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Executive summary

Science helps us to answer our biggest questions and to meet our most basic needs: from explaining the deepest mysteries of the universe to the structure of elementary particles that form atoms. The findings of science have fundamentally shaped every aspect of our world. Science drives innovation, creating new knowledge to help us solve current and future problems. All young people are entitled to a high-quality science education, to the curiosity it engenders and the understanding and the opportunity it brings.

The report evaluates the common strengths and weaknesses of science in the schools inspected and considers the challenges that science faces. This evidence was gathered by His Majesty's Inspectors as part of routine inspections. The report builds on the 2021 Ofsted science research review. The report is split into findings in primary schools and those in secondary schools, and includes evidence from Reception classes and sixth forms. Within each of these sections, we talk about:

aspects of the curriculum

pedagogy

assessment

the way schools are organised

the impact of this on what pupils learn

Overall, this report identifies some significant strengths in school science education and recommends ways that school and subject leaders can ensure that all pupils leave school with an authentic understanding of science, as both a tradition of enquiry and a set of connected but distinct ideas that explain the world we live in.

It is important to note that we evaluate schools against the criteria in the school inspection handbooks. Findings from this report will not be used as a 'tick list' by inspectors when they are inspecting schools: we know that there are many different ways that schools can put together and teach a high-quality science curriculum.

Context

Science is a core subject of the national curriculum. It is an important part of what all pupils in England's schools should learn, whether they go to academies, free schools or maintained schools. Science subjects are a popular choice at A level, although female students are more likely to take A-level biology and male students are more likely to take A-level physics.

Schools in England perform well above global averages in international comparison tests in science. Data from the 2019 'Trends in international mathematics and science study' ( TIMSS) shows that Year 5 pupils' performance was relatively good, and broadly similar to that of pupils in 2015. In 2019, 83% of Year 6 pupils reached the expected standard in science. However, we are concerned that the status of science in some primary schools has remained at a lower level since national tests in science were removed in 2009, and that this has affected key stage 3 performance. This is because the removal of national tests coincided with a relative decline in the performance in science of 10-year-old pupils in England. In TIMSS 2019, England recorded its lowest Year 9 science score. The proportion of Year 9 pupils performing below the lowest TIMSS science measure has doubled since 2015.

Our own research shows that science has been particularly affected by COVID-19. This is especially because restrictions deprived many pupils of the opportunity to take part in and learn from practical activities. Further, COVID-19 had a negative impact on the opportunities for many trainee teachers to teach a full science curriculum. Recruitment of enough specialist science teachers in secondary schools remains a challenge.

Because of the ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic affected schools, some of the evidence that we gathered for this report may not represent what happens normally. However, we hope that we have reduced this risk by focusing on the curriculum and the way it has been put into practice over time.

Key terms used in this report

Knowledge in science

Throughout this report, we use the same terminology to describe scientific knowledge as we did in our science research review. These are not terms that Ofsted necessarily expects pupils or teachers to use during inspections. Rather, we use them here to recognise these 2 important aspects of science in which pupils need to build their understanding throughout their time at school.

Substantive knowledge: refers to the established knowledge produced by science, for example, the parts of a flower or the names of planets in our solar system. This is referred to as 'scientific knowledge' and 'conceptual understanding' in the national curriculum.

Disciplinary knowledge: refers to what pupils learn about how to establish and refine scientific knowledge, for example by carrying out practical procedures. By identifying and sequencing this knowledge, it is possible to plan in the curriculum for how pupils will get better at working scientifically throughout their time at school.

Practical work

We are aware that primary and secondary school teachers talk about practical work in science using different terms. For clarity, this report defines practical work as: 'any teaching and learning activity which at some point involves the students in observing or manipulating the objects and materials they are studying'. Practical work in this report can refer to a teacher demonstration or a hands-on practical activity for students.

Main findings

Most pupils, including those with special educational needs and/or disabilities ( SEND), studied a science curriculum that was at least as ambitious as the national curriculum. These curriculums were mainly focused on developing, over time, pupils' knowledge of substantive concepts such as 'habitat', 'force' and 'material'.

Where science was strong, pupils had learned detailed and connected knowledge of the curriculum, and remembered what they had learned previously. In a significant minority of schools, pupils were not developing secure knowledge of science. Often, in these schools, the focus was on covering the content, rather than ensuring it was learned, or completing practical activities.

There were a small minority of primary schools where pupils went for entire half terms without learning science. This is a concern because science is a core subject of the national curriculum, and pupils benefit from regular opportunities to revisit and build on their knowledge so that it is not forgotten.

Some pupils came out of lockdown with significant gaps in their scientific knowledge, and COVID-19 prevented primary and secondary colleagues from working together to support pupils' transition.

Leaders' plans to develop pupils' disciplinary knowledge were usually much less developed than their plans to develop pupils' substantive knowledge. In general, not enough consideration was given to identifying the disciplinary knowledge, including concepts, that are needed to work scientifically. This limited how effectively leaders could plan a curriculum for pupils to get better at working scientifically over time. Too often, the focus was simply on identifying practical activities for pupils to complete.

There were large differences in the amount of practical work taking place in schools. For example, pupils in primary school were much more likely to take part in hands-on practical activities than pupils in secondary school. In all schools that we visited, teachers rarely used demonstrations.

Across primary and secondary schools, some pupils did not have sufficient opportunities to practise and consolidate what they learned before moving on to new content. This meant they did not remember key content taught previously. In some schools, there was an over-reliance on pupils catching up when the content was repeated later in the curriculum, rather than ensuring it was learned first time. Often this happened when teachers were expected to teach too much content in a short time. This was more common in secondary schools.

Overall, most leaders saw their school science curriculum as a description of what pupils needed to know and do. They had planned the curriculum carefully so that pupils studied content in a logical order. However, leaders generally did not see the curriculum as something that could make learning science easier. For example, very few leaders had planned their science curriculum to take account of what pupils learned in mathematics, and rarely did science curriculums help pupils to avoid misconceptions.

In some schools, leaders planned the science curriculum to build on what pupils had learned in the previous phase of education. However, in some secondary schools it was incorrectly assumed that pupils learned little science in primary school. This led to some content being unnecessarily repeated in Year 7 and beyond.

Children were generally introduced to a range of interesting phenomena in Reception. However, in some primary schools, the knowledge of the natural world that children were expected to learn in Reception was not clear enough. Often this was when curriculums simply identified general topic areas or activities for children to complete. This limited how effectively children were prepared for learning science in Year 1.

Teachers generally had secure subject knowledge. Clear explanations from teachers, alongside carefully selected teaching activities, supported the learning of specific content and played a key role in helping pupils to learn science. Teachers who had strong subject knowledge were able to bring into the lesson wider knowledge from across the science curriculum. This helped pupils to make connections between scientific concepts.

However, teachers rarely drew on evidence-based, subject-specific approaches when teaching science. Very few schools had a clear plan of how teachers' knowledge of science, and how to teach it, was developed over time through continuing professional development ( CPD).

