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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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Interactive Brain | How the brain works & the impact of injury

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Take an interactive journey to see how the brain works and what impact an injury can have

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Meet Your Master - Getting to Know Your Brain: Crash Course Psychology #4

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Although sensory systems share basic features of organization, each is uniquely designed to respond to a particular aspect of the world. We might think of the principal senses as variations on a common theme.

While all the senses are important, we tend to rely most on sight. The brain devotes more space to processing and storing visual information than all other senses combined.

The cornea and lens, transparent structures at the front of the eye, focus light onto the retina, the photosensitive area that covers three-fourths of the back. The shape of the lens changes to adjust for near and distant vision.

The retina contains several layers of cells, but the actual sensory work is done by two kinds of photoreceptor cells in the deepest layer. Rods are sensitive enough to respond to dim light, but don't process colors. Cone cells come in three subtypes that respond to wavelengths roughly corresponding to red, green, and blue light.

Light striking the surface of a photoreceptor activates a protein, rhodopsin, that initiates a chemical cascade of signals through intricate cellular wiring that ultimately converge in ganglion cells, neurons whose axons form the optic nerve. Processing, sorting, and condensing of signals actually starts here in the retina.

In the brain, visual input passes through intermediate areas to the primary, or striate, visual cortex in the occipital lobe, and then to a secondary visual cortex where the information separates into streams: dorsal pathways, which analyze image size and position; and ventral pathways that discriminate color and shape, allowing us to recognize what we see.

Scientists have identified brain structures specializing in faces, places, and words, among other things. All told, some 30 cortical areas participate in visual processing.

Hearing vi, vii, viii, ix, x
The auditory system transforms mechanical energy-sound waves-into nerve impulses. Sounds enter the system via the inch-long ear canal, which terminates at the tympanic membrane (eardrum) whose vibrations represent an exquisitely complex response to pressure variations. A series of tiny bones (ossicles) in the middle ear amplify and transmit these vibrations to the cochlea of the inner ear, a fluid-filled tube rolled up like a snail shell.

Hair cells within the cochlea are the receptors of the auditory system. Movement of the membrane lining the cochlea stretches the tips of hair cells to allow an influx of K⁺ and Ca⁺² ions-charged particles that build up to generate electrical signals in acoustic nerve fibers. The frequencies to which each hair cell responds depends on its position in the cochlea.

Auditory signals pass through intermediate brain regions to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Direct connections facilitate quick reaction to loud sounds. Another pathway permits processing en route-coordinating signals from both ears, for example.

Past the primary auditory cortex, signals divide into streams that locate and analyze what we hear. The latter include Wernicke's area in the dominant hemisphere, essential for language comprehension, and a right-hemisphere area that processes emotional aspects of speech.

Hearing is the first sense for which a device was developed to replace non-working receptors. By 2010, some 219,000 people had received cochlear implants, which restore functional hearing by directly stimulating the auditory nerve.

Taste and Smelli, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi
The receptors of thechemical sensory systems send electrical signals to the brain when they bind to airborne (for smell) and dissolved (taste) molecules.

Smell is the most primitive of the senses. Its role in finding food and warning of danger is vital for survival. The organization of the olfactory system is somewhat primitive too: receptors are dendrites of neurons that go directly to the brain. Within two or three synapses, the brain can recognize an odor.

Millions of olfactory receptors line the nasal passages, each designed to attach to specific molecules, activating a molecular cascade that generates action potentials within its neuron. The neurons terminate in the olfactory bulb, which computes signal patterns from 350 receptor types representing thousands of odors, and transmits this information to the piriform cortex for further processing.

The olfactory bulb connects directly to the limbic system, too. This link, which evolved to drive survival functions, is responsible for the intense emotions certain odors can instantaneously evoke. The sense of smell can also signal neurological degeneration: it is impaired early in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.

Its simplicity notwithstanding, some mystery surrounds olfaction. Most scientists believe receptors respond to molecular shape; a minority that vibrational frequency is key. Pheromones-chemicals processed through the olfactory system to trigger hormonal responses-are vital to animal reproduction, but their human importance is highly controversial. It is uncertain, that is, whether such chemicals influence attraction, mate selection, or other aspects of sexual behavior. No true human pheromone has been identified. But airborne molecules of a male hormone have been shown to alter cortisol levels in women, and an estrogen derivative to stimulate hypothalamic activity (which could influence hormone secretion and mood) in men.

Molecules in solution bind to receptors on taste cells gathered in taste buds-about 10,000 such projections, most on the tongue but also elsewhere in the mouth and throat. Individual receptors respond to sweet, sour, bitter, and salty taste-and "umami" (described as "meaty" or "savory"), now widely recognized as a fifth taste.

While it was once thought that zones of the tongue were taste-specific, all areas actually respond to all tastes (although some are particularly sensitive to one or another). Indeed, some conjecture that even a single taste bud may hold receptors for several tastes.

Molecules binding to taste receptors start a series of chemical reactions (or, in the case of salty and sour, simply open ion channels) to generate action potentials in cranial nerves. These impulses converge on the medulla oblongata in the brainstem, and move on to cortical and limbic areas. Via these pathways, taste signals influence digestive processes, emotions, and food decisions. Some taste responses are all but universal (preference for sweetness, for example), but others are idiosyncratic, a combination of genetics (why some people find broccoli bitter, for example) and experience. What's usually called the "taste" of food properly refers to flavor, a complex phenomenon that also includes smell and qualities like texture.

Somatosensory systemi, iv, xvii, xviii
The "fifth sense," touch, is actually one of several that operate through the peripheral, spinal, and cranial nerves of the somatosensory system: others are proprioception (body position and movement), temperature, and pain.

