power station was situated at the settlement of Pryp’yat, 10 miles (16 km) northwest of the city of Chernobyl (Ukrainian: Chornobyl) and 65 miles (104 km) north of Kiev, Ukraine. The station consisted...

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Titanic British luxury passenger liner that sank on April 14–15, 1912, during its maiden voyage, en route to New York City from Southampton, England, killing about 1,500 (see Researcher’s Note: Titanic) passengers and ship personnel. One of the most famous tragedies in modern history, it has inspired numerous stories, several films, and a musical and been...

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 invention: the first jet propulsor for airplane

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 invention: the first jet propulsor for airplane

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Coanda-1910 Aircraft was the first airplane equipped with a reactive propulsion system in the world, imagined, designed, built, tested

and piloted by theRomanian engineer and inventor, Henri Coanda, at the age of only 24. This invention by Romanian inventor Henri Coanda was in the works as early as 1905 - an experimental attempt featuring a ducted fan engine. The aircraft was showcased to the public during the 2nd International Aeronautical Exhibition (Paris) in 1910 at a time when developments in aviation were of considerable interest. For its time, the Coanda-1910 aircraft was something of a unique specimen for it featured no propeller for its propulsion system - a common quality of all early powered aircraft. Instead, the Coanda-1910 aircraft showcased a piston engine driving a multi-blade centrifugal blower for its propulsion.

Unfortunately for the Coanda-1910, the world of aviation remained quite content with the growing power and capabilities of the gas-powered piston-driven propeller aircraft to which the Coanda entry fell into obscurity in a short amount of time. Coanda claimed to have achieved flight with his creation even before jet technology achieved widespread interest or development. Many publications gloss over Coanda's contributions to the field of jet-powered flight while others are in support of him and his invention(s).

Despite its flimsy appearance, the Coanda-1910 utilized many traditional aircraft components - wing mainplanes sat over and under a tubular fuselage (biplane arrangement), a front-mounted engine, and a finned tail unit. The Coanda utilized a "sesquiplane" wing layout with the lower wing span shorter than that of the top unit. The engine was mounted at the extreme front of the very slim fuselage, the latter constructed mostly of wood covered over in fabric. Exposed support struts and cabling, common to all aircraft of this period, were also used where appropriate. The pilot's position was behind the engine in an open-air cockpit offering little protection from the elements. The wheeled undercarriage was fixed and under the forward mass with a tail skid at rear. The tail unit utilized a cruciform fin arrangement. The aircraft used a combination of piston engine and jet engine drive power - relying on internal combustion and not a gas-powered turbine (common to turbojets). The traditional combustion engine provided power to a compressor to generate compressed air which was then mixed with fuel, ignited, and forcibly extracted from special chambers mounted on either side of the fuselage. The resulting force of this expelled reaction was to provide forward propulsion for the aircraft.

It is said that the Coanda-1910 achieved a single short flight in an accidental way - while ground testing the engine (with Henri Coanda at the controls), the powerplant forced the plane airborne for a short time. As Henri himself was not a pilot by trade, he quickly lost control of the aircraft and crashed it to the ground, the force throwing him clear of the now-burning wreckage (with some slight injuries). Despite the loss of the machine, Henri noted an effect occurring with the expelled gases and how they seemed to conform to the sides of his aircraft. This observation alone would lead Henri to research that would span decades more in culminating as the "Coanda Effect" - effect named in his honor.

Whether or not pursuing this technology so early in the century would have had much of an impact in making a faster military-minded fighter remains to the imagination of the reader. As one side argues it would have been an improvement over propeller-driven designs featured in World War 1 (1914-1918), the other side argues with equal fervor that the practice of thermojet propulsion would not have made a significant impact in terms of performance gains on the whole. Obviously the old "wood, canvas, and wire" approach in the Coanda's construction would have had to have been reviewed to produce a more sustainable design carrying a powerful jet.

In the end, Henri Coanda's 1910 invention was never furthered into practical use - no doubt the complexity of the propulsion method and the fact that his design was realistically years ahead of anything else available in 1910. During World War 2 (1939-1945), the Italian Campini-Caproni CC.2 turbojet/piston-powered test aircraft carrying on some of what was established through Coanda's work. In this instance, the technology was overshadowed quickly by the developments in turbojet technology by both the British and the Germans - marking the Italian CC.2 as a technological dead end.

Henri Coanda went on to have a successful aircraft design career with several firms including the British concern of Bristol. His "thermojet revolution" never took hold. History shows German Hans von Ohain generally given the title of designer of the first jet engine for manned/powered aircraft flight while British officer Frank Whittle is regarded as the first to complete development of, and have a jet engine patented, for flight.

The Bucharest National Military Museum holds a full-scale replica of the Coanda-1910.

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The Coandă-1910 was the first jet-propelled aircraft ever built. It was constructed by Romanian inventor Henri Coandă and exhibited by him at the Second International Aeronautical Exhibition in Paris around October 1910. Unfortunately during a ground test of the engine on December 16, 1910, Coandă was caught unaware by the power of the engine and found himself briefly airborne.

