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Drugs are commonly used in a sporting to context to give athletes an upper hand. PED's are performance enhancing drugs that can have a range of effects that benefit the athlete. Some are used in training to support muscle growth, some expand airways to allow for greater oxygen intake and others are used to increase alertness in game.

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Drugs are commonly used in a sporting to context to give athletes an upper hand. PED's are performance enhancing drugs that can have a range of effects that benefit the athlete. Some are used in training to support muscle growth, some expand airways to allow for greater oxygen intake and others are used to increase alertness in game.

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Athletics are inherently competitive. If an athlete is not competing with someone else, they are competing with who they were yesterday, striving to do better, to be better. And the pressure to improve is not merely internal; from coaches to parents to fans, it seems that everyone around athletes pushes them to do more and be more.

While they often seem supernatural in their abilities, athletes are human, and humans have their limitations. So how do athletes handle the conflict between pressure to improve and their own limitations? Is there a prevalence of drugs in sport?

Performance Enhancing Drugs

Performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) are substances used to improve physical ability, notorious for their illegal use in athletic competitions. While these substances may not be illegal in general use, their clandestine use in sports, known as doping, is commonly prohibited.

The history behind drug use in sports goes as far back as ancient times, claiming that doping might have been present as far back as the ancient Olympic Games. However, in relatively more modern times, one of the earliest records of doping was during an endurance walking race where a contestant admitted to using opiates to stay alert.

Such endurance races eventually increased in popularity to the extent where participants stood to win rather impressive prizes. It proved to be a worthy incentive for the athletes to consume substances to improve their performance, even with the side effects that many of them caused, such as psychosis.
Anabolic steroids, used to improve the ease and efficiency of building muscle, became a mainstay among weightlifters and bodybuilders in the 20th century.
The health risks of drug abuse in athletes and the unfair advantage experienced by them were significant enough to induce the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999.

The use of PEDs has increased in recent years. However, this is largely due to the availability of more options, many of which feel safer to athletes than traditional drugs. While the idea of injecting steroids may have seemed off-putting to all but the most driven athletes, taking a supplement that can be purchased at any health store seems less risky or even normal. And doing so is socially acceptable. As a result, up to 12 percent of teens, both engaged in sport and not, use substances to improve performance and appearance. While women use these substances as well, their use is more prevalent amongst men.

Although the medical concern is most significant for teens abusing drugs like PEDs, that is generally not where the media focuses. Instead, the media and the public are most concerned with doping in major league sports. Both Major League Baseball and the National Football League have seen significant controversy in recent years related to players' drug use in sports. The current conversation around the practice can be traced back to the revelation of steroid use in MLB players back in the late 90s to early 2000s. More than 24 MLB suspensions have been related to performance-enhancing drugs since 2005; on the NFL side, hundreds of games have been missed due to temporary suspensions related to doping.

Side Effects Of Performance Enhancing Drugs

There are several kinds of performance-enhancing drugs in sport. Essentially all of these substances have side effects, even the ones which are found naturally in the body.

Anabolic steroids are used to increase muscle growth. However, these drugs can cause breast growth, prostate gland enlargement, smaller testicles, and infertility in men. Women may become more masculine, with a deeper voice, more body hair, baldness, and infrequent menstruation. Drug dependence, aggressive behavior, and psychiatric disorders are also possibilities, among many more.

Other performance-enhancing drugs, such as human growth hormone, erythropoietin, and stimulants, can cause an array of adverse effects. These effects include many severe cardiovascular reactions, such as hypertension, reduced blood pressure, pulmonary embolism, stroke, enlargement of the heart, and heart attack.

Other Drug Use Among Athletes

While the drive to perform at their very best pushes athletes to use drugs in sport, they face other factors that can cause different kinds of drug abuse.

They have to perform on large stages, with many people's expectations resting on them. This pressure predisposes them to mental health conditions such as anxiety, stress, and depression. It can result in drug abuse in athletes, of medications like anxiolytics and antidepressants.

Besides prescription medication, many athletes may turn to illicit substances to deal with mental health conditions, stressors, and pain that they experience.

However, most of them indicated their use was for social purposes and not anything relating to sports.

A study performed among young elite athletes in Italy provided interesting information showing that the most used illicit drug among athletes is cannabis. However, it was only seen in 0.2 to 0.4% of samples tested. Following that was cocaine, in 0.1% of samples.