There is no compact sense organ (like the eye or ear) to house touch receptors: they are distributed in skin all over the body. Unlike those of other senses, the vast majority of touch receptors are not specialized cells, but simply axon terminals of neurons connected to spinal or cranial nerve tracts, encapsulated in non-neural structures. Mechanical forces on these receptors open ion channels, generating electrical signals.

Touch receptors specialize: some are sensitive to light touch, others to vibration or pressure. Their signals travel in separate fibers via the spinal cord or cranial nerves to the brain stem, and then to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe, where they map onto a somewhat distorted projection of the body. Brain areas corresponding to parts where touch receptors are concentrated (e.g. fingers and face) are much larger than where they are sparse.

Proprioceptive receptors are axon terminals in muscles and joints, housed in structures responsive to stretch or tension, pressure or movement.

Temperature and pain receptors (nociceptors) are bare nerve endings. A "fast" pathway transmits localized pain caused by mechanical forces or cold; the "slow" pathway carries dull, deep pain generated by chemicals (like substance P) released by damaged tissue. Connections to the anterior cingulate cortex modulate the emotional response to pain.

Along with touch and proprioception, pain signals converge on the somatosensory cortex to create a unified sense of the body.

More broadly, the foregoing descriptions of separate systems notwithstanding, data from all the senses are integrated in the brain, in ways just beginning to be understood, enabling us to navigate a coherent world.

i. Stein, J.F. Neuroscience: an introduction. Wiley. 2006

ii. Shepherd, G M. The Major Senses: Sight, Hearing, Smell, Taste, and Touch-The Dana Guide. Dana Foundation website. November 2007 http://www.dana.org/news/brainhealth/detail.aspx?id=10064

iii. The Brain from Top to Bottom: The Senses: Vision. Canadian Institute of Health Research; Institute of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Addiction. http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_02/a_02_cr/a_02_cr_vis/a_02_cr_vis.html

iv. Baldassano C, Beck DM, Fei-Fei L Differential connectivity within the Parahippocampal Place Area. Neuroimage. 2013 Jul 15;75:228-37. Epub 2013 Mar 16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23507385

v. Dehaene, S. Inside the Letterbox: How Literacy Transforms the Human Brain. Cerebrum. June 03, 2013. http://dana.org/news/cerebrum/detail.aspx?id=43644

vi. Henshaw, J. M. A Tour of the Senses: how your brain interprets the world. Johns Hopkins University Press. 2012

vii. Neuroscience Online: an electronic textbook for the neurosciences. Sensory Systems-auditory systems: structure and function. University of Texas Medical School. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter12.html

viii. Bossomaier, T. R. J. Introduction to the Senses: from biology to computer science. Cambridge University Press. 2012

ix. Wildgruber D, Riecker A, et al. Identification of emotional intonation evaluated by fMRI. Neuroimage. 2005 Feb 15;24(4):1233-41. Epub 2004 Dec 15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15670701

x. National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders: Cochlear Implants. http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/coch.aspx

xi. Monell Chemical Senses Center: advancing discovery in taste and smell. http://www.monell.org/news/category/fact_sheets

xii. Neuroscience Online: an electronic textbook for the neurosciences: Sensory systems-Chemical Senses: Olfaction and Gustation. University of Texas Medical School. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter09.html

xiii. Brynie, F.H. Brain Sense: the science of the senses and how we process the world around us. Amacom. 2009

xiv. Beauchamp GK. Sensory and receptor responses to umami: an overview of pioneering work. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Sep;90(3):723S-727S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462E. Epub 2009 Jul 1.

xv. Wyart C, Webster WW, Chen JH, et al. Smelling a single component of male sweat alters levels of cortisol in women. J Neurosci. 2007 Feb 7;27(6):1261-5. http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/6/1261.long

xvi. Savic I, Berglund H, et al. Smelling of odorous sex hormone-like compounds causes sex-differentiated hypothalamic activations in humans. Neuron. 2001 Aug 30;31(4):661-8.

xvii. . Neuroscience Online: an electronic textbook for the neurosciences: Sensory systems-Somatosensory systems. University of Texas Medical School. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter02.html

xviii. Rosenblum, L. D, A confederacy of senses. Sci Am. 2013 Jan;308(1):72-5.

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Although sensory systems share basic features of organization, each is uniquely designed to respond to a particular aspect of the world. We might think of the principal senses as variations on a common theme. While all the senses are important, we tend to rely most on sight.

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Disclaimer

The simplified model presented here is just one of many ways to categorize types of memory. There are other models too, and some of them use slightly different definitions for some of the terms used here.

This model highlights just a few of the key brain regions involved in different memory functions. Since no part of the brain exists in isolation, most types of memory include more areas than the ones listed here. The big idea to take away is that different areas of the brain have different functions.

If you wish to delve more deeply into the types of memory or the brain anatomy involved, we encourage you to explore the references linked at the bottom of the page.

When we learn, our brain takes in information about the world that causes us to change our behavior in some way.

For example, a young baby doesn't understand that fire can hurt them. But thanks to learning, if they touch a candle flame even one time, they will probably not do it again. The information that feeds into the brain-candle, flame, hot, pain-is physically recorded in the connections between cells. And those connections influence our future behavior-don't touch!

As the brain takes in any information and stores it, there are physical changes to the connections between brain cells. And those connections influence our behavior.

Neurons that fire together wire together

The brain is an enormous interconnected network of specialized cells called neurons and supporting cells called glia. To transmit information in the brain, neurons pass signals to one another. This passing of signals can cause physical changes to the connections between cells.