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The introduction of insulin into the treatment of diabetes mellitus had a clinical and social impact similar to that of the introduction of antibiotic therapy. By the middle of the 20th century, patients with onset of diabetes mellitus (DM) at 10 years of age had prolonged their life expectation by 34 additional years, while the life expectations of patients diagnosed at 30 and 50 years of age had increased by 26 and 8 years, respectively.1On October 25, 1923, the 19 professors of the Karolinska Institutet decided by secret vote to award the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine to Frederick Grant Banting and John James Richard Macleod, of the Department of Physiology, Toronto University, for the discovery of insulin, reported in 1922. Banting was nominated by GW Crile (Cleveland), FG Benedict (Boston), and August Krogh; Macleod was proposed by GN Stuart (Cleveland), and also by August Krogh.2 This decision prompted claims by the German Georg Ludwig Zuelzer, the Americans Ernest Lyman Scott and John Raymond Murlin, and the Romanian Nicolae Constantin Paulescu. Years later, Charles Herbert Best, a collaborator of Macleod and Banting, would also claim the discovery.Pioneering work conducted between 1890 and 1919 in the treatment of experimental diabetes by administering pancreatic extracts or subcutaneous implants of pancreatic tissue to pancreatectomized dogs had met with negative results, with some exceptions.3 Rennie and Fraser, researchers at the Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, investigated the effects of islets of Langerhans from Lophius piscatorius and other teleost fishes, which are unique in that their islets are located separately from the pancreas. From 1902 to 1904, these Scottish researchers administered extracts from these islets to a group of five diabetic patients, by the oral route in some cases and by the hypodermic route in others. Glycosuria only disappeared in the last case, a 59-year-old female, but the researchers themselves finally attributed such disappearance to a better compliance with diet.4Georg L. Zuelzer started his studies with pancreatic extracts by investigating the antagonism between the adrenal medulla and endocrine pancreas in rabbits, and estimating the potency of the pancreatic extract based on the amount of extract able to neutralize hyperglycemia secondary to administration of one unit of epinephrine (1907). He subsequently investigated the reduction in urinary glucose excretion in pancreatectomized dogs with promising results. On June 17, 1906, Zuelzer first administered a subcutaneous injection of a solution containing 3 grams of bovine pancreatic extract to a 50-year-old male diabetic patient, with known disease for at least 3 years, who had undergone major amputation of his left lower limb below the knee. While administration of the pancreatic extract was transiently associated with an apparent clinical improvement, the patient died on June 30, 1906. A 6-year-old boy admitted to hospital for malnutrition, glycosuria, and ketosis was a special case. On July 14, 1907 Zuelzer administered to him intravenously an emulsion containing 1g of pancreatic extract. An elevation of body temperature to 38.4°C, associated with vomiting, occurred immediately after injection; however, the patient showed clinical improvement, weight increase, and the disappearance of ketonuria. The same occurred on August 1, 1907 following parenteral administration of one gram of pancreatic extract, leading to almost complete disappearance of ketonuria. Unfortunately, the boy died after hospital discharge. Zuelzer also treated a heterogeneous series of patients with diabetes and noted a reduction or disappearance of glycosuria, and ketonuria when applicable, but such effects were associated with adverse effects including high fever, chills, vomiting, and sweating.5 In 1909, in compliance with the recommendation by O. Minkowski, J. Forschbach repeated the experiments of Zuelzer at the Breslau Clinic and confirmed the observations reported by the Berliner physician: “First (Zuelzer) to produce, successfully, from the pancreas a preparation that eliminates sugar excretion in a shorter or longer period by intravenous administration”.6 However, Forschbach decided to discontinue treatments with pancreatic extract because of the side effects reported. In 1911, Hoffman-La Roche facilitated Zuelzer's creation of a small experimental laboratory, as well as his application for a patent of the pancreatic extract, which the German researcher called acomatol, adequate for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Patent 1027790 for acomatol was granted on May 28, 1912. The subsequent purification process of the alcoholic extract intensified protein precipitation under vacuum and at low temperature. The disappearance of glycosuria and severe seizures, not previously seen, occurred in the pancreatectomized dogs studied. Unfortunately, Zuelzer continued to monitor glycosuria and ketonuria, but did not perform blood glucose measurements, which would have undoubtedly shown the relationship between hypoglycemia and seizures, which were instead attributed to contamination by a foreign substance incorporated into the extraction process. Subsequent observations in August 1914 showed that intravenous administration of extract decreased blood glucose to 17mg/dL. The hypoglycemic effect only lasted a few hours and required intravenous administration of the preparation every 3h.It is, therefore, not surprising that Zuelzer protested after the Nobel Prize was awarded to Banting and Macleod: “I am now entitled to state my claim to priority in this discovery…because in the German literature, partially from ignorance, the role that fell to me in the discovery was not always perceived quite correctly” (Medizinische Klinik, 1923;47:15551–2). Georg Zuelzer emigrated to the United States in 1934 as a Jewish refugee, and practiced medicine there until he died in a New York old people's home at 79 years of age.Ernest L. Scott, a researcher at the Department of Physiology of Columbia University, argued in a letter he sent to the editor of JAMA in 1922 that the administration of pancreatic extract from adult animals reported by Banting and Best7 reproduced his own experiments.8 E.L. Scott prepared aqueous and alcoholic extracts of animal pancreas and administered them to pancreatectomized dogs by the intravenous route. He observed some transient reduction in glycosuria, which he attributed to a toxic rather than therapeutic effect upon confirmation of the adverse reactions previously reported by Zuelzer and other researchers. Influenced by Leschke's (1910) and Hédon's (1911) reports, Scott used higher temperature and alcohol concentrations in an attempt to destroy the hypothetical activity of digestive pancreatic enzymes to destroy internal pancreas secretion. His additional experiments with cats not only showed no hypoglycemic action of