During the pandemic, many teachers were not able to take part in subject-specific CPD. However, not all schools have returned to their previous commitment of ensuring that CPD is closely aligned to the curriculum. When teachers had recently attended CPD courses, these were primarily around developing their knowledge of physics (if they were non-specialists in this discipline) or practical work.

In most schools, subject leaders played a crucial role in developing school science curriculums and supporting teachers to teach them. However, not all subject leaders had access to dedicated leadership time and subject leadership training. This is a concern, given their central role in ensuring good-quality teaching in their subject.

During the period when we were gathering evidence, schools were facing many challenges because of COVID-19. Despite these challenges, many subject leaders were improving and developing their school's science curriculum. Sometimes, this was because leaders wanted to address gaps in pupils' knowledge that were caused by science being taught remotely during the pandemic.

In some schools, assessment as learning was sometimes taking place at the expense of assessment for learning. Some pupils were asked to recall knowledge that they had not successfully learned first time around.

Generally, assessment in science did not check whether pupils had remembered what they had learned in previous years. This was a particular concern in some primary schools, where generalised judgements at the end of a piece of learning were being made against age-related expectations, but what these grades represented in relation to the curriculum was not clear.

In some schools, there was not enough focus on checking whether pupils had learned the disciplinary knowledge that is needed to work scientifically. These schools only focused on checking that pupils had learned substantive knowledge. This was more common in primary schools.

Discussion of the main findings

Where science was strong in the primary and secondary schools that we visited, pupils had learned detailed and connected knowledge of the curriculum, and remembered what they had learned previously. In these schools, leaders and teachers were clear about the purpose of any teaching activity or specific content choice. They explained scientific ideas clearly and used assessment carefully to check what pupils had learned. This included disciplinary knowledge (knowledge of how to work scientifically) as well as substantive knowledge (established factual knowledge).

In schools where science was strong, leaders generally saw the purpose of a curriculum as more than just a description of what pupils needed to know and do. They saw the curriculum as a 'path' that can make learning science easier. For example, leaders planned the science curriculum to take account of what pupils learned in mathematics, or made sure that pupils had enough time to learn the most important content in a way that they could remember it. In the best cases, leaders saw this path as provisional, so that the curriculum could be refined and developed in ways that would improve it, year on year.

In a significant minority of schools visited, pupils were not developing secure knowledge of science. Often, in these schools, the focus was on covering content or completing practical activities. In both cases, the curriculum goal, that is what pupils needed to learn and remember, got lost. This led to pupils studying science, often for long periods of time, without developing sufficient substantive and disciplinary knowledge. Teaching was not planned to ensure that what pupils learned next was related to what they already knew, so that they could build connected knowledge. In these schools, we also found that teachers' assessment rarely checked knowledge that pupils had learned in previous years.

We found that primary and secondary schools had different priorities in science. In primary schools, for example, there was much more emphasis on pupils carrying out different types of scientific enquiry and encountering scientific phenomena and the objects they were learning about. In contrast, the focus in most secondary schools was on developing pupils' substantive knowledge. There is also evidence from the schools we visited that many pupils in secondary school spend too much time studying content that they have already learned in primary school.

Although there was a greater emphasis on practical work in primary schools, across both primary and secondary, plans to develop pupils' substantive knowledge were much more developed than the plans to develop pupils' disciplinary knowledge. Often, this was because leaders had not sufficiently considered the kind of knowledge that pupils need in order to be able to work scientifically or carry out practical work generally. Too often in primary and KS3 the focus was on simply selecting practical activities for pupils to complete. The apparent differences in practices between primary and secondary science may cause challenges for pupils moving from primary to secondary school.

Inspectors regularly found considerable differences in how well teachers taught the curriculum. Very few teachers used approaches that were based on evidence or that were specific to science. Other than for physics or practical work where leaders had identified a training need, few schools had developed a systematic plan of how to develop teachers' knowledge of science and how to teach it.

Overall, the evidence gathered as part of this report identifies some significant strengths in relation to science education in England's schools. This is particularly encouraging considering the significant impact that the pandemic has had, and continues to have, on pupils, teachers and leaders and the wider science education community. However, there is still more to do to make sure that curriculum, pedagogy, assessment and school systems all work together to create the most favourable, or 'optimum', conditions for learning science. Although many pupils leave school with a secure knowledge of science and working scientifically, there are still too many pupils who do not.

Recommendations

Curriculum

Schools should:

* Ensure that the curriculum is specific about the knowledge that children in Reception should learn about understanding the world. This knowledge should connect with what pupils go on to learn in Year 1 science.

* Plan the secondary science curriculum to build on what pupils learned in primary school, and not simply repeat it or assume that pupils learned little.

* Ensure that enough time is built into the curriculum for pupils to learn and remember key knowledge. It is important that pupils are helped to see how this knowledge connects with what they already know about science, so that they build connected knowledge.

* Ensure that the curriculum identifies and sequences the disciplinary knowledge that pupils need to work scientifically. This should not be limited to learning about scientific techniques, data analysis or fair tests. It should include developing their knowledge of all areas of working scientifically, including different types of scientific enquiry, such as pattern seeking, and concepts such as evidence and accuracy.

* Ensure that all pupils have enough opportunities to take part in high-quality practical work that has a clear purpose in relation to the curriculum. At secondary school, this should include laboratory work, fieldwork and teacher demonstrations.

* Ensure that the science curriculum is planned to take account of what pupils learn, particularly in mathematics.

Pedagogy and assessment

Schools should:

* Ensure that, during explanations, teachers regularly connect new learning to what pupils have already learned. This includes showing pupils how knowledge from different areas of the curriculum connects.

* Ensure that pupils have a secure knowledge of what has been taught, before moving on to more content. This should include checking whether pupils have specific misconceptions

* Ensure that appropriate teaching and learning approaches are selected for specific content.

* Ensure that assessment checks whether pupils remember the substantive and disciplinary knowledge they have learned in previous years. This includes checking that they can use their substantive and disciplinary knowledge to select, plan and carry out different types of relevant scientific enquiry.

Systems at subject and school level

Schools should:

* Create a systematic and continuous approach to developing the science expertise of staff and leaders. This should align with the school's curriculum and take account of any specific needs and expertise.

* Support subject leaders to prioritise curriculum time for teaching key scientific knowledge. In some schools, the focus is on making sure that pupils learn and remember what has been taught, so that they develop increasingly sophisticated and connected scientific knowledge. However, too many subject leaders and teachers feel pressured to cover content and move on.

Other organisations

Subject associations and Ofsted should:

* Monitor the frequency and quality of practical work in schools, to make sure that all pupils have enough opportunities to take part in high-quality practical work.

Initial teacher education providers should:

* Support trainee teachers to develop their knowledge of what science is, the methods it uses and how to teach this.

Primary

Curriculum intent: identifying what pupils need to know and do
Summary of the research review relevant to curriculum
Expertise in science requires pupils to build, over time, their knowledge of key substantive concepts such as 'force', 'material' and 'habitat'. This is referred to as 'scientific knowledge' and 'conceptual understanding' in the national curriculum. Pupils also need to develop their knowledge of science as a tradition of enquiry. This understanding is broadly referred to as 'working scientifically' in the national curriculum.