The information from a 2020 study among professional athletes demonstrated opioid use in under 5% of participants in the study.

Causes Of Drug Abuse in Athletes

As with any drug use, the exact reasons an athlete turns to drugs in sport are personal. However, a common factor is-as one would assume-improved performance and physical condition.

However, it is essential to keep in mind that athletes may also use illicit drugs for recreational purposes in addition to their PEDs, similar to non-athletes. It means that athletes have two different avenues of drug use in sports.
Why Do Athletes Use PEDs?

The drive to win. Every athlete has a moment where a win can change their life, and a loss could be the end of their career. Some sporting moments are remembered for decades. For professional athletes, sports are not about fun; but about winning. There is little care given to the cost of reaching that goal in many cases.

The athletic physical form. In most sports, physique matters only as far as it helps performance. However, bulking is critical in some sports because appearance or physical form is central to winning. The most notable is bodybuilding, with the PED most often used being anabolic steroids. Approximately 19 percent of bodybuilders acknowledge steroid use; studies that do not rely on self-reporting are likely to see higher results. However, many other drugs are used as an alternative or in addition to this drug use in sports. In some cases, they may be unaware they are using steroids. Many supplements designed for bodybuilders contain steroids that are not on the packaging.

The future at large. Many young people who use PEDs are concerned for their future. For many student-athletes, an athletic scholarship is the only choice for a college education. High performance is needed before admission and throughout college to maintain the scholarship. College tuition continues to rise, so these scholarships are even more vital. 35% of jobs require a minimum of a bachelor's degree, with only 36% accepting a high school diploma or less, and most do not pay living wages. Many young athletes feel pushed towards performance-enhancing drug use in sports as a result.

What Are the Different Types of Performance Enhancing Drugs?

Steroids are easily the most well-known type of doping drug; however, they are not the only type. They are not even the most commonly used performance-enhancing drug; instead, general supplements are, with creatine leading the pack. The consequences of use-both physically and within the sports world-vary depending on the drug used.

Below are some of the most commonly used types of performance-enhancing drugs:

Anabolic Steroids

Anabolic steroids are synthetic drugs that mimic or enhance the effects of testosterone. They encourage muscle growth. In medical settings, they can be used to treat muscle loss and delay the onset of puberty. Anabolic steroids can affect sex hormone production in men, resulting in shrunken testicles, infertility, gynecomastia, and prostate enlargement. In women, they will begin to develop 'manly' features such as baldness, more body hair, and a bigger clitoris.

General side effects include acne, inhibited growth in teenagers, hypertension, liver tumors, and psychiatric disorders.

Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that act on the central nervous system by speeding up physical processes. It can mean increased heart rate and blood flow and elevated body temperature. Drug abuse in athletes covers both legal, illegal, and prescription stimulants. Some examples include amphetamines, cocaine, and even nicotine. Stimulants may negatively affect physical performance, however. This is due to side effects such as dehydration, heatstroke, and nervousness. Addiction to stimulants can also occur, along with tolerance.

Human Growth Hormone

Human growth hormone naturally occurs within the body. However, synthetic versions have become very popular within the world of sports. When it occurs naturally, it helps teens grow their bones during puberty and strengthen the skeletal structure overall; in medical settings, it can be used to help those who are not producing enough during puberty or who are fighting certain diseases, such as HIV. However, it is used in sports for another reason.

Diabetes, visual disturbances, hypertension, joint pain, and cardiomegaly can occur due to abuse of this prescription medication.

Erythropoietin

Erythropoietin is a hormone produced by the kidneys in response to insufficient oxygen in the body cells. It functions by stimulating the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. In medical settings, it is used to treat anemia. This substance increases how much oxygen the muscles get, which helps keep them non-fatigued and primed.

Blood Doping

Blood doping is a practice whereby athletes receive blood transfusions or use synthetic oxygen carriers to increase their blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. This equates the more oxygen for the muscles, which comes with a performance boost. While the athlete's own blood can be used if stored ahead of time, same-type blood from a third party is also an option.

Blood doping can present the athlete with the risk of diseases such as HIV, hepatitis B, and C. Even with the athlete's blood, there are still risks, such as blood clots, stroke, and heart attack.

