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mean, median and mode (when to use which)

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American Psychiatric Association ( these people come together and create the research ethic laws)(not laws, although there are some federal laws.)
-  Informed consent: How long? Hurt? Other risks
-  Deception: Avoid unless its absolutely necessary and something important and useful is very likely to be discovered.
- Do no harm: Risk in experiment must be no greater than the risk in everyday life.
-  Information must be kept confidential
- Debrief them afterwards and explain experiment fully

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Correlation studies see the relationship between two variables and study how they are connected.

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Psychology is value laden, however it is also dangerously powerful. People feel that psychology can be used to manipulate people.
Knowledge, like all power, can be used for good and evil. Psychology does have the power to deceive but its purpose is to enlighten.

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One person's rigidity is another's consistency. One person's faith is another's fanaticism. Our labeling someone as firm or stubborn, careful or picky, discreet or secretive reveals our feelings.

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Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results. Researchers' values influence their choice on topics. Values can also color 'the facts'.

What we want or expect to see an bias our observations and interpretations.

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Ethical principles to guide investigators when testing on human: 

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Ethical principles to guide investigators when testing on human: 

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1. obtaining potential participants' informed consent.
2. Protecting participants from harm and discomfort.
3. Keeping information about the individual participants confidential.
4. Fully explaining the research afterward.

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This is an example of how animals have themselves benefited from animal research.

- He caused some of the dogs to suffer, but that led to a vaccine that not only spared millions of people but also millions of dogs from an agonizing death.

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The issues with using animals for experimenting. 

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The issues with using animals for experimenting. 

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- The basic one is whether it is right to place the well being humans above that of animals.
- If we give human life first priority, the second issue is, What safeguards should prevent the well being of animals in research.

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We humans are not like animals. We ARE animals and our physiology resembles that of many other species. Animal experiments ave therefore led to treatment for human diseases possible.

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Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender and or across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.

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Researchers report gender differences in what we dream, in how we express and detect emotions, and in our risk for alcohol dependence , depression, and eating disorders.

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It is also true that our shared biological heritage unites us as a universal human family. The same underlying processes guides everyone.

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It influences our standard of promptness and frankness, our attitudes towards premarital sex and varying body shapes, our tendency to be casual or formal, our willingness to make eye-contact, our conversational differences, we can restrain our assumptions that others will think and act like we do. given the growing mixing and clashing of cultures, our need for such awareness is urgent.

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and behaviors shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to another.

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Psychologist's concern lies less with particular behaviors than with the general principles that help explain may behaviors.

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it is not the resulting principles- not the specific findings- that help explain everyday behaviors.

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it is not the resulting principles- not the specific findings- that help explain everyday behaviors.

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An experiments aim is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test the theoretical principles

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sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables.

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A variable is anything that can vary (anything within bounds of what is feasible and ethical). Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure changes in the dependent variable, and control (minimize the effect of) all other variables. An experiment has at least 2 different groups- experiment group and a comparison/control group. Random assignment works to equate the groups before any treatment effects. in this way, an experiment tests the effect of at least one variable compares the features of psychology's research methods.

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- Independent variable: the experimental factor that is manipulated: the variable whose effect is being studied.
- Dependent variable: The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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Note the difference between random sampling in surveys and random assignment in experiments: 

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Note the difference between random sampling in surveys and random assignment in experiments: 

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Random sampling helps us generalize to a larger population. Random assignment controls the extraneous influence, which helps us infer cause and effect.

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We can test our hypothesis and refine our theories using descriptive methods (which describe behavior, often using studies, surveys, or naturalistic observation), correlational methods (which associate different factors ) and experimental methods (which can manipulate factors to discover their effects)

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(latin for :"i shall please") experimental results caused by expectations alone; my effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Just thinking you are getting a treatment can boost your spirits, relax your body and relieve your symptoms. The costlier the placebo pill, the more likely it is to cure your disease.

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An experimental procedure in which which both the research participants and the research staff ignorant (blind) about whether research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

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In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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In an experiment the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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Unlike correlational studies, which cover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effects.