In the research review, we refer to this curriculum content as 'disciplinary knowledge', to stress that pupils must build knowledge of these ways of working. The best curriculums, however, do not treat substantive and disciplinary knowledge as separate. They embed disciplinary knowledge within the most appropriate substantive content. For example, a curriculum might plan for pupils to know the structure of flowering plants (substantive knowledge) and learn how biologists classify plants (disciplinary knowledge). By doing so, pupils deepen their knowledge of plants and of classification.

Substantive knowledge - the knowledge produced by science
Summary of the research review relevant to substantive knowledge
A high-quality science curriculum is organised to ensure all pupils learn extensive and connected knowledge of substantive concepts. These concepts are developed over many years, during which pupils learn content that is sequenced in a logical order. Research suggests that pupils should not be expected to learn too much content in a short time. If they are, pupils may experience 'cognitive overload' (having too much information for the working memory to be able to process) and will not have time to practise and use what they have learned, to ensure that it is not forgotten.

Our findings are extrapolated from our sample of primary schools visited.

1. We found that science was taught weekly in most primary schools. However, in a few schools, pupils had less than one science lesson every week. Occasionally, pupils went for entire half terms without learning science. This is a concern because science is a core subject of the national curriculum, and pupils benefit from regular opportunities to revisit and build on their knowledge so that it is not forgotten.

2. In most schools visited, the primary science curriculum matched the scope of the national curriculum and the early years foundation stage framework. Generally, content was organised into topics such as 'plants' or 'everyday materials. However, where curriculum thinking was strong, leaders ensured that pupils were developing, over time, their knowledge of substantive concepts such as 'habitat' or 'force'.

3. Leaders in approximately one quarter of schools had significantly developed their curriculum in recent years. Often, leaders had drawn on the support and curriculum planning of organisations such as the Association for Science Education. This additional support gave subject leaders a strong starting point from which they could develop and refine their own science curriculum.

4. In most primary schools, leaders had considered how the curriculum in Reception supported pupils to learn science in Year 1. Often this involved leaders from different parts of a school all working together to make sure that Year 1 and Reception curriculums 'dovetailed'. This required leaders to have a clear understanding of the key vocabulary and concepts that they wanted children to learn, and the scientific phenomena that they wanted children to encounter and learn about.

5. However, in some schools visited, the precise knowledge that children were expected to learn in Reception was not clear enough. Often this was when leaders focused on activities or general topic areas such as 'changing seasons' or 'floating and sinking', without identifying what they wanted pupils to learn and why. Occasionally, leaders only referred to high-level descriptors from the early years foundation stage statutory framework when discussing the curriculum. This was a problem because they had not ensured that what pupils learned in Year 1 built on what they had learned in Reception.

6. Sometimes, leaders used commercial curriculum plans that began in Year 1. They used a different curriculum resource for Reception. However, they did not ensure that these 2 curriculums were coherent, and that the Year 1 science curriculum built on what children had learned in Reception.

7. In Years 1 to 6, pupils generally learned knowledge from all 3 sciences in each year. Most curriculums were planned to build pupils' knowledge of scientific concepts, such as 'force' and 'material'. For example, in one school, leaders took the concept of 'reflection', and revisited this at many stages of the curriculum, in different topics and in more depth, such as when the pupils were learning about the dangers of sunlight and again when they were looking at the phases of the moon.

8. Occasionally, leaders' curriculum thinking primarily focused on broader aims, for example 'making science relevant and fun', without having considered what concepts pupils should learn and why.

9. Where curriculum thinking was strong, leaders identified clearly what they wanted pupils to know and do, and then selected the best activity to teach it. Importantly, this did not simply involve selecting high-level statements from the national curriculum, but also identifying what pupils needed to know and do to reach these high-level goals.

10. Occasionally, inspectors found that the science curriculum was over-focused on aspects of literacy, such as punctuation and paragraphs, at the expense of learning scientific content.

11. In a few schools, pupils were being expected to learn content that was too technical. This was because they had not secured prerequisite knowledge first. For example, Year 6 pupils in one school were learning about genetics without having learned relevant prior knowledge. This was not surprising, given that in the national curriculum genetics is not introduced until the secondary phase.

12. Inspectors found that sometimes there was insufficient time in the curriculum for pupils to secure key knowledge before moving on to new content. This resulted in pupils 'covering content', but not remembering the key knowledge. This happened for a number of reasons:

leaders did not allocate sufficient time to teach science

pupils were expected to learn about too many different concepts in a short time

subject leaders did not allocate enough curriculum time to teach a concept; for example, in one school, pupils had very little time to develop their knowledge of the rock cycle before moving on to carrying out a scientific enquiry

pupils spent too much of the time available collecting data during practical work

13. In some schools, leaders had explicitly designed the curriculum to take account of what pupils had learned in other subject areas. For example, pupils learned about the water cycle in geography after they had learned about states of matter and state changes in science. In this way, pupils could use their scientific knowledge of evaporation and condensation to better understand the water cycle in geography. This provided opportunities for pupils to consolidate their knowledge.

14. In a few schools, the science curriculum formed just one part of an interdisciplinary topic approach. Where this worked well, leaders prioritised pupils' development of science. In other words, the topic theme did not get in the way of the logical progression of scientific knowledge in the curriculum. However, at times, some curriculums were too focused on concerns such as careers or developing teamwork, at the expense of developing pupils' scientific knowledge.

15. In some schools, leaders considered the phenomena that pupils were learning about when sequencing knowledge. For example, they identified that the best time to learn about seed dispersal was when seeds were dispersed in the environment.

Disciplinary knowledge - the knowledge underpinning pupils' understanding of working scientifically
Summary of the research review relevant to disciplinary knowledge
A high-quality science curriculum plans for pupils' knowledge of working scientifically to develop over time. This involves identifying the underpinning disciplinary knowledge that pupils need to know. This knowledge can then be taught and revisited at the same time as the most relevant substantive knowledge is taught. Pupils should not be expected to learn this disciplinary knowledge simply as a by-product of taking part in practical activities.

A high-quality curriculum includes disciplinary knowledge that involves knowledge of concepts, such as measurement, as well as knowing how to perform various procedures. For example, pupils need to be able to draw line graphs and understand the concept of cause and effect.

In the research review, we considered disciplinary knowledge in relation to at least 4 content areas that pupils learn more about as they move from year to year:

1. knowledge of methods that scientists use to answer questions

2. knowledge of apparatus and techniques, including measurement

3. knowledge of data analysis

4. knowledge of how science uses evidence to develop explanations

The curriculum should distinguish carefully between learning about scientific enquiry and prescribing the use of enquiry-based teaching approaches, as a method of learning. Pupils can learn disciplinary knowledge through a variety of approaches including teacher explanation.

16. In most schools visited, leaders valued the importance of teaching pupils to work scientifically and giving pupils opportunities to develop their knowledge of a wide range of natural phenomena However, leaders' plans to develop pupils' knowledge of working scientifically were typically much less developed than their plans to develop pupils' knowledge of substantive scientific concepts such as 'force', 'plant' or 'material'.