Beta-Blockers

The anxiolytic effect of beta-blockers is what makes them abused as PEDs. Athletes who rely on being steady or stable in their sport, such as archers, shooters, dart players, and others, may turn to drug abuse in sports with beta-blockers like propranolol. It does not affect the actual mental anxiety but takes care of the physical manifestations. Side effects of these drugs include dizziness, cold extremities, insomnia, heart failure, and liver abnormalities.

In addition to these drugs, there are thousands of supplements on the market that can enhance performance. Some of these are banned by professional associations while others are allowed, and others still are being studied.

Diuretics

Diuretics are medications that induce fluid loss from the body through urination. Reducing the water volume in the body can significantly reduce weight, which is why this drug abuse in sports appeals to some athletes. Producing more urine also helps dilute any drug metabolites which may be in the urine, which is why some athletes use it for masking illegal substances in their urine. However, diuretics can predispose to dehydration, dizziness, hypotension, cramps, and even death.

The Battle Against Doping in Sports

Ever since doping in sports has been known to exist, efforts have been made to deter it. However, these efforts did not become mainstream until the last 30 years. During this time, significant measures have been taken to punish the use of performance-enhancing drugs, deter athletes from starting them, and improve testing methods.

On August 26, 1960, doping in sports became an international topic when Knut Jensen died during the Olympic games in Rome. His death was linked to the use of amphetamines.

In 1967, after a high-profile Tour de France doping death, the International Olympic Committee established a commission to fight drugs in sport.

In 1968, the International Olympic Committee began drug testing athletes. This is also the first year an athlete was disqualified for Olympic performance due to doping.

On , Ben Johnson became the first athlete to be stripped of an Olympic medal due to a positive doping test.

On October 5, 1990, the United States Congress passed the Anabolic Steroids Control Act.

On November 10, 1999, the World Anti-Doping Agency was established.

On October 1, 2000, the United States began operating its anti-doping agency called the US Anti-Doping Agency.

In 2004, the World Anti-Doping Agency took over the list of banned substances for the International Olympic Committee.

On August 4, 2011, the National Football League became the first US sports agency to make random blood tests mandatory.

In August of 2011, the first suspensions of Major League Baseball players for using human growth hormone occurred.

On August 23, 2012, Lance Armstrong was stripped of all his Tour de France titles due to doping.

In January 2013, many players in MLB were found to be doping with the aid of human growth hormone and other substances. Over 12 players were suspended for 50 matches.

In December 2019, Russia received a two-year ban from applicable competitions due to a state-sponsored doping scandal which was uncovered.

On July 2, 2021, Sha'Carri Richardson was suspended for a month during the Olympics for a positive test for marijuana in a sample previously collected.

Drug Test For Athletes

Drug abuse in sports can be tested through urine, blood, saliva, and hair samples. However, blood and urine tests are the most common. The samples can be tested using chromatography, immunologic assay, and mass spectrometry. The exact test used will depend on what types of substances are being checked for and the policies of the league doing the testing.

For example, anabolic steroids and their byproducts are detected in urine samples examined using a combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry; each league determines the allowable testosterone levels, given that it is naturally occurring, and anything above that threshold is deemed to be doping. Likewise, human growth hormone is tested in two steps: a urine test to show current presence and a blood test to prove the use of HGH over time.

Can these tests be cheated? Yes, and many athletes have. But the exact methods for cheating them are constantly evolving as the testing process changes. As a result, there is no perfect guide to passing a doping test while still using performance-enhancing drugs in sport.

Drugs In Sport and Addiction

Drug abuse in athletes lays the foundation for the development of addiction, which can happen. For anabolic steroids, this is referred to as steroid use disorder. They may also develop an addiction to stimulant medications such as Ritalin, amphetamines, and illicit drugs like ecstasy and cocaine. An athlete's sources for PEDs may extend their supply to include other forms of illegal substances.

Addiction may also develop following sports injuries. This has athletes prescribed opioid analgesics. The danger here is that an athlete may not want to wait several weeks, or even months, to get back to their sport. Instead, they may continue using the opioids so they can handle the pain they'd otherwise be facing during games. This is one way that athletes addicted to painkillers come about.

The pressure that comes with being a competitive athlete with a team, fans, and family behind them can be intense, and in many cases, can prompt the abuse of alcohol or drugs in sport. It may reach an extent where the athlete abuses the drug every day to help cope.