the pancreatic extract, but also revealed an increase in blood glucose levels by approximately 20%.John R. Murlin and Benjamin Kramer, researchers at the Laboratory of Physiology of Cornell University, initially thought that the decreased urinary glucose excretion found with their preparations containing pancreatic extract and a dual extract of pancreas and duodenal mucosa was due to changes in renal tubule permeability, rather than to a hormonal effect. Years later, they noted that the disappearance of glycosuria ran parallel to a decrease in blood glucose levels and concluded that the pancreatic extract actually contained the internally secreted active ingredient. Pancreatic extracts caused tissue toxicity with ulceration at the injection sites, resulting in death in some dogs. Murlin published, in cooperation with C. Sutter, the clinical report of a diabetic patient with ketosis treated at the Rochester General Hospital in July 1922 with pancreatic extract, which was administered through a gastrointestinal catheter and by the oral and subcutaneous routes. Only in this latter case could glycosuria and ketonuria be decreased. On July 26, 1922 blood glucose decreased from 513mg/dL to 241mg/dL.Israel S. Kleiner and S.J. Meltzer, from the Department of Medical Research of the Rockefeller institute, investigated the effects of intravenous injection of a pancreas emulsion into intact and pancreatectomized animals, and published their results in 1915. They reported that, in the group of healthy animals, venous blood levels became equal to those seen before glucose administration at 90min of infusion of isotonic glucose. In untreated pancreatectomized animals, however, glucose levels 90min after glucose administration were more than two times higher than the original value. In a third group of animals, the addition of pancreatic extract allowed for a very close to normal response. These experiments suggested that internal pancreas secretion contributed to the rapid disappearance of circulating glucose. In 1919, Kleiner published a set of experiments conducted between 1915 and 1919 supporting the existence of internal pancreas secretion and showing beneficial effects for the treatment of experimental diabetes. Intravenous administration of pancreatic emulsion achieved a highly significant blood glucose reduction in most of the 16 dogs with diabetes after pancreatectomy which were investigated. Submaxillary gland emulsions, which were experimentally administered to the control group by the intravenous route, did not change blood glucose levels. Surprisingly, no relevant toxic effects occurred, which was attributed to the high dilution and slow administration of the pancreatic extract. At the end of the manuscript discussion, Kleiner commented: “The fact that these pancreas emulsions lower blood sugar in experimental diabetes without marked toxic effects indicates a possible therapeutic application in human beings…Finally, the search for the effective agent or agents, their purification, concentration, and identification are suggested as promising fields for further work”.16 Unfortunately, Kleiner left the Rockefeller Institute, and as a result, this interesting research area, in 1919.Nicolae C. Paulescu (1869–1931) started his research on endocrine pancreas secretion in the Hôtel Dieu (Paris), in the laboratory of the Department of Internal Medicine (Prof. Etienne Lancereaux), and at the Sorbonne (Albert Dastre). At the age of 31 years he returned to Bucharest to organize the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology. Paulescu made significant progress in surgical procedures for pancreatic ablation. During his enforced retirement due to the wartime occupation of Bucharest by German troops, he wrote, and later published in French in 1920, a text of medical physiology (Traité de Physiologie Médicale) describing in detail the effects of the administration of pancreatic extracts to pancreatectomized dogs. In 1921, Paulescu presented papers at meetings of the Romanian Society of Biology on April 21 (in Iasi), May 19 (in Bucharest), and June 23 (in Cluj). This resulted in the publication of a series of studies in the issue of July 23, 1921 of Comptes rendus des Séances de la Societé de Biologie. In his initial experiments, he reported the effects caused by complete pancreas ablation in dogs (elevated levels of glucose, urea, and ketone bodies in blood and urine) and the temporary suppression of hyperglycemia which occurred after the injection of pancreatic extract into the external jugular vein (and also into portal vein branches), followed by hypoglycemia and the suppression of glycosuria. In seven subsequent experiments, Paulescu showed the resultant decrease in blood and urine urea levels, ketonemia, and ketonuria, the duration of the biological actions of the pancreatic extract (almost immediate start of action, peak at 2h, and disappearance at 12h), and the dose-dependent nature of the effects observed (depending on the weight of the pancreatic fragment used to obtain the extract). These effects were also reproduced in non-diabetic animals. On August 31, 1921, Paulescu published a long article (accepted on June 22), entitled “Recherche sur le role du pancréas dans l’assimilation nutritive”, in the journal Archives Internationales de Physiologie. There, he reported multiple experiments illustrating the hypoglycemic effect of the pancreatic extract, the reduction in glycosuria and ketonuria in pancreatectomized dogs, and the induction of hypoglycemia in normal dogs.The metabolic effects of the administration of pancreatic extract were not seen in control experiments (using saline, splenic extract, and intraspinal injection of sodium nucleate). Paulescu made unsuccessful efforts to purify the pancreatic extract in order to avoid the side effects, consisting mainly of febrile accesses and local swelling at the injection site, and showed in a limited number of diabetic patients that the extract was effective when administered by a parenteral (intravenous and subcutaneous) route, but had no effect when it was administered orally or through an intestinal cannula. He called pancrein the active pancreatic extract, for which he filed a patent application to the Romanian government on April 10, 1922.22On February 5, 1922, Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best published the article “The internal secretion of the pancreas” in The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine.The results reported were essentially the same as those previously published by Zuelzer, Kleiner, and Paulescu. The authors administered at least 75 doses of extract from “degenerated pancreas” (in the surgical procedure used, following Barron, they tied the pancreatic ducts so that supposed degenerative changes in acinar tissue, attributable to trypsinogen and/or its derivatives, would not affect the pancreatic islets). The “complete degeneration of exocrine tissue” was not completed until at least 10 weeks had