17. Where curriculum thinking was stronger, leaders identified the disciplinary knowledge needed to, for example, collect data. These curriculums did not make the mistake of organising the curriculum around practical activities or scientific enquiries. Instead, leaders first considered carefully what disciplinary knowledge they wanted pupils to learn, and then selected the best activity to teach it.

18. Sometimes the specific disciplinary purpose of practical activity choices was less clear. On occasion, disciplinary knowledge to be learned from practical work was identified, but was not part of a planned progression in gaining the specific knowledge needed to work scientifically.

19. In some primary schools, leaders only identified opportunities in the curriculum for pupils to work scientifically by specifying when pupils would grow plants or create simple models of the solar system, for example. They did not identify the specific knowledge that pupils were learning at this time. This made it difficult for teachers to know precisely what to teach and assess and, in some schools, resulted in completion of the activity becoming the goal, rather than development of pupils' scientific knowledge.

20. Leaders typically wanted pupils to learn about scientific enquiry, particularly knowledge of:

observing over time

pattern seeking

identifying, classifying and grouping

comparative and fair testing (controlled investigations)

and researching using secondary sources

Where curriculums were strong, leaders clearly identified the disciplinary knowledge that pupils needed in order to develop their understanding of these practices. For example, in one school, leaders described how pupils' knowledge of fair testing developed over key stage 2 through increasingly sophisticated and detailed knowledge of variables.

21. Overall, in primary schools, inspectors found very few examples of pupils gaining knowledge of pattern seeking or learning about secondary sources.

22. Leaders considered a number of, sometimes competing, curriculum principles when making decisions about sequencing disciplinary knowledge. For example, they considered:

the substantive content that pupils were learning

the most logical order in which to develop pupils' disciplinary knowledge

whether there were repeated opportunities for pupils to deepen and revisit their disciplinary knowledge

23. In some schools, pupils learned about the work of specific scientists. In the best cases, this was closely linked to the content that they were learning at that time. For example, in one school, pupils learned about the work of Mae Jemison when studying space. Leaders were generally keen that pupils learned about a range of scientists. This enabled pupils to develop an accurate and genuine understanding of science, for example knowing that scientific research is not just carried out by men in white coats working in laboratories.

How one school went about developing pupils' disciplinary knowledge of classification

In one school, leaders had considered carefully how pupils' knowledge of classification was developed throughout the curriculum. This involved pupils first learning about how scientists classify animals. Leaders thought that animal classification was easier for pupils to learn. This knowledge was built on when plant classification was introduced, and pupils later learned how to use a classification key to identify different plant species. Pupils developed this knowledge further when they learned about variation within one species, by looking at differences in leaf structure. Finally, pupils used all this knowledge to carry out an assessment task that involved making their own classification key for a specific group of plants.

Planning the curriculum to make learning science easier
Summary of the research review relevant to how the curriculum can address specific barriers to learning science
A high-quality science curriculum focuses on what pupils need to learn in order to get better at science. Curriculum choices also influence how easy or difficult this journey is for pupils. This is because knowledge learned at a point in time influences future learning, and makes it easier or harder. For example, in the research review, we considered the importance of the curriculum building, step by step, on pupils' prior knowledge to reduce the likelihood of them forming misconceptions. We also considered the importance of planning the curriculum so that it takes account of what is taught in other subjects, such as mathematics.

24. In most of the schools visited, subject leaders and teachers were aware that pupils often have misconceptions that can make learning science more difficult. For example, pupils may incorrectly think that electricity flows to light bulbs, rather than through them or that trees are not plants. To address this, leaders generally identified the specific misconceptions and difficulties that pupils were likely to have. Teachers could then address these in lessons.

25. In a minority of schools, misconceptions were not explicitly flagged in curriculum planning. Teachers therefore had to rely on their own subject knowledge to identify these misunderstandings, which could lead to some being missed.

26. Some leaders recognised the importance of pupils having sufficient vocabulary to talk about the phenomena that they were learning about. They said that, without this knowledge, pupils would inevitably develop misconceptions and/or errors. They planned the curriculum carefully so that pupils had sufficient prior knowledge to discuss and explain any observations.

27. In only a small number of schools did leaders try to prevent misconceptions by changing what pupils learned. Most leaders did not consider fully enough ways in which the curriculum can be developed to avoid pupils forming misconceptions, such as thinking that there is no gravity in space.

28. Some leaders said that the most significant barrier to pupils learning science was the large number of words that they needed to know. Typically, leaders tried to address this by identifying the most important words such as 'classification', 'food chain' and 'data'. Leaders selected a few of the most important words and thought carefully about what they wanted pupils in each year group to know about each word, rather than simply identifying a long list of key words for each lesson.

29. Some leaders identified that pupils perform less well in science because of their limited background knowledge.[footnote 10] These pupils can often think that science is not for them. Leaders typically tried to address this by helping pupils to see the relevance of what they were learning, for example by highlighting science in the news, organising educational trips to museums and revealing real-world applications of scientific knowledge. Importantly, these approaches did not change the scientific concepts that pupils learned, but focused on specific approaches to teaching those concepts when they came up in the curriculum.

30. In some schools, leaders refined and adapted their curriculum after teaching it. In this way, the curriculum developed and improved from one year to the next. For example, one leader changed the curriculum so that pupils learned about the differences between a solution and a suspension. This was as a result of seeing pupils struggle to distinguish between these 2 mixtures when carrying out practical work.
Summary of the research review relevant to practical work and the curriculum
High-quality practical work, whether teachers' use of demonstrations or hands-on practical activities, forms a vital part of a science education. This is because it introduces pupils to the methods, objects and phenomena that scientists study. These, in turn, develop pupils' sense of wonder and curiosity about the material world. Practical work also teaches pupils about the often unpredictable and dynamic situations in which scientists work. However, research is clear that practical work is not always effective. Often this is because its purpose has not been established, or because pupils are expected to do and think about too much at once. Effective practical work has a clear purpose in relation to the curriculum. It forms part of a wider sequence of lessons and only takes place when pupils have enough prior knowledge to learn from the activity. When this is not the case, pupils experience too much complexity, which prevents them from learning what was intended.

31. Pupils took part in whole-class practical activities in a much larger proportion of lessons in primary schools than in secondary schools. Typically, whole-class practical activities in primary schools were of 3 types:

To help pupils learn substantive knowledge: For example, pupils used torches and different materials to learn about opacity and transparency. This type of practical activity, aimed at teaching substantive knowledge, was the most common type that inspectors observed

To help pupils learn disciplinary knowledge: For example, pupils explored the relationship between hand length and foot length. The focus of the activity was to develop their disciplinary knowledge of correlation

To help pupils learn substantive and disciplinary knowledge: For example, pupils carried out a scientific enquiry to find out how waterproof different materials were. This involved carefully measuring the quantity of water that passes through a material in a specific length of time, recording their results in a table and drawing conclusions. By carrying out this enquiry, pupils developed their knowledge of materials and control variables in fair tests.

32. In a few cases, the reason that teachers had selected a specific practical activity was not clear. For example, in one school, pupils in Reception were mixing together different materials. This activity was not linked to specific curriculum intent. While children found the activity interesting, it was limited in terms of the science-related vocabulary and concepts that pupils were learning.