When we learn a skill (like riding a bike) or new information (like multiplication tables), we are building brain connections. The more we use those brain connections, the stronger they get. It's the reason "practice makes perfect."

In the activity above, you can read about how injuries to certain brain areas cause certain memory functions to stop working. But just as important are the connections between them. If two brain areas can no longer communicate, then learning and memory can break down.

Like trails through the wilderness, brain connections get stronger the more they're used

Learning is a process that relies on long-term memory systems in the brain. People who study learning typically divide it into 4 steps: attention, storage, consolidation, and retrieval. These steps dovetail with the Types of Memory described above, and they provide a slightly different framework for thinking about what happens when one or more of these steps go wrong.

Attention - Our sensory systems are constantly bombarded with information, yet most of it fades before we are even aware of it. Attention is like a filter that lets important information into the brain while keeping the irrelevant information out. Without attention, we would remember very little.

Encoding - As sensory information comes in, the brain processes it. Strings of sounds become words, flashes of light and color become images. The brain begins connecting this new information with what it already knows about the world. Some information that is encoded will fade, and some will stick around.

Storage - Long-term storage of information requires new brain connections. The brain has its own way of rehearsing experiences (there's evidence that this is what dreaming is all about), which helps strengthen brain connections. But we can also consciously repeat information or skills to help the brain form strong memories.

Retrieval - Retrieval is the process of accessing stored memories. We use it when we recall a fact or reimagine an experience. But we also use it when we take in new information. It's part of what helps us connect new information to old.

Even when memory systems function normally, memory is imperfect. To learn more about the fallibility of memory, visit The Seven Sins of Memory.

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The simplified model presented here is just one of many ways to categorize types of memory. There are other models too, and some of them use slightly different definitions for some of the terms used here. This model highlights just a few of the key brain regions involved in different memory functions.

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Make It Stick:The Science of Successful Learning by Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel

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Make It Stick:The Science of Successful Learning by Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel

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Retrieval Practice: A Powerful Strategy to Improve Learning

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Learn more about powerful learning strategies based on cognitive science, including retrieval practice, interleaving, spacing, and feedback. We feature research, resources, and tips every week!

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Learn more about the Libraries & Academic Innovation organization at GW

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There are hundreds of variations of classroom assessment techniques. Below are some of the more commonly known techniques:

3-2-1 Format

Basic Strategy

The 3-2-1 format is a quick reflective activity similar to think-pair-share. It encourages students to reflect on a course experience and organize their thoughts and identify areas of confusion or concern.

Why would you use it?

Similar to minute papers, muddiest point, and think-pair-share, the 3-2-1 Format can be a helpful tool for getting students to organize their thoughts, and promote reflection and metacognition. This activity provides an easy way to check for understanding and gauge student interest. It is also an effective way to promote discuss or review material.

When can you use it?

This activity would traditionally be introduced toward the end of a lesson or after a lecture. It could also be used in response to an assigned reading.

How does it work?

In reaction to presented content, students are asked to take a few moments and jot down:

Students are then asked to share their ideas in pairs or small groups. Use the responses to help guide teaching decisions. Consider areas of curriculum that need to be reviewed again or specific concepts or activities that are most interesting for students.

Alternative versions

Use 3-2-1 Format to transition into class discussion.

Student can complete 3-2-1 as individuals, pairs, or small groups.

Make the 3-2-1 questions content specific (differences, similarities, etc.)

Have students focus 3-2-1 on main ideas (most important ideas, supporting details, etc.)

Online options

3-2-1 Format could easily be adapted into an online discussion board activity.

Focused Listing

Basic Strategy

Focus Listing activity focuses on one concept, term, or topic. Students are asked to provide several ideas related closely with the one concept, term, or topic.

Why would you use?

The purpose of this activity is to help instructors determine what students are able to recall for the main points of a lesson. The preparation and follow-up for a Focused Listing activity is minimal. The Focused Listing activity can help students in several ways:

When can you use?

Before, during or after a lesson; works well in classes of all sizes. Focused listings are great follow ups to short presentations during which participants are asked to absorb information that is new and that is vital to the discussion to follow. The listing works well to introduce a topic, as an exercise joining/synthesizing two sets of information (lecture plus follow up reading, two lectures), and as something to return to as a wrap up so that participants can compare before/after thinking.

How does it work?

1. Select an important topic or concept that's just been studied or is just about to be studied; write it in a word or brief phrase.

2. Write the word or phrase at the top of a sheet of paper as the heading for a "Focused List" of related terms important to understanding that topic.

3. Set a limit for either number of items to list (5 to 10) or limit the amount of time (2 to 3 minutes) to list the points.

4. Test it yourself (keep to your own limits)--write a list of important words and phrases you recall that are related to or included within the heading you wrote down.

5. Look over your list quickly; add any items you may have left out. Determine if any modifications need to be made to this activity, e.g. number of items required or length of time.

6. If your test convinces you that the topic is important and well defined have the students complete the exercise. Be sure to increase the time limits you set for yourself, however, since you are the 'expert' and students are the 'novice' learners.

7. Collect their anonymous responses and review the answers by sorting them into piles of appropriate or inappropriate to determine how well students are recalling the main points.

8. At the beginning of the next class session, review with the students the findings of the activity. List the points or ideas you developed and include some of the ideas students provided that were not on your list, but were still relevant.

Alternate versions

Use your list as the "master list" and have students compare their lists to it. Look for matches, missing items (on any list), clarification needs, additional teaching and learning opportunities.