elapsed. In pancreatectomized dogs, the “extract of degenerated pancreas” caused partial reductions in glucose levels in blood and urine. The authors therefore felt justified in stating that this extract contained internal pancreas secretion. Banting and Best used the Myers-Bailey method, reported in 1916, to estimate glucose levels. The administration of a hepatic or splenic extract using a similar protocol, or of a heat-treated fresh pancreatic extract, did not result in changes in glycemia and glycosuria. Intrarectal administration, as an alternative to intravenous administration, was also ineffective. The Barron hypothesis, accepted by Macleod and Banting, ignored the fact that Heidenhein had already demonstrated that fresh pancreas extracts had no proteolytic activity and contained a zymogen which would only generate an active ferment under various circumstances. Langley, Bayliss, and Starling had confirmed this finding by showing that the proteolytic enzyme trypsin was present in fresh animal pancreas as an inactive precursor (trypsinogen). Because of the pessimism of the first few months, in which the mortality rate of the operated animals was high, and they experienced extreme difficulty in inducing experimental diabetes in animals, Benting and Best decided on August 3, 1921 both to replace the Hédon procedure and to perform pancreatectomy. They subsequently developed extracts with a higher activity because they were obtained from fetal sources and used new procedures (discontinuation of ligation of pancreatic ducts, acidulation of the alcoholic extract, washing with toluol, use of the Berkfeld filter). Despite such changes, the pancreatic extract still contained significant concentrations of impurities, including an excess content of protein, which caused the occurrence of “sterile abscesses” at the injection site. Banting could not calm the anxiety that caused him to delay in starting clinical trials. Despite the initial refusal of Prof. Duncan Graham, Head of the Department of Internal Medicine of the Toronto General Hospital (TGH), to authorize Frederick Banting to have direct contact with inpatients, mediation by Macleod allowed for administration of the first dose of pancreatic extract prepared by Banting to an admitted patient. On January 11, 1922 the resident physician Ed Jeffrey obeyed the order of the consultant physician Walter Campbell, coordinator of the medicine hospitalization ward of TGH, to administer a 15mL dose of the pancreatic extract of Banting (a turbid, light brown fluid), divided in two 7.5mL injections, one in each buttock, to the patient Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old boy diagnosed with DM in December 1919. Leonard had been admitted to the TGH on December 2, 1921, as a charity patient. He was on the standard 450kcal dietary therapy, including fluid (fat-free broth, water, clear tea), 50g of lean meat, vegetables, and fruit, with a total carbohydrate provision of approximately 100g. The patient was emaciated and had extreme glycosuria, severe ketonuria, hypotension, and a urine output of approximately 4L in 24h. Response to administration of the pancreatic extract consisted of reductions in blood glucose from 440 to 320mg/dL and in 24-h glycosuria from 92 to 84g. Ketonuria remained unchanged. A “sterile abscess” rapidly developed in one of the injection areas. The experience was considered a clinical failure, and it was decided not to administer additional doses of the preparation. James Bertram Collip, a 29-year-old doctor of biochemistry and professor at Alberta University, was at the time in Toronto as an assistant professor on a sabbatical supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. At Banting's request, Macleod asked James B. Collip for help in extract development. Collip started to work in his own laboratory on December 12, 1921. From the beginning, Collip used calf pancreatic extracts. On the evening of January 19, 1922 Collip made a crucial observation: the alcohol concentration limit that determined precipitation of the active ingredient in the extract was higher than 90%. Using this threshold, he was able to remove most protein contaminants, which precipitated at concentrations lower than 90%. He thus achieved isolation of the active ingredient, still with impurities, but with a much higher potency as compared to previously tested preparations. The Collip extract was first administered to Leonard Thompson on January 23, 1922 and caused an immediate clinical improvement. Blood glucose decreased from 520 to 120mg/dL, glycosuria from 71 to 9g in 24h, and ketonuria disappeared. The patient experienced a clearly improved well-being, recovering his mobility and activity. This was the first successfully treated patient. In February, 6 patients were treated using the same protocol as for Leonard Thompson, with successful results in all cases. The administration protocol of the Collip extract was directly supervised by W.R. Campbell and A.A. Fletcher. Patients were maintained on a constant diet. Blood glucose was measured by the Folin-Wu method, glycosuria by the Benedict method, ketone bodies by the Van Slyke procedure, and respiratory quotient using the Tissot-Haldane method. The results achieved were: a dramatic decrease in blood glucose, elevation of the respiratory quotient, substantial symptom improvement, a marked reduction or even disappearance of glycosuria, the abolition of ketonuria, increased muscle strength and the general well-being and vigor of the patients. The preliminary report first appeared in the March issue of the Canadian Medical Association Journal, which had little dissemination outside Canada but guaranteed immediate publication.Joseph Pratt, Professor of History of Medicine at Harvard University, stated in 1954 that Banting and Best had not advanced our understanding of the pancreatic extract beyond that achieved by Zuelzer in 1908. Both the pancreatic extract of Zuelzer and that of Banting and Best had a similar toxicity that ruled out its use for treatment of patients. For Pratt, it was the expertise of Collip that actually led to the advance of the Toronto team in the therapeutic use of insulin. In January 1922, the researchers of Toronto University signed a cooperation agreement with Connaught Antitoxin Laboratories, and on April 12, 1922 the research team and J.G. Fitzgerald proposed to the university a patent to be registered under the names of Best and Collip. They gave the pancreatic extract the final name of insulin, being unaware of the fact that the Belgian J. De Meyer had already proposed in 1906 the name of “insuline” and E.A. Sharpey-Schafer had proposed the name of “insulin” in 1916. On May 30, 1922, an agreement was signed between the university and Eli Lilly. The pharmaceutical company would invest in insulin production, acquiring its exclusive rights in the United States and Central and South America. Lilly agreed that the term “insulin” would be assigned to the generic product, and that the