Athletes On Drugs: Symptoms and Signs

The signs that will stem from drug abuse in athletes depend on the specific drug the athlete abuses. Stimulants and steroids will not have the same profile of symptoms and signs.
Signs of Drug Abuse Include:

New or increased acne

Increased muscle mass

Deepening of the voice in females

Excessive body hair in females

Depression

Increased appetite

General agitation

Anxiety

General swelling

Additionally, sudden secrecy, strange habits, and missing money are all signals that someone may have a drug problem, whether it involves PEDs or not.

Help For Drug Use In Sports

When athletes on drugs are looking for information on substance abuse treatment, confidentiality tends to be one of their biggest considerations. They would not want any harm to be done to their career prospects.

Athletes on drugs are likely to need a facility that provides amenities that allow them to remain active, such as a gym or a swimming pool. Their dietary needs are also important.

The best form of rehab for such patients is likely to be a luxury center as their requirements can be catered for best in such a center. However, it is possible that some regular centers provide the amenities desired.

How to Prevent the Use of Performance Enhancing Drugs

Current anti-doping measures rely primarily upon the punishment of athletes who use performance-enhancing drugs. The effectiveness of this is hotly debated, given that many athletes still use these drugs despite the potential consequences. It makes it clear that there is more to be done.

In younger athletes, disapproval from those closest to them helps deter their use of drugs in sport more than any other barrier. A focus on education and helping these athletes see their potential without drugs in sports is vital to keeping them clean. It is also essential to establish a moral framework that helps the athlete see that doping isn't the right choice, even if others are doing it.

Because preventing performance-enhancing drug use is so difficult, there is now a movement within athletics to simply allow doping. However, this is problematic because it does not acknowledge the impact such a decision will have on the health of the athletes who engage in doping. For now, it would seem that the best approach is to discourage use and be there to help those who fall into the trap of using performance-enhancing drugs in sports.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Many Professional Athletes Use Steroids?

Though there is a notion that a relatively large percentage of athletes use anabolic steroids, studies have shown it to be rare, and under 6% of professional athletes. However, information from an Iranian study showed an interesting difference with a value of 36.2% among athletes. It shows that there may be significant geographical variance.

Is Testosterone a Performance-Enhancing Drug?

Testosterone is a performance-enhancing drug. It is an anabolic steroid, and in fact, most anabolic steroids misused by athletes are synthetic variants of testosterone. Some athletes choose to use pure testosterone.

Most private insurances accepted

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Page Sources

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2. Reardon, C. L., & Creado, S. (2014). Drug abuse in athletes. Substance abuse and rehabilitation, 5, 95-105. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4140700/

3. Castaldelli-Maia, J. M., Gallinaro, J., Falcão, R. S., Gouttebarge, V., Hitchcock, M. E., Hainline, B., Reardon, C. L., & Stull, T. (2019). Mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes: a systematic review on cultural influencers and barriers to athletes seeking treatment. British journal of sports medicine, 53(11), 707-721. https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/53/11/707

4. World Anti-Doping Agency, 2019 Anti-Doping Testing Figures, https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2019_anti-doping_testing_figures_en.pdf

5. Kumar R., Competing against doping, British Journal of Sports Medicine, 2010;44:i8. https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/44/Suppl_1/i8.3

6. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Are anabolic steroids addictive, 2018, https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/steroids-other-appearance-performance-enhancing-drugs-apeds/are-anabolic-steroids-addictive

7. Brisola-Santos, M. B., Gallinaro, J. G., Gil, F., Sampaio-Junior, B., Marin, M. C., de Andrade, A. G., Richter, K. P., Glick, I. D., Baltieri, D. A., & Castaldelli-Maia, J. M. (2016). Prevalence and correlates of cannabis use among athletes-A systematic review. The American journal on addictions, 25(7), 518-528. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27629700/

8. Strano Rossi, S., & Botrè, F. (2011). Prevalence of illicit drug use among the Italian athlete population with special attention on drugs of abuse: a 10-year review. Journal of sports sciences, 29(5), 471-476. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21279865/

9. Ekhtiari, S., Yusuf, I., AlMakadma, Y., MacDonald, A., Leroux, T., & Khan, M. (2020). Opioid Use in Athletes: A Systematic Review. Sports health, 12(6), 534-539. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1941738120933542