33. In a few cases, pupils were taking part in practical activities without having secured the necessary substantive knowledge to explain what they were observing. For example, in one school, pupils observed the bending of light by refraction before they had an understanding of how light travels. Therefore, they could not explain their observations scientifically.

34. Sometimes, practical activities covered too many aspects, and pupils were expected to learn too much disciplinary and substantive knowledge at once. Often, this was because pupils had not remembered or understood previously taught content. For example, in one school, pupils were planning an investigation, but did not have sufficient knowledge of controlling variables to do this well.

35. Generally, pupils were not expected to discover scientific concepts through unguided teaching approaches. However, when this did happen, teachers were asking pupils to carry out practical work without having learned sufficient prior knowledge. For example, in one school, pupils were carrying out a flower dissection without having seen a demonstration of how to do this. This resulted in some pupils simply breaking the flowers apart and not learning what was intended.

36. Teachers often used well-structured enquiry questions to focus a particular activity on a particular aspect of the curriculum. For example, in one school, pupils were asked, 'How does the temperature of water affect the time taken for a substance to dissolve?' This question supported pupils to learn about dissolving by focusing on the outcome of the enquiry. However, sometimes the enquiry question was too complex and not helpful. In these cases, the enquiry question was a barrier to pupils learning the intended concepts.

37. Teachers used stand-alone demonstrations of practical science in very few of the science lessons visited by inspectors. If this finding is typical of non-inspection times, it is a concern, given that practical demonstrations have been shown to play an important role in helping pupils to learn science, involve minimal costs and can save valuable time.

38. In a very small number of schools, teachers and leaders assumed that pupils with SEND always learned best through carrying out hands-on practical activities. Perhaps this was due to the mistaken assumption that pupils have different 'learning styles'. As identified above, practical work can increase complexity and divert pupils' attention from the science to less relevant aspects of the activity. This can make learning key points harder for pupils. These teachers did not sufficiently consider this limitation.

39. In Reception classes, children usually had some choice of activities to develop their understanding of the natural world. For example, in one school, children could play with the water tray or record observations of a range of insects. Where this type of activity worked well:

teachers were clear about the purpose of the activity in relation to the curriculum

children had regular opportunities to talk with adults so that they could hear and use specific vocabulary

teachers recognised that children's choices may not cumulatively add up to the full curriculum. When this happened, adults intervened so that all children learned all areas of the curriculum

Pedagogy: teaching the curriculum
Summary of the research review in relation to teaching
Science often involves pupils learning abstract concepts that might be contrary to what they expect. Teacher effectiveness, underpinned by strong subject knowledge, is therefore particularly important in science. Research highlights the importance of clear teacher explanations that carefully build on what pupils already know. Alongside this, pupils benefit from time to discuss ideas, answer questions and practise using the knowledge.

Teaching models and analogies can be particularly helpful tools in science classrooms. When these models are used alongside clear explanations, they can help pupils to learn connected knowledge. However, all models need to be used with caution because they can lead to misconceptions.

40. Across all schools, teachers typically selected interesting and appropriate activities for teaching science to pupils. Frequently, these activities introduced pupils to the scientific phenomena that they were learning about. Some teachers also drew on real-life examples so that pupils could connect the scientific principles they were learning about to their own experience. For example, when explaining friction, one teacher compared the outsoles of different types of footwear that pupils were familiar with.

41. In some classrooms, however, teaching activities were not well matched to the specific content that pupils were learning. Sometimes this was because pupils were taking part in activities that did not focus their thinking on what they were learning, or they did not have sufficient opportunities to practise using the specific knowledge that they had learned. This led to pupils moving to the next science lesson without having had sufficient time to consolidate what they had learned, or to get feedback.

42. In most classrooms, teachers introduced new words such as 'vibration' alongside clear explanations. These words were then usually emphasised throughout the lesson so that pupils had repeated opportunities to use and learn them. However, in a few cases, teachers selected resources that introduced pupils to overly technical vocabulary. For example, in one school, pupils were introduced to complex terms about plant cell structure before they had secured important foundational knowledge about plants.

43. In the best examples, teachers anticipated and clearly addressed content that pupils might find difficult or were likely to make mistakes with. For example, in one lesson, the teacher spent time discussing with pupils why clear and accurate presentation of circuit symbols was necessary when drawing electrical circuits. This drew pupils' attention to conventions in physics so that they could understand why inaccurate symbols might lead to ineffective communication between scientists.

44. Pupils with SEND were generally well supported in science lessons, and were expected to learn the same curriculum as their peers. This often involved adults building up explanations slowly, or giving pupils resources that provided additional scaffolding to meet their specific needs. In a few schools, pupils with SEND received additional support before a lesson, for example through pre-teaching of specific vocabulary. However, occasionally, strategies used to support pupils were not helpful. For example, in one school, some lesson outcomes were not expected to be achieved by all pupils. This was even though the planned lesson outcome was one that was possible for all pupils in the class. This, unintentionally, limited what some pupils with SEND were expected to learn.

45. Teachers used teaching models in some lessons that we visited. They provided a useful object that teachers and pupils could use to talk about the scientific concept. For example, in one school, pupils consolidated their knowledge of blood by building a physical model of human blood. Because they had secured key knowledge about the components of blood, the model provided a useful way for pupils to practise what they had learned and for the class teacher to check their understanding was correct.

46. Teachers' explanations played a key role in helping pupils to see the connections between what they were learning and prior knowledge. These explanations showed pupils how one concept connects to supposedly unrelated concepts. For example, the teacher in a Year 6 lesson deliberately drew attention to this kind of link, by showing pupils that carbon dioxide is both a product of respiration and a product of acid and carbonate reactions.

Assessment
Summary of the research review in relation to assessment
In the research review, we highlighted the importance of assessment having a clear purpose. Drawing on research, we distinguished between 3 different purposes:

Assessment should be designed so that it does not unintentionally narrow the curriculum or lead to unnecessary workload.
Assessment for learning - using assessment to provide feedback
Here, assessment for learning refers to formative assessment. This involves checking if pupils have learned the intended content of the curriculum lesson by lesson. These checks can be low-stakes and informal. They provide pupils and teachers with feedback that can be used to improve teaching. Evidence suggests that formative assessment in science should continue over extended periods and contexts in order to ensure learning has been understood as intended, and embedded in the pupils' memory. This is because pupils show variability in the concepts they recall and whether they are able to use them to understand more complex ideas or undertake activities. Multiple-choice questions can be helpful here to find out whether pupils have specific misconceptions. Teachers' content knowledge plays an important role in their ability to evaluate pupils' answers and provide subject-specific feedback.

47. Schools used a variety of formative assessment approaches, such as questions from teachers and low-stakes quizzes, to identify gaps in pupils' knowledge. Often this involved teachers identifying what pupils already knew about a topic at the start of a lesson or sequence of lessons. This information was then used to inform teaching.

48. However, we saw few examples of teachers proactively checking for specific misconceptions or misunderstandings. Some pupils therefore continued to hold unscientific ideas about the content they were learning. For example, in one school, a pupil had drawn a diagram with gravity pointing upwards and another pupil identified glass at room temperature as a gas. Neither of these errors were noticed or corrected.