alternative term “iletin” referred exclusively to the specific Lilly product. The Collip-Best patent was rejected by the patent office of the United States because of the conflict of interest with the patent previously granted on May 28, 1912 to Georg Zuelzer. Subsequently, on January 23, 1923 the American patent was granted to both the Toronto and Lilly methods. George Walden, a chemist researcher at Lilly, developed a purification method using isoelectric fractionation which allowed for the large-scale manufacture of insulin, increasing stability and purity up to 100 times as compared to the previous product. From February 1923, insulin production allowed for provision of the hormone to various institutions selected for its clinical use. Because of the refusal by Duncan Graham to accept Banting as a consultant at the Department of Medicine, Banting founded a private clinic which was attended by many patients because of the celebrity of the group. Finally, the management of the Toronto General Hospital decided to grant the refused privilege to Banting, who joined the staff and conducted patient treatment in cooperation with Campbell and Fletcher. In November and December 1922, the Department of Medicine published three articles of great clinical relevance in the Journal of Metabolic Research. In the first of these, the Canadian team thoroughly reported nine cases of diabetic patients treated with insulin. In the same issue of the journal, Walter R. Campbell made highly revealing clinical observations about the first 14 cases of diabetic coma treated at the medical clinic of Toronto General Hospital. In addition to the clinical description of each case, the manuscript reviewed the causes of death, mainly of an infectious nature, the insulin doses administered, the comparison of intravenous and subcutaneous insulin administration, the significance of intravenous glucose administration, the pros and cons of bicarbonate administration, and so on.The third manuscript, signed by Almon Fletcher and Walter Campbell, contained a wonderful description of insulin-induced hypoglycemia including its clinical signs in both the adrenergic and neurogenic stages.In November 1922, August Krogh (Nobel Prize in 1920) and his diabetic wife, Marie, visited Macleod in Toronto. A few days later they returned to Denmark with the license for exclusive use of insulin in Scandinavia. Krogh and Hagedorn, personal physician of Marie, founded the Nordisk Insulin Laboratorium in 1923.In his report to the Nobel Committee, August Krogh would state that his decision was mainly based on the visit he had made to Toronto, where he had seen at first hand the research that was underway there. Best and Collip were not nominated. When Banting found out that Macleod, with whom he had strained relations, had also been awarded the Nobel Prize, he was furious. His first instinct was to reject the prize, but he then decided to share the Nobel Prize money with Best. Macleod did the same with Collip.Paulescu had written to Banting on February 5, 1923 and sent him his publications of 1921. He asked Banting to maintain mutual correspondence on their research activities. Banting never answered him. By contrast, Paulescu would obtain the support of some pioneers in research into pancreatic extracts. He received a letter from E.L. Scott, dated November 5, 1921 recognizing that both his own experiments at Columbia University in 1921 and those of Paulescu, also done in 1921, confirmed the existence of a pancreatic secretion that would relieve symptoms of diabetes through the bloodstream. J. Murlin also wrote in 1923 that mention should be made of the favorable results achieved by Paulescu in 1921, showing that intravenous administration of a sterile extract to pancreatectomized dogs decreased or even transiently suppressed hyperglycemia and excess production of urea and ketone bodies. In 1924, C. Funk declared in Paris that Paulescu had decisively shown in 1920 and 1921 that the pancreas contained an antidiabetic substance which Banting and Best would call insulin.36 For A. Sordelli and J.T. Lewis, who worked at Buenos Aires, Paulescu reported in 1921 complete experiments with an extract prepared by aqueous maceration of the pancreas in which results identical to those obtained by Banting upon insulin discovery were achieved.37 In 1932, Wilfred Totter said (according to the verbatim transcription by James Theodore Nicolas) in his Hunterian Oration one year after the death of Paulescu: “…His research was the culmination of years of experimental work of precursors, colleagues and himself. This great advance, perhaps equivalent in some respect to the discovery of the therapeutic virtue of penicillin, remains unacknowledged”. In 1934, P. Trendelenburg wrote in Berlin: “Shortly before the description of the discovery of insulin (1921), Paulescu achieved full success with extracts which lowered the blood sugar of pancreatectomized dogs within one hour of parenteral administration”. Nicolae C. Paulescu wrote a letter to the chairman of the Nobel Committee, dated November 6, 1923 to which he enclosed a copy of his article published in 1921 in the journal Archives Internationales de Physiologie, entitled “Recherche sur le rôle du pancréas dans l’assimilation nutritive”, and protested in vain at the granting of the award to Banting and Macleod, emphasizing the priority of his 1921 publications; for him, the Toronto team had not respected his intellectual property rights. The reply of the Nobel Committee was to send him a booklet entitled “The 1923 Nobel Prizes” including the speech by J. A. Sjöquist quoting the Banting and Best article of February 1922. Paulescu also wrote to the French Academy of Medicine, but his attempts to proclaim his priority in the discovery of insulin were unsuccessful. Weeks before his death in 1931, Paulescu once again expressed his disappointment and sadness when recalling how his whole scientific activity relating to the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone had been ignored by the international scientific community. With the tragic events of World War II, the political problems in Romania, and the accession to power of the Communist Party in 1947, the figure of Paulescu fell into oblivion. The communists, who considered Paulescu, a fervent catholic and a member of the Romanian right, an enemy of the party, wiped out any trace of his achievements from the history of Romanian science.We owe our recovery of the figure of Paulescu and his contribution to the discovery of insulin to Ian Murray (1899–1974), a Scottish diabetologist who was Professor of Physiology at the Anderson College of Medicine (Glasgow). Upon retirement, Murray set out to write a book on the history of insulin to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of its discovery. Murray documented how the Romanian scientist had as early as in 1916, before Banting and Best, experimentally observed that parenteral administration of an aqueous pancreas extract