10. Berning, J. M., Adams, K. J., & Stamford, B. A. (2004). Anabolic steroid usage in athletics: facts, fiction, and public relations. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 18(4), 908-917. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15574100/

11. Selk-Ghaffari, M., Shab-Bidar, S., & Halabchi, F. (2021). The Prevalence of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Misuse in Iranian Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iranian journal of public health, 50(6), 1120-1134. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8410978/

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Drugs in Sport: Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Addiction

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Athletics are inherently competitive. If an athlete is not competing with someone else, they are competing with who they were yesterday, striving to do better, to be better. And the pressure to improve is not merely internal; from coaches to parents to fans, it seems that everyone around athletes pushes them to do more and be more.

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Some sports have taken steps to reduce the likelihood of fights breaking out between player mid game such as football in the NFL and Soccer. Other sports however rely on violence to attract viewers especially combat sports such as MMA and Boxing. Some sports give players spaces to take out aggression such as in the NHL where players are allowed to fight until someone gives up or the fight falls to the ice. 

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Some sports have taken steps to reduce the likelihood of fights breaking out between player mid game such as football in the NFL and Soccer. Other sports however rely on violence to attract viewers especially combat sports such as MMA and Boxing. Some sports give players spaces to take out aggression such as in the NHL where players are allowed to fight until someone gives up or the fight falls to the ice. 

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The Strange Role of Violence in American Sports

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https://bleacherreport.com/articles/367924-violence-and-aggression-in-sports-an-in-depth-look-part-one

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I know this is a risky venture, since most readers are used to short, concise sports reporting or opinion, but I am going to give it a shot anyway.

This is a piece I wrote about some causes for violent and aggressive behavior in and at sporting events.

I am presenting it here in three parts and I hope you all find the time to gain some knowledge on this subject.

It has been said of sport, "It does not create the conditions for war, but it does maintain the possibility of those conditions, and adds its own efficiency to the other forces which produce a social order in which trails of strength are seen as part of the natural course of things" (Holt, 2000, p. 88). George Orwell (1950) once made the observation, "Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence; in other words it is war minus the shooting." Competitive sports such as football, basketball, and baseball may involve aggressive tactics, but actual violence is considered to fall outside the boundaries of good sportsmanship. Contact sports, such as American football, ice hockey, rugby football, boxing, mixed martial arts, wrestling, and water polo involve certain levels of physical violence, but include restrictions and penalties for excessive and dangerous use of force. The overt physical actions that take place in sports can be described as both aggression and violence (Kerr, 2002, p. 68). These actions take place for many reasons, and can become dangerous to those participating in the sport, as well as spectators of the competition. These aspects of physical interaction between players/fans has been subdivided into two separate types of action (Brink, 1995). In describing the rugby union, Brink (1995) does a good job of highlighting the difference between the two types of aggression and violence:

Because the game is so relentless by its very nature, the borders between the permissible and the inadmissible are not always very clear-cut. Both are inherently violent. But surely the distinction between hard play and foul play lies in the resort of the latter to violence of an underhanded, malicious, treacherous kind. It is a condition of foul play that is not supposed to come to light, to be exposed, because it is not directed to the enfolding of the game but to the private goals of rage or revenge, to 'get at' a specific opponent, to 'prove' oneself. It foregrounds the individual, not the team. (p. 29)

In Brink's quote, the terms 'permissible ' and 'hard play' refer to acts of violence within the laws of rugby union. Conversely, 'inadmissible' and 'foul play' refer to acts of violence outside the laws of the game. (Kerr, 2002, p. 70) While trying to define aggression, behavior with intent to injure has been given great emphasis by some: (Tenenbaum, Sacks, Miller, Golden, & Doolin, 2000, p. 317)

Aggression is defined as the infliction of an adverse stimulus, physical, verbal, or gestural, upon one person by another. Aggression is not an attitude, but behavior and, most critically, it is committed with the intent to injure (LeUnes & Nation,1989). (Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997, p. 1)

Physically aggressive acts, like blocking in American football, regular tackles in rugby, and body checks in ice hockey, can be ferociously violent actions yet be both within the rules of the games and not intended to injure. In addition, this critical element of intent to injure is controversial and not as all encompassing as Tenenbaum et al. (2000; and some others e.g., LeUnes & Nation, 1989) claim (Kerr, 2002, p. 70).