49. When schools chose to give written feedback, there were often inconsistencies, both between and within schools, in how feedback was used to improve learning. Sometimes feedback was too general and not focused on specific content. In the best cases, teachers identified aspects of a pupil's answer that were particularly strong or needed further work in relation to specific curriculum content. For example, in one Year 6 class, a teacher provided clear feedback to address a pupil's misunderstanding that the heart carries blood.
Assessment as learning - using assessment to help pupils to remember what they have previously learned
Assessment as learning refers to the process, over extended periods, through which pupils embed knowledge in their memory. When pupils are asked to recall knowledge this is known as 'retrieval practice' or the 'testing effect'. Like assessment for learning, this type of assessment should be coupled with feedback so that pupils do not reinforce wrong answers. Assessment as learning should focus on reinforcing knowledge of the most important content without 'destroying the shaping of content that makes it memorable'.[footnote 11]

Research is clear that teachers and support staff need regular access to high-quality subject-specific CPD. Strong subject knowledge and the associated confidence it brings underpin many areas of high-quality science education, such as assessment and teacher explanations. Access to science-specific CPD is particularly important for primary teachers, given that they frequently teach outside their subject specialism, and that some reported a lack of confidence in teaching science. Evidence suggests that CPD should align with the curriculum and include teachers learning about the nature of science and its methods - which we broadly refer to as 'disciplinary knowledge' in the review. It is not enough to assume that teachers will get better at teaching science, simply by teaching science.

50. There was limited science-specific CPD taking place in most primary schools. The most common support came from sessions led by subject leaders. These sessions were often focused on developing teachers' knowledge of working scientifically. There were very few examples of CPD taking place that focused on other areas of the science curriculum, for example developing teachers' knowledge of substantive concepts and how to teach them.

51. In many schools, teachers found informal support from subject leaders to be a valuable source of subject-specific knowledge. They also identified that external resources from organisations such as STEM Learning and the Association for Science Education were helpful sources of information to refer to before teaching unfamiliar topics.

52. In a small number of schools visited, teachers had received no, or very limited, science-specific CPD. Overall, we found very few examples of teachers having attended training from external providers. Where teachers had received training, the most commonly reported benefit was that it developed their confidence.

53. Overall, in most primary schools, leaders were not sufficiently clear on how teachers would benefit from science-specific CPD. This suggests that, in many schools, leaders could work further with teachers to identify personalised, subject-specific areas for development.

Subject leadership
Summary of the research review in relation to leadership in science
Subject leadership plays a crucial role in the quality of school science. This is because, among other roles, subject leaders develop the school science curriculum and support teachers to teach it. However, research suggests that subject leaders do not always have sufficient leadership time to lead their subject. They may also lack the necessary subject expertise.

54. Most subject leaders felt well supported by their senior leadership team ( SLT) and had dedicated time to lead science. However, the time available for subject leaders varied considerably between schools, from 2 hours a week to an hour a term. In one school, time for subject leadership with an SLT coach was allocated on a rota basis. This enabled all subject leaders to have time to lead their subjects throughout the year.

55. Some subject leaders were well supported to lead science. For example, they were able to attend a range of external CPD courses, some of which developed their expertise in how to design science curriculums. However, other subject leaders felt that they wanted further training in order to lead science.

56. In a few schools, subject leaders received no additional support or time to lead their subject. This finding supports previous research carried out into subject leadership in primary schools.[footnote 12] This is a concern, given that subject leaders provide a crucial role in developing the school science curriculum and in supporting the subject-knowledge development of staff.

57. Subject leaders typically valued being part of a wider group, for example the multi-academy trust's or local authority's science leaders' group. They thought that wider groups were valuable forums for sharing expertise.

58. Where leadership was strong, subject leaders focused on improving the quality of education, and not just on administration. For example, they visited lessons to discuss with pupils what pupils had learned, and checked that books matched the intended curriculum. They used this information to decide the focus of science training sessions.

What pupils know and remember
Summary of the research review in relation to impact
To gain expertise in science pupils need to assimilate content which is well-organised. Pupils need knowledge that builds around key scientific concepts and ideas. Pupils need to remember what they learned previously, so that new knowledge can be incorporated into this emerging schema (pattern of interconnected learning) and become flexible, meaningful and easy to use. However, research is clear that, for some pupils, science comprises an array of disconnected knowledge that lacks any organised structure. As a result, pupils do not appreciate the important relationships that can link and organise the knowledge learned and the logical structure of each scientific discipline remains a mystery.

59. In a minority of primary schools visited, most pupils were not able to remember what they had previously learned in science. In these schools, pupils had gained a limited knowledge of science. Some of these primary schools had recently developed their science curriculum. However, these changes had not had time to have a sufficient impact on what pupils knew and remembered.

60. In the remaining schools, what individual pupils remembered was too variable. For example, in a few schools, pupils demonstrated secure understanding of a range of different concepts from across the curriculum, representing both substantive and disciplinary knowledge. However, in most other schools, too many pupils only remembered what they had recently been taught. For example, in one school, some Year 5 pupils could not remember how long it took the Earth to orbit the Sun or what a variable was, despite this knowledge having been previously taught.

61. Sometimes, what some pupils knew was quite detailed and covered areas that are usually taught in secondary school. For example, in one school, Year 6 pupils were learning about the basic structure of the atom. This creates challenges for secondary schools in making sure that content is not unnecessarily repeated. It is therefore important that, where possible, primary and secondary subject leaders communicate to ensure that they are knowledgeable about each other's curriculums.

62. Pupils generally carried out practical work well. In the best cases, pupils' knowledge went beyond how to carry out procedural aspects. It included developing the detailed disciplinary knowledge that underpins working scientifically, for example knowing why variables need to be kept the same during a fair test or whether samples are representative. However, sometimes, pupils struggled to recall what they had learned from practical work. They could only remember the activity. For example, pupils could remember that they grew plants, but could not remember what they learned.

63. In most schools, pupils could talk about why scientists do experiments. For example, one group of pupils could all say that scientists find explanations for things using experiments. It was less common for pupils to talk about specific types of scientific enquiry, such as making observations over time or the ways in which scientists classify and group organisms. Very few pupils referred to pattern seeking or the use of secondary sources. However, the responses given by primary pupils in this study typically showed a better awareness of the different types of scientific enquiry than was evident in the responses given by pupils in secondary school.
What a small sample of pupils, from different schools, knew about plants
Year 2 pupils:

There is a sycamore plant like a tree

... and oak trees

They have roots coming out of the bottom

'It sucks some water and food from the soil

They need sunlight - that is the food

Year 6 pupils:

... how it goes from a seed to a normal plant and how to keep them alive

Plants need water, space, sunlight

... petals, flower, pollen, stem

Not all plants need soil - some grow in sand

Seed dispersal - can happen by other animals, wind, water

Year 6 pupils:

... pollination

I think we learned about the different cycles

... parts of a flower

... dissected a flower to see all the parts

... the petals

... the stamen

... the stigma

64. These extracts are typical of what primary pupils knew about plants. Most pupils typically referred to the basic structure of plants, plant reproduction and requirements for plant growth. However, there was a variety within and between schools as to how much knowledge, and what knowledge, individual pupils remembered. Sometimes, responses included misconceptions, for example that plants get their food from soil.
What a small sample of pupils in one school knew about how scientists find things out
Year 2 pupils:

They find things and tell us what is healthy and [what] is not

We were doing jumping jacks to test if it will make our heart go faster

Year 4 pupils:

They research

They find evidence

They do experiments and try new stuff out

They might find things out that they have never found out before

Year 6 pupils:

Some are taxonomists

They separate animals into different groups

Carl Linnaeus was a famous taxonomist - he sorted the platypus into a group because it was a mammal that couldn't walk - it could lay eggs

They find viruses

... test things out to see if things work

They try different ways to see if things will work

Some antibiotics could be helpful

65. These extracts are typical of what primary pupils knew about how scientists find things out. Most pupils referred to carrying out experiments. Some pupils went further and identified specific types of scientific enquiry, such as observing over time, or classification. Sometimes pupils referred to concepts such as 'evidence' or 'variable', but this was rare.

Secondary

Curriculum intent: identifying what pupils need to know and do
Summary of the research review relevant to curriculum
Expertise in science requires pupils to build, over time, knowledge of key substantive concepts such as 'force', 'material' and 'organ'. Pupils also need to develop their knowledge of science as a tradition of enquiry. This understanding is broadly referred to as 'working scientifically' in the national curriculum. In the research review, we refer to this curriculum content as 'disciplinary knowledge', to stress that pupils must build knowledge of these ways of working.

The best curriculums, however, do not treat substantive and disciplinary knowledge as separate. Instead, they embed disciplinary knowledge within the most appropriate substantive content. For example, a curriculum might plan for pupils to learn about the mechanism of evolution (substantive knowledge) and what a scientific theory is (disciplinary knowledge). By doing so, pupils deepen their knowledge of evolution and of scientific theories.

Substantive knowledge - the knowledge produced by science
Summary of the research review relevant to substantive knowledge
A high-quality science curriculum is organised to ensure all pupils learn extensive and connected knowledge of substantive concepts. These concepts are developed over many years, during which pupils learn content that is sequenced in a logical order. Research suggests that pupils should not be expected to learn too much content in a short time. If they are, pupils may experience 'cognitive overload' (having too much information for the working memory to be able to process) and will not have time to practise and use what they have learned, to ensure that it is not forgotten.

Our findings are extrapolated from our sample of secondary schools visited.

66. In nearly all schools visited, pupils studied a science curriculum that was at least as ambitious as the national curriculum. This included pupils with SEND who followed the same curriculum as their peers. Generally, content was organised into topics from biology, chemistry and physics. Topics, and the content within them, were sequenced in a logical order so that pupils learn knowledge of important concepts such as 'cells', 'forces' and 'chemical reactions' over time. Typically, within a topic, content was allocated to individual lessons.

67. Many schools started teaching pupils GCSE content at some point during Year 9. However, in most cases, this did not lead to narrowing of the curriculum. This was because leaders planned carefully how, over the 5 years, pupils would build and deepen their knowledge of the full breadth of the science national curriculum. These schools did not, for example, remove topics, such as space physics, because they are not assessed at GCSE.

68. In a few schools, however, pupils did not study the full breadth of the key stage 3 national curriculum. This was because GCSE content was introduced in Years 7 and 8 before pupils had secured understanding of necessary prior knowledge from key stage 3. On rare occasions, specific content areas of the national curriculum, for example 'rocks', were not taught.

69. At key stage 3, most schools taught science and rotated biology, chemistry and physics topics. Sometimes, this involved different classes studying different topics due to equipment constraints. This limited how effectively the curriculum could be planned in these schools, because classes covered content in a different order.

70. Most school science curriculums tended to follow the order of the GCSE awarding-body specifications at key stage 4. Often, this was because schools could then use full past examination papers as 'mocks' at the end of Year 10, once pupils had studied all the content. However, some leaders recognised the limitations of this approach. For example, it required key substantive concepts to be introduced in one year, and then not returned to. This is likely to pose challenges for pupils in remembering those concepts and in building connected knowledge over time.

71. Sometimes, curriculum planning was weaker because:

The knowledge that pupils needed to learn was not sufficiently clear. For example, objectives were sometimes too broad and often set in relation to outcomes. For example, an objective in one school was to describe the function of certain organs and organ systems. Consequently, teachers were sometimes not clear what the essential learning was. This had implications for what pupils in different classes learned, which over time could limit the coherence of the curriculum

Pupils were expected to learn too much new content in a short time. For example, in one school, we saw pupils being expected to learn, in a single lesson, how to:

use a new piece of scientific equipment correctly and safely

complete an experiment using this new equipment

record the findings of the experiment

explain how the equipment has led to advances in scientific knowledge

72. There was insufficient time for pupils to learn new knowledge and practise using it before moving on to new content. Often leaders attempted to compensate for overly short topics by returning to concepts in the curriculum many times. However, this approach was problematic because it simply repeated the same problem at a later stage.

73. In most schools, secondary subject leaders did not have a sufficiently clear understanding of what science pupils were expected to know from primary school. This had been made worse by COVID-19, because restrictions limited some leaders' ability to visit and/or work with feeder primary schools to find out about their curriculums.

74. Typically, secondary subject leaders assumed that pupils in Year 7 had little or no knowledge of primary science. Where this was the case, most leaders did not demonstrate how they knew this, and could not explain how their science curriculum would address these assumed gaps in their pupils' knowledge.

75. In a few schools, the science curriculum clearly identified the knowledge of primary science that pupils would be expected to know for each key stage 3 topic. This was clearly signposted, so that teachers knew they should activate and check this knowledge before teaching new content. This ensured that the curriculum built on, and did not simply repeat, what pupils had learned previously.

76. Some leaders attempted to address gaps in prior scientific knowledge by beginning Year 7 with a baseline assessment. However, it was unclear how information from this assessment was then used to inform the curriculum and teaching.

Examples of what pupils in some primary schools knew that is often repeated in secondary school

Year 5 pupils could confidently use terms such as 'independent variable', 'dependent variable' and 'control variable'. They calculated the average time taken for sugar to dissolve in water of different temperatures.

Year 6 pupils could compare the physical properties of rocks, such as basalt, limestone, sandstone and granite. They had recently learned about states of matter, and that particles in solids are packed closely together, while particles in liquids slide over each other.