induced immediate symptom relief in pancreatectomized dogs. In his textbook of medical physiology published in 1920 and his publications in 1921, Paulescu showed in a very rigorous and convincing way that he had been able to successfully isolate from the pancreas the antidiabetic hormone, which he called pancrein. Banting and Best later reached conclusions similar to those of Paulescu. In the first publication (1922), the Canadian authors erroneously interpreted the original findings by Paulescu and stated that after the first successful injection, intravenous administration of subsequent doses was not able to reproduce the effects (the exact opposite to what Paulescu had reported). Thus, for I. Murray there was no doubt that pancrein and iletin/insulin were one and the same thing. Determined to investigate the subject, Murray sent in October 1968 a letter to the Professor of Physiology of the Bucharest School of Medicine. He had no reply, and subsequently wrote to Prof. Ion Pavel (1897–1992), who had been a pupil of Paulescu in 1916–1917, asking him for information. From that time, Murray and Pavel maintained a warm correspondence until the Scottish physician died in 1974. Thus, on November 11, 1969 Murray wrote to Pavel: “It is satisfactory to have his (Best's) admission that they were so wrong in their reference to Paulescu's work. The explanation of their error, however, seems to me somewhat naïve”. Murray also wrote to Pavel on February 29, 1972: “My suggestion is that IDF should institute a Paulescu Memorial Lectureship. The lecture at each triennial meeting would be given by someone of merit”. Years later, Pavel published these letters together with other communications. Based on his inquiries, Murray wrote a series of articles in several British and American medical journals.Pavel also devoted a great part of his life to investigating the history of insulin, and published various articles and books about Paulescu.According to Eric Martin, Professor of Medicine at the Geneva University, “It is beyond denial that Paulescu was the first to provide an exemplary demonstration of the antidiabetogenic and antiketogenic effect of a pancreatic extract…We should stress the cardinal importance of the discovery of Paulescu, a discovery known to the Canadian physicians but poorly interpreted by them, with the result that determinative studies of the Romanian physiologist have been left in the shade”.46In their already mentioned article published in February 1922, the Canadians had wrongly quoted the Paulescu report. Pavel wrote to Charles H. Best to find out why. In a letter dated October 15, 1969, Best replied that almost 50 years later he barely recalled the facts, but recognized that there had been a mistake in the translation. It was Pavel who disclosed the letter, as Best never admitted his mistake in public. Also in October 1969, Pavel wrote, together with Prof. S.M. Milcu, vice-president of the Romanian Academy, to Prof. Arne Tiselius, Director of the Nobel Institute. They enclosed the Paulescu articles and the letter from Best, and asked the Nobel Committee to grant Paulescu the post mortem title of discoverer of insulin together with or before Banting, Best, and Macleod. The reply by Tiselius arrived two months later. He said that Paulescu deserved the prize, but the Committee could be nothing on this matter because Paulescu had not been nominated and, according to the standing rules, the Nobel Prize can only be awarded to those who have been nominated. Finally, a prize already awarded cannot be taken away. A few months later, Pavel sent information relating to Paulescu to the committee of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF). A special committee was created in the 7th Congress of the International Diabetes Federation, held in Buenos Aires in August 1970, to prepare a report on all research related to insulin recovery. Contrary to the expectations of the members of the Romanian Academy of Science, the report by the special committee was not favorable to the claim of Paulescu, which was virtually ignored in the statement of the committee. For neutral observers, the membership of the committee was inadequate. It was initially decided to include in the committee a member representing Romania. Prof. Rachmiel Levine, IDF chairman in 1970, suggested the name of Ion Pavel, but no Romanian was finally included in the research team. Both the chairman of the committee, Frank George Young (1908–1988) (United Kingdom), and the vice-chairman R. Haist (Canada) were very closely related to the Toronto team. Young had worked under the direction of J.J.R. Macleod in Aberdeen, and later in Toronto with C.H. Best, of whom he was a personal friend (by then, Best was the only member of the Toronto group alive, and had become a legend in diabetology). In addition, Young was elected chairman of the IDF at the end of the congress. Haist had previously worked with Best, and succeeded him as head of the Department of Physiology of Toronto University. The other members were W.J.H. Butterfield (United Kingdom), Rolf Luft (Sweden), and P. Ranbert (France). The final report had many mistakes, and although it mentioned Paulescu and several forerunners in the discovery of insulin, it did not do justice to his achievements. In 1971, Ian Murray stated: “…insufficient recognition has been given to Paulescu, the distinguished Romanian scientist, who at the time the Toronto team were commencing their research had already succeeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and proving its efficacy in reducing hyperglycemia in diabetic dogs…”. R. Luft described Macleod in 1972 as a manager and sponsor who “…put Collip and the Lilly Company into business”. In his view, granting the 1923 Nobel Prize to Banting and Macleod had been the worst error the committee had ever made. After the deaths of Murray and Pavel, Constantin Ionescu-Tirgoviste, a professor at Bucharest University, devoted two books to the figure of Paulescu. Michael Bliss, Professor of History of Medicine at Toronto University, published in 1982 “The Discovery of Insulin”, a book that gives a detailed account of the experiments made in Toronto, particularly emphasizing the contributions of Collip and Macleod.Eleven years later, Bliss published an article where he stated: “…The Paulescu case was based on the realization that, in fact, Banting and Best had not produced results more impressive than Paulescu's. Indeed, as Banting had had the honesty to write of the first clinical test of their extract, the results had not been as impressive as those produced by another predecessor, Zuelzer, in 1908… Banting's and Best's research was so badly done that, without the help of Macleod and Collip, and a much more subtle view of the constituents of the discovery of insulin, the two young Canadians would be fated to disappear from medical history…At times Best's distortions of the historical record seem to amount to a deliberate, unethical exercise in falsification which