Assign this as a small group activity

Online Options

Muddiest Point

Basic Strategy

Muddiest Point is probably the simplest classroom assessment technique available. It is a quick monitoring technique in which students are asked to take a few minutes to write down the most difficult or confusing part of a lesson, lecture, or reading. It is simple to create and facilitate. In fact, it only takes 15 minutes to collect and scan approximately 100 muddiest points. While it is easy to use, be careful not to over-use this or any single assessment technique. Over using one technique can fatigue students and devalue the process.

Why would you use?

1. You can quickly check for understanding. This assessment gives you a picture of misconceptions and confusion that still exists in the students' minds.

2. Students can increase their understanding of their own learning. This assessment provides students with a metacognitive opportunity to think about their own learning. This is especially helpful with new information and complicated procedures.

When can you use?

Use this assessment technique any time, after students have had an opportunity for learning to progress them toward the learning target. This technique is especially helpful if students seem to be having difficulty grasping a concept or process.

How does it work?

1. Determine what feedback you want. Do you want to ask a question that encompasses the entire class session or one self-contained segment? Do you want to ask a questions related to a specific lecture, discussion, or presentation? Figure out what is of most value or where students struggle the most.

2. Reserve a few minutes at the end of the class session. Leave enough time to ask the question, have students respond, and to collect the responses.

3. Let students know how much time they will have to answer the question and when you will follow up with the results and provide feedback.

4. With so many students using laptops and tablets, it is plausible students will not have extra sheets of paper. Plan on distributing slips of paper or index cards for students to write on.

5. Collect the responses as or before students leave.

6. Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.

Alternate versions

This strategy can be presented in many forms:

Online Options

One Minute Paper

Basic Strategy

One minute paper is a popular introductory active learning strategy that requires minimal preparation on the part of the instructor. During a one minute paper exercise students are given one minute to write a response to a prompt or question posed by the instructor. Minute papers can segue into a discussion or simply be collected for review by the instructor.

Why would you use it?

1. Minute papers provide immediate feedback and allow quick response to students.

2. This exercise can be easily facilitated for any class size.

3. Allows students who are less vocal to participate.

When can you use it?

This technique is probably best used in lecture or discussion however it can easily be adapted to other settings such as labs, clinicals, or homework assignments. While this technique is flexible it is not universally applicable. Not all learning experiences can be assessed by a technique that asks students to note significant points or open questions. Be cognizant of your goal when choosing a classroom assessment technique.

How does it work?

1. Decide what you want to focus on, where you want students to reflect on a topic.

2. Write Minute Paper prompts that fit your class and meet your goal. The prompts are the heart of one minute papers.

3. Set aside 5-10 minutes to facilitate, as well as time later to discuss the results.

4. Share the question with students.

5. After the chosen topic or activity is completed, hand out scraps of paper or index cards for students to record their response.

6. Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.

7. Collect the responses as or before students leave.

8. Tabulate the responses and make note of useful comments.

9. Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.
Sample Minute Paper prompts:
Questions Designed to Assess Student Interests: For you, what interesting questions remain unanswered about today's topic?

Identifying Perceived Relevance of Course Concepts: During today's class, what idea(s) struck you as things you could or should put into practice?

Assess Student Attitudes/Opinions: Were there any ideas expressed in today's class that caused you to reconsider or change your personal? opinions, viewpoints, or values?

Checking Student Comprehension: What did you perceive to be the major purpose or objective of today's class?

Assessing Conceptual Connections (Cross-Concept Integration): Did you see any relationships between today's topic and other topics previously covered in this course?

Alternative versions

Online options

Think-Pair-Share

Basic Strategy

Think-pair-share can be a great technique for facilitating discussion. It is a quick and simple technique to adopt. Faculty present a question or challenge, students reflect quietly and then partner with someone to discuss. A think-pair-share session could be 5 to 15 minutes.

Why would you use?

This exercise engages the class with content on multiple levels. It can help organize prior knowledge, deepen the level of content analysis, and improves the quality of student contributions. Think-pair-share is a popular technique because sharing ideas with a peer in a group of two is "low risk" compared to sharing an individual idea with an entire class.

When can you use?

Use think-pair-share when you want students to talk over new ideas or critically think about concepts presented in the lesson. This technique can be easily used 'on the fly' and works in small or large classes.

How does it work?

1. Develop an engaging question or problem, ideally one with many viable potential responses

2. Have a plan for how to present the question (worksheet, PPT slide, etc.) and how you will facilitate students reporting out to the whole group.

3. Pose a question to students.

4. Students reflect on and write brief notes for one minute in response to the question.

5. Students pair up with someone sitting near them and share their answers verbally for two to three minutes. Alternatively, they may also work together to create one best answer.

6. Randomly choose a few pairs of students to give 30 second summaries of individual or joint answers.

Alternate versions

Online Options

Concept Mapping

Basic Strategy

Concept maps are drawings or diagrams used to help students organize and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.

Why would you use?

This activity provides an observable action of the student's patterns of understanding related to a central idea or concept. Concept mapping serves several purposes:

Helps students brainstorm and generate new ideas

Encourages students to discover new concepts and the propositions that connect them

Allows students to more clearly communicate ideas, thoughts and information

Helps students integrate new concepts with older concepts

Enables students to gain enhanced knowledge of any topic and evaluate the information

When can you use?

Concept maps require a lot of cognitive work on the part of the student, and a lot of preparation and analysis on the part of the instructor. Be sure you have tested the concept map activity yourself and given the class the appropriate amount of time to complete the activity. Usually this means twice the amount of time it took you, the expert, to complete. This activity is useful in any course with high theoretical content, courses with large amounts of facts and principles.