Violent and aggressive action outside the rules and regulations of game play, and the punishment regulated for such acts, is clearly apparent in the outcome of Marty McSorley's slash to Donald Brashear. The then Boston Bruin slashed then Vancouver Canuck Donald Brashear with a heavy blow from his stick on the side of his face. Brashear fell to the ice and the back of his head struck the ice, causing a grade three concussion and a grand malls seizure. Brashear was not near the puck at the time McSorley's unsanctioned violent act took place. In addition to receiving a one-year ban from playing, McSorley was prosecuted in a British Colombia court and found guilty of "assaulting Donald Brashear with a weapon, a hockey stick." The guilt verdict was based on the judge's decision that "Brashear was struck as intended" (p. 70). deciding 'intent' is an clear process, it is the subjective meaning of the particular behavior to the individual concerned that is important and, therefore, the only person who really knows whether or not there was any intent to injure is the person who carried out the action (Russell, 1993; Smith, 1983). Based on an interview with McSorley, Kennedy (2000) pointed out that McSorley was aiming his blow at Brashear's shoulder to provoke a fight and that he never meant to hit Brashear in the head. "'Yes I meant to slash him,' says McSorley, 'did I mean to hurt him with my stick? No.'" (Kennedy, 2000, p. 60). Video evidence confirms that his blow first struck Brashear on the shoulder before making contact with his face. Thus, although this was an act of unsanctioned aggression, if what McSorley said is true, it was not undertaken with the intent to injure. This aspect of violence and aggression creates an atmosphere of 'I didn't mean it' actions possibly being passed over as accidental, which could be extremely dangerous and unfair to the victim of the violent/aggressive act.

In attempting to produce a satisfactory definition of aggression and violence in sport, it is necessary to take into account the special status that sanctioned aggression and violence hold in sport, which distinguishes them from aggression and violence in most other contexts (Kerr, 2002, p. 71). Another definition of aggression and violence in sports as regards to the agreement for competition is:

In general, aggression can be seen as unprovoked hostility or attacks on another person which are not sanctioned by society. However, in the sports context, the aggression is provoked in the sense that the two opposing teams have willingly agreed to compete against each other. Aggression in team contact sports is intrinsic and sanctioned, provided the plays remain permissible within the boundaries of certain rules, which act as a kind of contract in the pursuit of aggression (and violence) between consenting adults (Kerr, 1997, p. 115-116).

Kerr (2002, p. 72) goes on to argue that, "controversial as it may sound", it should be reemphasized that sanctioned violence and aggression are a necessary part of team contact sports, and those who take part know that there are risks of physical injury and sometimes even death. This is similar to participation in other types of risk sport (e.g., skiing, snowboarding, motorcycle racing; Chirivella & Martinez, 1994; Cogan & Brown, 1998; Kerr, 1991; Zuckerman, 1983) where athletes also participate in spite of the high level of risk involved (Kerr, 2002, p. 72). Perceptive sports psychologists will recognize that sanctioned aggression and violence are a primary source of players' excitement, pleasure, and satisfaction and thus a major factor in their motivation for participation (Kerr, 1997; Novak, 1976; Russell, 1993). This argument was not made to exonerate unsanctioned aggression and violence but to understand the real nature of these sports (Kerr, 2002, p. 72).

Another argument on the cause of violence and aggression in sports is that socialization (i.e.; a learned response) is to blame (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005). Socialization can take place through participation in sports since sports provide a microcosm for living and society. The structure of social relations in sports influences the participants' development of social skills. Researchers have striven to answer whether sports provides a positive outlet for, or teaches and reinforces, aggression (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005). Human beings cannot live a fulfilling life in isolation, and can have more effective and healthy lives through association with others. This means that human beings must somehow learn how to live together. Socialization can take place through participation in sports since sports provide learning environments where participants have the opportunity to learn competition, cooperation, role-playing and discipline regarding rules, regulations, and goals (Bloom & Smith, 1996). In this sense, sports can be seen as a laboratory of human experience. The structure of social relations in organized sports can give participants experience in various roles and group interaction, and contribute to the development of social characteristics that integrate them into existing larger social structures (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005).