verges on scientific fraud…”.In 2001, the Romanian Academy paid tribute to Paulescu and posthumously elected him as its member. On the occasion of the 80th anniversary of the Paulescu publication (1921), a statue was unveiled in his honor in a location close to the school of medicine. The inaugural ceremony was attended by the Romanian prime minister, Ion Iliescu, and the chairman of the IDF, Sir George Alberti. In 2002, the Romanian Academy of Sciences, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD), and the International Federation of Diabetes (IFD) decided to jointly organize various academic events to pay homage to the Romanian physiologist. One of the events was the announcement of a Paulescu International Prize to recognize research excellence in areas related to insulin. Professor Zvi Laron (Israel) was designed chairman of the evaluating committee. Among the four candidates presented, the committee unanimously decided to award the Paulescu International Prize to Geremia Bolli, Professor at Perugia University (Italy). The IDF planned, in collaboration with the EASD and the Romanian Academy of Sciences, an academic homage to Paulescu to be held at the Hotel Dieu in Paris on August 27, a few days before the start of the 2003 IDF Congress. The event would consist of the placement of a commemorative plaque and busts of Paulescu and Lancereaux, followed by an award ceremony at which the NC Paulescu International Prize would be presented. Professor Geremia Bolli, from Perugia University, the award recipient, would then give a lecture to conclude the event. On August 22, the Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) issued a news release directed to the French Minister of Health (Jean-François Mattei) and the Romanian ambassador in France asking that this homage to Paulescu be cancelled.54 In that release, Dr. Shimon Samuels, Director of International Relations of the SWC, accused N.C. Paulescu of publicly known anti-Semitic activities. On August 26, Nicolas Weill published an editorial article in Le Monde quoting the titles of anti-semitic publications written by N.C. Paulescu and confirming the decision of the Romanian embassy, in agreement with Professor Gérard Slama, Head of the Department of Diabetes, Hotel Dieu, to cancel the ceremony. Nicolas Cajal, chairman of the section of medical sciences of the Romanian Academy and president of the Jewish community in Romania, held a press conference of August 31, 2003 where he defended this recognition of the scientific work of Paulescu and emphasized the need for making a distinction between his academic contributions and his anti-semitic views. According to Cajal (whose father was a disciple of Paulescu and admired and respected him although he knew his anti-semitic ideas), “…nobody should exert the right to deny the scientific merits of Paulescu and his special contribution to the benefit of the health of citizens…”. On September 29, 2003, the chairman and the vice-chairwoman of the Romanian Academy, Eugene Simoin and Maya Simonescu respectively, protested in a letter to Pierre Lefèbvre, chairman of the IDF, against the decision to cancel both the ceremony and the presentation of the Nicolae C. Paulescu International Prize. “Prof. Paulescu did publish several articles against the Jews, which are regrettable from all points of view…Nevertheless, Nicolae Paulescu's personal opinions did not result in any violent actions in the social sphere, and he himself never participated in any action that might have brought accusations of guilt. No real offenses could be charged on him…”. It should be noted that, by analogy with the matter in dispute, the letter stated that: “We cannot judge the work of the great writer Céline based on his political ideas…”, a statement that would prove to be unintentionally ironic, as in this same year (2011), on the 50th anniversary of Céline's death, the French Ministry of Culture has decided to delete his name from the list of official commemoration. In October 2003, Professor Gérard Slama justified the cancellation of the ceremony in a letter published in The Lancet.Two months later, George Alberti and Pierre Lefèbvre (IDF) published another letter in The Lancet referring to the Slama letter and concluded by saying: “…The IDF is now collecting the appropriate writings of Paulescu. These will be scrutinised by an independent committee. The IDF does not wish to mix science and politics. But more information is needed before we can internationally laud an individual who has undoubtedly made a major contribution, but who might have espoused a morally unacceptable position later in life”.58 Doctors Christos S. Bartsocas, Spyros G. Marketos, George Alberti, Jorn Nerup, Jon Alivisatos, Stefano Geroulanos, and Sotiris Raptis organized an international expert symposium at Delphi on September 8, 2005 on the occasion of the annual meeting of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). The title of the symposium was: “Who discovered insulin?”. The different speeches by Torsten Deckert, Alberto de Leiva, Constantin Ionescu-Tirgoviste, John Dupré, Jay Skyler, and Paolo Pozzilli agreed that international organizations had ignored the scientific merits or Paulescu, which should be recognized. However, in the closing lecture Zvi-Laron angrily denounced the anti-semitism of Paulescu and his influence on the terrible events of the Romanian holocaust. At the end of the meeting, the organizers did not issue an official statement about the symposium's contents. The vote, announced in the program, was cancelled. In that same year (2005), the IDF executive committee decided that: “The IDF does not want to be associated with the name of Paulescu. Therefore, the Paulescu Lecture would not be included in world congresses, even if requested”. Three years later, Prof. Laron published an article giving a personal and scientific description of the Romanian researcher entitled “Paulescu, scientist and politician”. For Laron, it was unquestionable that Paulescu deserved no homage. By contrast, he should be criticized for his contribution to the darkest pages of Romanian historyNicolae Paulescu was in many aspects a follower of creationism. He was opposed to both spontaneous generation and Darwinism; an Orthodox Christian, he expressed anti-masonic and anti-semitic viewpoints. Large segments of the Romanian population shared these anti-semitic ideas in the inter-war period. While it is fair to criticize Paulescu for his aberrant political views, his extraordinary contribution to science should not therefore go unrecognized.The Romanian Ministry of Health has devoted the Bucharest Institute of Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases to the memory of Nicolas Paulescu. Its director, Prof. Constantin Ionescu-Tirgoviste, a biographer of Paulescu, has spent a lot of time attempting to vindicate the Romanian researcher before the international community. Ninety years after the discovery of insulin, the controversy continues.