How does it work?

1. Select the concept/theme you wish students to use as a starting point.

2. Create a concept map:

1. Identify related key words or phrases. Write down words and key phrases.

2. Rank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract/general to the most concrete/specific.

3. Cluster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction and those that interrelate closely. Start to determine the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.

4. Arrange concepts into a diagram.

5. Continue identifying the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.

3. Add second and third level associations, if appropriate.

4. Good maps usually result from three to many revisions.

5. After students have completed the concept maps, present your own example to the students and walk through it with them step-by-step, explaining your thinking as you created the concept map.

Important Consideration for Using Concept Maps Best Practices for Using Concept Maps:

1. Create your own concept map first, before assigning one to your students.

2. If students are new to concept maps, students will need training and continual practice. Together as a class, create a simple concept map on a concept everyone is familiar wit. For example, use an easy topic like, "What are birds?"

Alternate versions

Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a free association approach by brainstorming nodes and then develop links and relationships.

Assign a concept map as a small group activity to alleviate anxiety.

Extend the activity by having students write an explanatory essay based on their maps.

Construct a concept map and then remove all of the concept labels (keep the links!). Ask students to replace the labels in a way that makes structural sense.

Create a concept map and then remove concepts from the nodes (about one-third of them). These deleted concepts are placed in a numbered list on the map and students choose among them.

Provide a list of concept labels (10 to 20) and ask students to construct their maps using only these labels. The focus here is on the linking relationships, and the evolution of structural complexity of students' knowledge frameworks.

Online Options

Jigsaw

Basic Strategy

Jigsaw involves students doing individual research on a subset of a given subject area, and then piecing their research together with other students "to build the whole picture". Jigsaw exercises challenge students to engage in reciprocal teaching and can be a popular activity for courses that rely on heavy transference of information.

Jigsaw requires a moderate to high amount of faculty preparation and takes a fair amount of class time. Do not overuse this technique, as repeating too often can feel contrived (it is not very flexible). It should be used no more than twice per semester.

Why would you use?

Jigsaw is a variation on a simpler activity in which students come and present directly to their group on a topic of research. By adding the intermediate task of meeting as an "expert group" ensures some quality of ideas and materials. This technique also gives individual students a chance to build confidence in a subject area before presenting to peers.

When can you use?

Jigsaw can be used in a single class session or across multiple sessions.

How does it work?

1. Identify a concept area (the whole puzzle) which contains roughly 4-6 subtopics (pieces of the puzzle).

2. Divide the class into teams of 4-6 students (the number of students on a team should be equivalent to the number of subtopics).

3. Assign each student on the teams a different subtopic. Allow sufficient time for students to "develop expertise", doing their own reading and research. Jigsaw falls apart if students are not prepared. Assigning questions, reading logs, study guides or reaction papers helps to ensure preparation. Consider asking for a summary of their readings by a certain date.

4. Students return to class and consult with the same content experts from the other teams. They are asked to discuss the topic as a group and how best to present it to their respective teams, possibly through creating review sheets / summary guide / examples/ list of resources etc.

5. Students return to their original teams where they are then asked to present/teach the topic to their team.

6. Conclude with whole class reflection / discussion.

Listen to Kelly Macauley, Clinical Instructor in Physical Therapy, talk about how she has used this activity in her class:
Kelly's written instructions (.DOCX)
Kelly's classroom map (.PPT)
Alternate versions

Online Options

Memory Matrix

Basic strategy

Memory Matrix is a simple, two-dimensional table divided into rows and columns. The table is used to organize information and identify relationships in the content. Some cells in the table are intentionally left blank where students are asked to fill in the blank cells, demonstrating their understanding of the content. There is moderate investment of time required on behalf of faculty to create the matrix and then analyze the results.

Why would you use?

The technique provides a structure for students to organize and synthesize complicated information. This exercise works well with large amounts of content and can simplify complex, dynamic systems of information. Faculty can identify prior or incorrect knowledge.

When can you use?

Memory matrix is simple to implement and easy to use during instruction however there is some up-front preparation that must be completed. Consider content carefully. Content needs to appropriately align with column and row organization. This exercise is effective after lectures, videos, reading assignments, etc.

How does it work?

1. Carefully choose your content topic. Make sure the content can be organized in a table with rows and columns.

2. Create a simple matrix. Make one completed matrix to use as a key. This will make the analysis much easier. Also create a blank matrix for students to fill in.

3. Explain the purpose of the exercise.

4. Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.

5. Handout blank or partially filled matrix. Have students work on in class, individually or in groups. Provide practice matrices or examples if this is the first time you are presenting a memory matrix.

6. Students complete the matrix and hand-in.

7. Review and analyze results

Analysis: Scan the completed matrices and compare to your key matrix. correct responses vs incorrect responses - focus on patterns in the responses.

Results: Record the number of each correct or incorrect response into an Excel spreadsheet (or any data management system) where data can be reported in a variety of methods. Look for common misconceptions or errors. This could indicate recall problems, difficultly categorizing information, or insufficient teaching focus on a particular topic or category.

8. Provide feedback and clear misconceptions at next class meeting

Alternative versions

Cells can be manipulated in any number of ways. For instance, leave the cells blank or fill the cells in and leave the column heading blank.

Matrix can be completed by individuals, in pairs, small teams, as a class.

Online options

Quiz Show

Basic Strategy

Quiz Show uses quiz game show format (e.g. Jeopardy or Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) to rapidly move through a series of questions with students. This strategy is popular for introducing game mechanics (points, competition) into a classroom activity.

Why would you use?