Unfortunately, a "win-at-all-costs" philosophy has often led to unethical and aggressive behaviors, impacting negatively and destructively on the development and well being of young athletes and of society at large. Researchers (e.g.; Arms, Russell, & Sandilands, 1979; Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, & Cooper, 1986; Ewing, Gano-Overway, Branta, & Seefeldt, 2002; Guivernau & Duda, 2002; Terry & Jackson, 1985) have striven to answer whether sports provide a positive outlet for an instinctive drive of aggression or whether sport teaches and reinforces aggression through the highly competitive nature of many sport settings (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005).

Proponents of instinct theory such as Freudians argue that aggression is instinctive, and that vigorous physical activities provide cathartic benefits by releasing the pent-up emotions of participants. Sloan (1979, p.23) wrote, "Catharsis or reduction of aggression level will occur either by participating in an aggressive act or vicariously through watching acts of aggression by others. Thus, they [pent-up emotions] must be relieved periodically or erupt, producing catharsis in wither case (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005). Minninger (1948) argued that competitive games provide a medium through which aggressive tendencies are discharged. Johnson and Hutton (1955) used the House-Tree-Person test to determine the cathartic effects of a combative sport by testing eight college wrestlers approximately three weeks before season, and again the morning after the competition. The findings revealed a cathartic effect as a result of competition (Nucci & Young-Shim, 2005).

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Violence and Aggression in Sports: An In-Depth Look (Part One)

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I know this is a risky venture, since most readers are used to short, concise sports reporting or opinion, but I am going to give it a shot anyway. This is a piece I wrote about some causes for violent and aggressive behavior in and at sporting events...

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Lance Armstrong was once an icon. In 1993, he became the professional world champion of the Union Cycliste Internationale Road World Championship. In 1996, at the age of 25, he was diagnosed with advanced testicular cancer. He was free of cancer by 1997 and, in that same year, founded the nonprofit organization the Lance Armstrong Foundation (now the Livestrong Foundation) to support cancer patients and others affected by cancer. This organization went on to raise nearly $400 million through the sale of yellow Livestrong bracelets and other fundraising efforts.

Between 1999 and 2005, Armstrong achieved an unprecedented seven consecutive wins of the Tour de France. But shadowing this success were allegations that he had used banned performance-enhancing drugs. After an investigation by the United States Anti-Doping Agency in 2012, evidence of Armstrong's doping activities was verified. He was banned from Olympic sports for life and stripped of his seven Tour de France titles.

In a 2013 televised interview with Oprah Winfrey, Armstrong admitted, for the first time, to using banned performance-enhancing drugs for years. Armstrong noted that he did so to remain competitive because other cyclists were also doping. "The definition of 'cheat' is to gain an advantage on a rival or foe that they don't have," Armstrong told Winfrey, "I didn't view it that way. I viewed it as a level playing field." He was not alone. Doping had become common in many sports during the 1990s. During the seven years that Armstrong won the Tour de France, 20 out of the 21 top three finishers were also found to have doped at some point in their careers.

Armstrong also encouraged his teammates on the U.S. cycling team to use performance-enhancing drugs and match his performance. The investigation into Armstrong's doping revealed how extensive his use of drugs was, how he developed a system to maintain secrecy, and how his teammates were pressured into doping, as well. The report from the antidoping agency's investigation stated, "It was not enough that his teammates give maximum effort on the bike, he also required that they adhere to the doping program outlined for them or be replaced. He was not just a part of the doping culture on his team, he enforced and re-enforced it." The agency also reported, "[Armstrong] acted with the help of a small army of enablers, including doping doctors, drug smugglers, and others within and outside the sport and on his team." Teammate Christian Vande Velde described a confrontation with Armstrong, in which Armstrong threatened Vande Velde's position on the team if he did not follow the drug program. Vande Velde stated that team doctor Luis Garcia del Moral "would run into the room and you would quickly find a needle in your arm," referring to the injection as "vitamins."

In the wake of Armstrong's admission to doping, all sponsors cut ties with him. Armstrong estimated that he lost $75 million in a single day from his loss of sponsorship. The Livestrong Foundation also asked him to resign from its board. In a 2015 interview, when asked about his use of banned performance-enhancing drugs, Armstrong stated, "If I was racing in 2015, no I wouldn't do it again because I don't think you have to do it again. If you take me back to 1995, when it was completely and totally pervasive, I would probably do it again. People don't like to hear that."