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They're the best things to come into existence since sliced bread. Join http://www.WatchMojo.com as we count down our picks for the Top 10 Inventions of the 20th Century. Suggestion Tool►►http://www.WatchMojo.com/suggest Subscribe►►http://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=watchmojo Facebook►►http://www.Facebook.com/WatchMojo Twitter►►http://www.Twitter.com/WatchMojo Instagram►►http://instagram.com/watchmojo Channel Page►►http://www.youtube.com/watchmojo For this list, we're looking at all the greatest and most practical innovations that came into existence throughout the 1900s and have chosen our entries based on their overall impact on commerce and the public.

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It’s hard to believe but not that long ago we were chained to the household ‘landline’ phone when calling others. If you weren’t home at the time of the phone call, you missed it. If you were running late to a meeting or lunch date, you had no way of letting people know! In 1973, on the streets of New York, inventor Marty Cooper made history by making the first call from a handheld portable mobile (or cell) phone. Today, we use the mobile phone for much more than just making phone calls; we can send emails, check the weather, send a text, use social media, ask google a question… the list is endless. For some people, the smart phone is one the most relied upon devices in their daily lives.

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It’s hard to imagine a life without the internet. The internet made it possible to find out information with a few clicks. It also helped us communicate with our loved ones overseas and not pay high prices for it. Being able to sell and trade things online has had a significant impact on how we do business. The possibilities the internet has brought about are endless with new uses being invented all the time. Where would we be without it?

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The Holocaust And The Twentieth Century (by Richard)

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The Holocaust And The Twentieth Century (by Richard)

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The Holocaust and Genocide: Remembering the Twentieth Century. Omer Bartov (Part 1)

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Part 1 | Part 2This inaugural Wallenberg lecture is presented by Professor Omer Bartov, John P Birkelund Distinguished Professor of European History at Brown University. one of the...

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6 Natural Disasters that shook the 20th Century. British Pathé filmed many extraordinary episodes showing the magnificent and destructive power of nature. Music: "Egmont Overture" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com) Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Check our playlist "Natural Disasters" to watch the source material for this video: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL3kG3TM8jFKgk25h5qr_JGbWlpF14XvV3 ___ Specially interested in War?