Quiz Show is popular for review sessions for reinforcing important information or but is usually not considered a good way to introduce content. The game format of a quiz show activity can be to keep students engaged although it should be used in moderation as it lacks authenticity to real world applications of knowledge.

When can you use?

Quiz Show is popular for review sessions before major assessment events. Quiz show could be used in short 5-10 minute segments or could easily fill an hour session.

How does it work?

Present a grid (or list) of questions on a whiteboard or PowerPoint. When crafting questions be mindful of the standard advice on writing multiple choice questions. Depending on class size you would likely divide students into groups. Student can be given a "bell" to ring in, or simply rotate between students. Quiz show is more appropriate for short answer questions not open ended questions.

Alternate versions

Students answer individually

Use in combination with clickers

Students write and submit questions in advance

Pub trivia mode: multiple questions in small groups, answered in writing rather than first to buzz in

Online Options

Quiz Show Review does not adapt easily to online learning environments.
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Examples of Classroom Assessment Techniques

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There are hundreds of variations of classroom assessment techniques. Below are some of the more commonly known techniques: The 3-2-1 format is a quick reflective activity similar to think-pair-share. It encourages students to reflect on a course experience and organize their thoughts and identify areas of confusion or concern.

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Read Moonwalking with Einstein

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There are people who can quickly memorize lists of thousands of numbers, the order of all the cards in a deck (or ten!), and much more. Science writer Joshua Foer describes the technique -- called the memory palace -- and shows off its most remarkable feature: anyone can learn how to use it, including him.

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There is no shortage of formative assessment strategies, techniques, and tools available to teachers who use formative instructional practice in their classrooms. Here is an extensive list of 75 digital tools, apps, and platforms that can help you and your students use formative assessment to elicit evidence of learning. We didn't just add any old tool to this list. Here are the criteria we used for those that made the cut:

Supports formative instructional strategies and ways to activate learners to be resources for themselves and peers

Is free or awful close to it (under $10 per year, where possible)

Allows both students and teachers to take the activator role when possible (sometimes teachers need to get things started)

Before you dig into the tools, I encourage you to spend some time thinking about exactly what you want to accomplish with your students. "How to pick the right digital tool: Start with your learning goal" by Erin Beard can help you wrap your head around goals and guide you in choosing the best tool for the task. "27 easy formative assessment strategies for gathering evidence of student learning" can help you decide what strategies work best for you and your students.

Record audio and video

Create quizzes, polls, and surveys

1. Crowdsignal Lets you create online polls, quizzes, and questions. Students can use smartphones, tablets, and computers to provide their answers, and information can be culled for reports.

2. Edulastic Allows you to make standards-aligned assessments and get instant feedback.

3. FreeOnlineSurveys Helps you create surveys, quizzes, forms, and polls.

4. Gimkit Lets you write real-time quizzes. And it was designed by a high school student!

5. Kahoot! A game-based classroom response system that lets you create quizzes using internet content.

6. MicroPoll Helps you create polls, embed them into websites, and analyze responses.

7. Naiku Lets you write quizzes students can answer using their mobile devices.

8. Obsurvey Designed to make surveys, polls, and questionnaires.

9. Poll Everywhere Lets you create a feedback poll or ask questions and see results in real time. Allows students to respond in various ways. With open-ended questions, you can capture data and spin up tag clouds to aggregate responses.

10. Poll Maker Offers unique features, like allowing multiple answers to one question.

11. ProProfs Helps you make quizzes, polls, and surveys.

12. Quia Lets you create games, quizzes, surveys, and more. Access a database of existing quizzes from other educators.

13. Quizalize Helps you create quizzes and homework.

14. Quizizz Guides you through designing quizzes and lets you include students in the quiz-writing process.

15. Quizlet Lets you make flashcards, tests, quizzes, and study games that are mobile friendly.

16. Survey Hero Designed to build questionnaires and surveys.

17. SurveyMonkey Helpful for online polls and surveys.

18. SurveyPlanet Also helpful for online polls and surveys.

19. Triventy Lets you create quizzes students take in real time using individual devices.

20. Yacapaca Helps you write and assign quizzes.

21. Zoho Survey Allows you to make mobile-friendly surveys and see results in real time.

Brainstorm, mind map, and collaborate

Present, engage, and inspire

Generate word or tag clouds

1. EdWordle Generates word clouds from any entered text to help aggregate responses and facilitate discussion. Word clouds are pictures composed of a cloud of smaller words that form a clue to the topic.

2. Tagxedo Allows you to examine student consensus and facilitate dialogues.

3. Wordables Helps you elicit evidence of learning or determine background knowledge about a topic.

4. WordArt Includes a feature that allows the user to make each word an active link to connect to websites, including YouTube.

Get real-time feedback

Foster family communication

1. Remind Lets you text students and stay in touch with families.

2. Seesaw Helps you improve family communication and makes formative assessment easy, while students can use the platform to document their learning.

3. Voxer Lets you send recordings so families can hear how their students are doing, students can chat about their work, and you can provide feedback.

Strengthen teacher-to-student or student-to-student communication

Keep the conversation going with live chats

1. Backchannel Chat A teacher-moderated version of Twitter.

2. Chatzy Supports live, online chats in a private setting.

Create and store documents or assignments

1. Google Forms A Google Drive app that allows you to create documents students can collaborate on in real time using smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

2. Piazza Lets you upload lectures, assignments, and homework; pose and respond to student questions; and poll students about class content. This tool is better suited for older students as it mimics post-secondary class instructional formats.