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Experiments enable a researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by:
1. manipulating the factors of interest
2. holding constant all other factors.

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assigning participants to experimental groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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A research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes ( the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

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In our natural eagerness to make sense of our world (poets call this our "range for order") we look for order in random data. And we often find it because random sequences don't always look random.

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When we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random ad instead see them as correlated. Thus, we can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what is not there.

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If we have a premonition of a strange call, and we don't get a call, we are less likely to note and remember the noneven.

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When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief.
We are especially likely to notice an remember the occurrence of two dramatic or unusual effect in sequence.

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The perception of a relationship where none exists.

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Correlation indication a possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation.

Knowing that two events are associated need not tell us anything about causation.

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A nearly irresistible error in assuming that an association proves causation. But no matter how strong the relationship, it does not prove anything!!!

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Correlations point us toward predictions, but usually imperfect ones.

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A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent  to which two things relate.

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Psychology's correlation usually leave most of the variation among the individuals unpredicted. For example: Children who were abused as children are more likely to abuse their own children when they grow up, however there are some that grow up to be non-abusive.

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(between -1 to 0) indicates an inverse relationship meaning that as one thing increases the other decreases.

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(between 0 and 1) indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two thing increase/decrease together.

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A statistical measure (the correlation coefficient) helps us figure out how closely the two things vary together, and thus show ell either one predicts the other

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Surveys and naturalistic observation often shoe us that one trait or behavior is related to another. In such cases, we say that the behavior correlate.

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The extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1 (line of best fit)
Eg: Increased sleep time+ increased GPA.
Self esteem and depression

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Naturalistic observation (like the other two mentioned before) provides data for correlation research.

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Naturalistic observation offers us interesting snapshots of everyday life, but it does so without controlling for all factors that may influence behavior.

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Like studies and surveys, naturalistic behavior doesn't explain behavior. It just describes it. However, descriptions can be revealing.  (describing behavior is the first step towards predicting it.)

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1. Organizing and linking observed facts.
2. implying hypothesis that offer testable predictions and sometimes, practical application.

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if a theory works- if the data supports its predictions- so much the better for that theory. If the prediction fails the theory will be revised or rejected. 

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if a theory works- if the data supports its predictions- so much the better for that theory. If the prediction fails the theory will be revised or rejected. 

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Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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All cases in the group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (except for national studies. this does not refer to a country's whole population)

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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The way the questions are asked might affect the answer. Also the type of respondents chosen might affect the survey. -  Even subtle changes in the wording might have an effect.
Also, in order to have a fair result, there should be a representative sample, and since you can't ask everyone you have to make sure to have a large population which is picked out randomly.
- However a small represented sample is better than a large unrepresentative one.

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A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

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individual cases may be misleading. If the individual being studied is atypical, the unrepresentative information can lead to mistaken judgement and false conclusions.

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The starting point of any science is description. Psychologists observe and describe people objectively and systematically.

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An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals.

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances.

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A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what intelligence test measures.

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A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

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Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

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Historians told us that these three attitudes- curiosity, skepticism, and humility- helped make modern science possible.

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Today's presumed "truths" might become tomorrow's fallacies.

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Letting the facts speak for themselves.

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Underlying all science is first a hard-headed curiosity, a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled.

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Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion.

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We humans tend to think we know more than we actually do. We also tend to be more confident than correct.

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Good ideas are like good inventions- once created they seem obvious.

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Just asking people how and why they feel and reacted as they did can sometimes be misleading- not because common sense is usually wrong but because common sense more easily describes what has happened than what will happen.

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Such errors in our recollections and explanations show why we need psychological research.

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If you do an experiment where you give half the participants a statement, and the other half an opposite statement, it is more likely that they will justify the statement that they had been given.

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It is saying we knew something all along after it has happened.

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Also called the "i-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

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These phenomenons illustrate why we can't rely solely on intuition and common sense,

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Two phenomenons:
- Hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence.

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Our thinking, memory and attitudes operate on two different levels- conscious and unconscious- with a large part operating automatically.