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Armstrong's Doping Downfall - Ethics Unwrapped

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Cyclist Lance Armstrong thought his use of performance-enhancing drugs was a way to level the playing field in a sport with pervasive doping.

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Women in sport earn 15 per cent less than their male counterparts, Sport NZ research has found. 

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Women in sport earn 15 per cent less than their male counterparts, Sport NZ research has found. 

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Sport bodies "need to do better" following the release of research showing a 15 per cent gender pay gap, a lack of women in leadership positions, lack of trust in sporting organisations and an under-representation of Asian and Pasifika communities.

More than 150 sports bodies - including national and regional sports organisation, regional sports trusts, disability sports organisations, and Sport New Zealand (SNZ) - participated in research exploring inclusion and diversity.

The research - the first of its kind into gender pay in New Zealand sport - found women in paid employment earn 15 per cent less than their male counterparts. That is worse than the national average of 9.1 per cent.

The pay gap between Māori and Pākehā is 9 per cent in favour of Pākehā.

Sport New Zealand chief executive Raelene Castle said that while the pay gap is not ideal, it's a starting "baseline" to start conversations about equity.

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"Much of what the survey tells us doesn't come as a surprise, but it gives us line of sight into the current state of the sector. As a collective we can advance discussions around under-representation and jointly develop strategies to improve," she said.

"Promoting the importance of diversity and inclusion is a strategic priority for Sport NZ. We will continue to support the sector to ensure we address equity issues and champion the benefits of diversity across our collective workforces and in leadership."

Women make up 55 per cent of the sporting workforce, but men dominate leadership positions. The research shows there is a lack of women in chief executive, high performance director, high performance coaching and sport development manager roles.

The gender pay gap between male and female chief executives is nearly 50 per cent.

For Māori in leadership positions, the pay gap with Pākehā is 17 per cent.

Sixty-six per cent of the 1679 workers who responded - about 40 per cent of the paid sporting workforce said poor salary or remuneration is a barrier to progression in the sector.

At Sport New Zealand, the pay gap will now be monitored every three months, Castle said.

Among the other findings, 57 per cent either didn't trust or had limited trust in their sports organisation to handle integrity issues appropriately, that trust diminished further with Māori and Cook Island Māori respondents.

Fifteen percent of the workers said they had experienced harassment, bullying or discrimination in the last 12 months.

Several sports have faced high profile integrity problems in the last 12 months, including gymnastics, bowls, canoe racing, hockey and now cycling. A review is under way into cycling following the death of Olympic cyclist Olivia Podmore.

Disability sport providers are among the most trusted, with Sport New Zealand the least trusted.

Eighty per cent of the sector is Pākehā, 14 per cent Māori, and Pasifika, Chinese and Indian communities 6 per cent. Just 4 percent of the workforce speak te reo Māori, and less than 1 per cent can communicate in New Zealand Sign Language.

Castle said efforts are starting to ensure the sector is more ethnically diverse, particularly with the growth of the New Zealand Asian population.

She said the research has started a "really positive conversation", but there is more work to be done.

"There's an openness from the sporting sector, to look at the numbers and recognise that they need to do better... and they're absolutely looking for ways to make sure the numbers improve," she said.

The numbers:

- 6% are Pasifika, Chinese or Indian

- 9% pay gap between Māori and Pākehā

- 9% identify as LGBTQI+

- 10% are paid for governance roles

- 14% are Māori

- 15% gender pay gap

- 15% have experienced discrimination, harassment or bullying in the last 12 months

- 17% pay gap between Māori and Pākehā in senior leadership positions

- 55% of the workforce identify as female

- 57% have limited trust in their sports organisations to handle integrity issues appropriately

- 80% of the sector is Pākehā

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Sports 'need to do better' as research shows gender and ethnic pay gaps

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Females make up 55 per cent of the sporting workforce, but the pay gap is 15 per cent in favour of males.

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Define the issue, in the 1st post. Then research you tube clips and NZ articles and put as many links as you can int. Keep each one as a separate link and put a quick summary about it! 

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Define the issue, in the 1st post. Then research you tube clips and NZ articles and put as many links as you can int. Keep each one as a separate link and put a quick summary about it! 