Learn more

There are several resources for learning more about formative assessment and responsive instruction strategies. Consider our formative practices workshops, where school and district teams can gain a better understanding of the role formative practice plays in instruction and the four foundational practices to use in the classroom. Or for a quick start, download our eBook "Making it work: How formative assessment can supercharge your practice."

Jump in, try new tools and methods, and have fun!

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75 digital tools and apps teachers can use to support formative assessment in the classroom

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There is no shortage of formative assessment strategies, techniques, and tools available to teachers who use formative instructional practice in their classrooms. Here is an extensive list of 75 digital tools, apps, and platforms that can help you and your students use formative assessment to elicit evidence of learning.

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Cite this guide: Chick, N. (2013). Metacognition. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/.

Thinking about One's Thinking | Putting Metacognition into Practice

Thinking about One's Thinking

Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one's thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.

Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985), researchers soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then, these thought processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). In How People Learn, the National Academy of Sciences' synthesis of decades of research on the science of learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the effectiveness of a "'metacognitive' approach to instruction" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 18).

Metacognitive practices increase students' abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Scardamalia et al., 1984; Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of awareness above the subject matter: they also think about the tasks and contexts of different learning situations and themselves as learners in these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002) asserts that "Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them" (p. 222), notice the students must "know about" these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David (2009) explain, there must be a " conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]" (p. 179).

Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses as learners, writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the limit of one's knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend the ability. Those who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to "actively monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular tasks and performances" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67).

The absence of metacognition connects to the research by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, and Kruger on "Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence" (2003). They found that "people tend to be blissfully unaware of their incompetence," lacking "insight about deficiencies in their intellectual and social skills." They identified this pattern across domains-from test-taking, writing grammatically, thinking logically, to recognizing humor, to hunters' knowledge about firearms and medical lab technicians' knowledge of medical terminology and problem-solving skills (p. 83-84). In short, "if people lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to know when their answers, or anyone else's, are right or wrong" (p. 85). This research suggests that increased metacognitive abilities-to learn specific (and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice them-is needed in many contexts.

Putting Metacognition into Practice

In " Promoting Student Metacognition," Tanner (2012) offers a handful of specific activities for biology classes, but they can be adapted to any discipline. She first describes four assignments for explicit instruction (p. 116):

Preassessments-Encouraging Students to Examine Their Current Thinking: "What do I already know about this topic that could guide my learning?"

The Muddiest Point-Giving Students Practice in Identifying Confusions: "What was most confusing to me about the material explored in class today?"

Retrospective Postassessments-Pushing Students to Recognize Conceptual Change: "Before this course, I thought evolution was... Now I think that evolution is ...." or "How is my thinking changing (or not changing) over time?"

Reflective Journals-Providing a Forum in Which Students Monitor Their Own Thinking: "What about my exam preparation worked well that I should remember to do next time? What did not work so well that I should not do next time or that I should change?"

Next are recommendations for developing a "classroom culture grounded in metacognition" (p. 116-118):

Giving Students License to Identify Confusions within the Classroom Culture: ask students what they find confusing, acknowledge the difficulties

Integrating Reflection into Credited Course Work: integrate short reflection (oral or written) that ask students what they found challenging or what questions arose during an assignment/exam/project

Metacognitive Modeling by the Instructor for Students: model the thinking processes involved in your field and sought in your course by being explicit about "how you start, how you decide what to do first and then next, how you check your work, how you know when you are done" (p. 118)

To facilitate these activities, she also offers three useful tables:

Questions for students to ask themselves as they plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking within four learning contexts-in class, assignments, quizzes/exams, and the course as a whole (p. 115)

Prompts for integrating metacognition into discussions of pairs during clicker activities, assignments, and quiz or exam preparation (p. 117)

Questions to help faculty metacognitively assess their own teaching (p. 119)

Weimer's " Deep Learning vs. Surface Learning: Getting Students to Understand the Difference " (2012) offers additional recommendations for developing students' metacognitive awareness and improvement of their study skills:

"[I]t is terribly important that in explicit and concerted ways we make students aware of themselves as learners. We must regularly ask, not only 'What are you learning?' but 'How are you learning?' We must confront them with the effectiveness (more often ineffectiveness) of their approaches. We must offer alternatives and then challenge students to test the efficacy of those approaches." (emphasis added)

She points to a tool developed by Stanger-Hall (2012, p. 297) for her students to identify their study strategies, which she divided into " cognitively passive" ("I previewed the reading before class," "I came to class," "I read the assigned text," "I highlighted the text," et al) and " cognitively active study behaviors" ("I asked myself: 'How does it work?' and 'Why does it work this way?'" "I wrote my own study questions," "I fit all the facts into a bigger picture," "I closed my notes and tested how much I remembered," et al). The specific focus of Stanger-Hall's study is tangential to this discussion, ¹ but imagine giving students lists like hers adapted to your course and then, after a major assignment, having students discuss which ones worked and which types of behaviors led to higher grades. Even further, follow Lovett's advice (2013) by assigning "exam wrappers," which include students reflecting on their previous exam-preparation strategies, assessing those strategies and then looking ahead to the next exam, and writing an action plan for a revised approach to studying. A common assignment in English composition courses is the self-assessment essay in which students apply course criteria to articulate their strengths and weaknesses within single papers or over the course of the semester. These activities can be adapted to assignments other than exams or essays, such as projects, speeches, discussions, and the like.

As these examples illustrate, for students to become more metacognitive, they must be taught the concept and its language explicitly (Pintrich, 2002; Tanner, 2012), though not in a content-delivery model (simply a reading or a lecture) and not in one lesson. Instead, the explicit instruction should be "designed according to a knowledge construction approach," or students need to recognize, assess, and connect new skills to old ones, "and it needs to take place over an extended period of time" (Zohar & David, p. 187). This kind of explicit instruction will help students expand or replace existing learning strategies with new and more effective ones, give students a way to talk about learning and thinking, compare strategies with their classmates' and make more informed choices, and render learning "less opaque to students, rather than being something that happens mysteriously or that some students 'get' and learn and others struggle and don't learn" (Pintrich, 2002, p. 223).

Metacognition instruction should also be embedded with the content and activities about which students are thinking. Why? Metacognition is "not generic" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 19) but instead is most effective when it is adapted to reflect the specific learning contexts of a specific topic, course, or discipline (Zohar & David, 2009). In explicitly connecting a learning context to its relevant processes, learners will be more able to adapt strategies to new contexts, rather than assume that learning is the same everywhere and every time. For instance, students' abilities to read disciplinary texts in discipline-appropriate ways would also benefit from metacognitive practice. A literature professor may read a passage of a novel aloud in class, while also talking about what she's thinking as she reads: how she makes sense of specific words and phrases, what connections she makes, how she approaches difficult passages, etc. This kind of modeling is a good practice in metacognition instruction, as suggested by Tanner above. Concepción's " Reading Philosophy with Background Knowledge and Metacognition " (2004) includes his detailed "How to Read Philosophy" handout (pp. 358-367), which includes the following components:

What to Expect (when reading philosophy)

The Ultimate Goal (of reading philosophy)

Basic Good Reading Behaviors

Important Background Information, or discipline- and course-specific reading practices, such as "reading for enlightenment" rather than information, and "problem-based classes" rather than historical or figure-based classes

A Three-Part Reading Process (pre-reading, understanding, and evaluating)

Flagging, or annotating the reading

Linear vs. Dialogical Writing (Philosophical writing is rarely straightforward but instead "a monologue that contains a dialogue" [p. 365].)

What would such a handout look like for your discipline?

Students can even be metacognitively prepared (and then prepare themselves) for the overarching learning experiences expected in specific contexts. Salvatori and Donahue's The Elements (and Pleasures) of Difficulty (2004) encourages students to embrace difficult texts (and tasks) as part of deep learning, rather than an obstacle. Their "difficulty paper" assignment helps students reflect on and articulate the nature of the difficulty and work through their responses to it (p. 9). Similarly, in courses with sensitive subject matter, a different kind of learning occurs, one that involves complex emotional responses. In " Learning from Their Own Learning: How Metacognitive and Meta-affective Reflections Enhance Learning in Race-Related Courses" (Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, 2009), students were informed about the common reactions to learning about racial inequality (Helms, 1995; Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 1997; see student handout, Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, p. 23-24) and then regularly wrote about their cognitive and affective responses to specific racialized situations. The students with the most developed metacognitive and meta-affective practices at the end of the semester were able to "clear the obstacles and move away from" oversimplified thinking about race and racism "to places of greater questioning, acknowledging the complexities of identity, and redefining the world in racial terms" (p. 14).

Ultimately, metacognition requires students to "externalize mental events" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67), such as what it means to learn, awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses with specific skills or in a given learning context, plan what's required to accomplish a specific learning goal or activity, identifying and correcting errors, and preparing ahead for learning processes.

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1 Students who were tested with short answer in addition to multiple-choice questions on their exams reported more cognitively active behaviors than those tested with just multiple-choice questions, and these active behaviors led to improved performance on the final exam.
References

Adams, Maurianne, Bell, Lee Ann, and Griffin, Pat. (1997). Teaching for diversity and social justice: A sourcebook. New York: Routledge.

Bransford, John D., Brown Ann L., and Cocking Rodney R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Baker, Linda, and Brown, Ann L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In Paul David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Rebecca Barr, & Peter Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of research in reading: Volume III (pp. 353-395). New York: Longman.

Brown, Ann L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce, and William F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, and education (pp. 453-482). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chick, Nancy, Karis, Terri, and Kernahan, Cyndi. (2009). Learning from their own learning: how metacognitive and meta-affective reflections enhance learning in race-related courses . International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 3(1). 1-28.

Flavell, John H. (1985). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hatano, Giyoo and Inagaki, Kayoko. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In Harold Stevenson, Azuma, Horishi, and Hakuta, Kinji (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan, New York: W.H. Freeman.

Lovett, Marsha C. (2013). Make exams worth more than the grade. In Matthew Kaplan, Naomi Silver, Danielle LaVague-Manty, and Deborah Meizlish (Eds.), Using reflection and metacognition to improve student learning: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Salvatori, Mariolina Rizzi, and Donahue, Patricia. (2004). The Elements (and pleasures) of difficulty. New York: Pearson-Longman.

Schoenfeld, Alan H. (1991). On mathematics as sense making: An informal attack on the fortunate divorce of formal and informal mathematics. In James F. Voss, David N. Perkins, and Judith W. Segal (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education (pp. 311-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Weimer, Maryellen. (2012, November 19). Deep learning vs. surface learning: Getting students to understand the difference. Retrieved from the Teaching Professor Blog from http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog/deep-learning-vs-surface-learning-getting-students-to-understand-the-difference/.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Nancy Chick Print Version Cite this guide: Chick, N. (2013). Metacognition. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/. Thinking about One's Thinking | Putting Metacognition into Practice Thinking about One's Thinking Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess...

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Virtually Inspired: Showcasing Online Learning Innovation

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An ongoing research project to uncover the best of breed technology-enhanced online courses and programs indicative of the "Online Classroom of the Future."