Disciplinary knowledge - the knowledge underpinning pupils' understanding of working scientifically
Summary of the research review relevant to disciplinary knowledge
A high-quality science curriculum plans for pupils' knowledge of working scientifically to develop over time. This involves identifying the underpinning disciplinary knowledge that pupils need to know. This knowledge can then be taught and revisited at the same time as the most relevant substantive knowledge is taught. Pupils should not be expected to learn this disciplinary knowledge simply as a by-product of taking part in practical activities. A high-quality curriculum includes disciplinary knowledge that involves knowledge of concepts, such as validity, as well as how to perform various procedures. In the research review, we considered disciplinary knowledge in relation to at least 4 content areas that pupils learn more about as they move from year to year:

1. knowledge of methods that scientists use to answer questions

2. knowledge of apparatus and techniques, including measurement

3. knowledge of data analysis

4. knowledge of how science uses evidence to develop explanations

77. Leaders' plans to develop pupils' disciplinary knowledge were generally much less comprehensive than their plans to develop pupils' substantive knowledge. The focus in most schools was on developing pupils' knowledge of apparatus and techniques, as well as data analysis. We found little evidence of other aspects of disciplinary knowledge being developed, for example knowledge of the full range of methods that scientists use, or how science uses evidence to develop explanations. However, this was a side of the curriculum that many leaders we spoke to were in the process of developing further.

78. In some school curriculums, disciplinary knowledge was not sufficiently well integrated with substantive content. It was treated as a stand-alone block or unit.

79. Overall, most curriculums planned for pupils to develop their disciplinary knowledge by providing 'opportunities' in the curriculum for them to carry out practical work, write up investigations or draw graphs. At key stages 4 and 5, this often involved pupils simply completing practical activities specified by awarding bodies. The focus was therefore on pupils carrying out activities, rather than on the knowledge that they were learning.

80. In some schools, the curriculum went further and identified aspects to focus on when pupils carried out practical work. For example, 'drawing a results table', 'using equipment correctly' or working in a 'safe manner'. However, the precise knowledge that pupils were expected to learn to be successful in these aspects was not always clear. This was problematic because it limited how well the curriculum could be planned to develop pupils' expertise in disciplinary knowledge over time, and often resulted in pupils simply 'doing' a skill without useful learning arising from the activity.

81. In a few schools, leaders had thought carefully about the specific knowledge that underpins complex skills such as graph drawing. They had identified and sequenced these components in the curriculum. It was therefore possible, for example, for leaders to describe how pupils' knowledge of graph drawing developed across Years 7 to 11. Further, these same curriculums often identified the key practical procedures that all pupils were required to be able to carry out. Importantly, in these cases, the curriculums also ensured that pupils had the necessary prior knowledge to carry out the practical activity skilfully.

82. In some schools, leaders began each year with a discrete scientific skills unit. These generally covered some areas of disciplinary knowledge, such as:

using apparatus

health and safety

drawing graphs

analysing data

However, there was often no clear plan for ways that pupils would then build on this disciplinary knowledge in subsequent topics. This was often left to chance.

The pitfalls when developing pupils' disciplinary knowledge

In one school, the subject leader wanted to develop pupils' ability to work scientifically and had chosen a commercially produced curriculum with a range of practical activities. However, the leader had not considered the underpinning knowledge necessary to complete and understand the practical tasks. Additionally, they had not considered the purpose of each activity carefully enough in relation to what pupils needed to learn through the activity. Although carrying out practical tasks may help some pupils to learn certain aspects of disciplinary knowledge, the limitation here was that the knowledge to be learned from the practical had not been identified and what pupils learned from the activity was a matter of chance. This approach also led to some pupils being expected to learn too much through one activity.

Planning the curriculum to make learning science easier
Summary of the research review for how the curriculum can address specific barriers to learning science
A high-quality science curriculum focuses on what pupils need to learn in order to get better at science. Curriculum choices also influence how easy or difficult this journey is for pupils. This is because knowledge learned at a point in time influences future learning, and makes it easier or harder. For example, in the research review, we considered the importance of the curriculum building, step by step, on pupils' prior knowledge, to reduce the likelihood of them forming misconceptions. We also considered the importance of planning the curriculum so that it takes account of what is taught in other subjects, such as mathematics.

83. Overall, most leaders saw their school curriculum as a description of what pupils need to know and do. However, leaders typically did not consider fully enough the function of a curriculum in making learning science easier. For example:

in planning documentation, solutions to address or prevent misconceptions were nearly always in reference to pedagogy, assessment or signposting what the likely misconceptions were. There were very few examples of leaders having considered the knowledge taught, and when to address or anticipate pupils' difficulties

pupils were being expected to learn too much content in a short time. There was insufficient time for pupils to practise and use what they had learned

84. Some leaders and teachers rightly recognised the provisional status of a curriculum. For example, in one school, leaders routinely asked teachers to reflect briefly on the science curriculum after teaching it, and suggest changes. This was not onerous in terms of teachers' time, and ensured that the curriculum continued to be refined and improved over subsequent years.

85. A minority of science curriculums took account of what pupils learn in mathematics. When this happened, schools adopted at least 3 different approaches to try to bring about coherence:

Re-ordering content: For example, 'rates of reaction' was moved in the science curriculum so that it was taught after pupils had learned about gradients in mathematics

Flagging content: The curriculum identified content that was used in science before it was taught in mathematics, for example 'standard form'. Teachers could then take this into account when planning the lesson

Applying content: The science curriculum provided the opportunity for pupils to apply their mathematical knowledge in a scientific context. This involved mathematics teachers teaching pupils how to calculate density. Pupils then used this knowledge in science, and were able to consider additional disciplinary aspects such as the precision of an electronic balance

86. Some leaders identified that a barrier to learning science was the quantity of content that pupils were expected to know. Most schools prepared for this problem by starting lessons and new topics with activities that would encourage pupils to recall previously learned knowledge so that it was less likely to be forgotten. However, too often, inspectors found that pupils were asked to recall knowledge that they had not successfully learned when they first encountered it. A better approach might have been to allocate more curriculum time for teaching the content in the first instance, before asking pupils to recall this knowledge.

How one teacher supported pupils to develop connected knowledge of science

In this lesson, which was about sound, the teacher regularly reminded Year 8 pupils of how knowledge they were learning was connected to what they had previously learned in other areas of the curriculum. For example, the teacher began the lesson by reminding pupils what they should have learned about sound in primary school. The teacher then linked back to the lesson on electromagnets, in which pupils had learned how an electric bell works and how sound travels to the ear. This was then linked to what pupils had learned about particles vibrating. In this way, the teacher's explanations and questioning built incrementally from pupils' prior knowledge, drawing together related knowledge from different areas of the curriculum.
Summary of the research review relevant to practical work and the curriculum
High-quality practical work, whether teachers' use of demonstrations or hands-on practical activities, forms a vital part of a science education. This is because it introduces pupils to the methods, objects and phenomena that scientists study. These, in turn, develop pupils' sense of wonder and curiosity about the material world. Practical work also teaches pupils about the often unpredictable and dynamic situations in which scientists work. However, research is clear that practical work is not always effective. Often this is because its purpose has not been established, or because pupils are expected to do and think about too much at once. Effective practical work has a clear purpose in relation to the curriculum. It forms part of a wider sequence of lessons and only takes place when pupils have enough prior knowledge to learn from the activity. When this is not the case, pupils experience too much complexity, which prevents them from learning what was intended.

87. Teachers' demonstrations were used in very few of the lessons visited by inspectors. The number of lessons visited in which pupils took part in whole-class practical activities was slightly higher, but still a small minority. Whole-class practical activities were seen much more frequently in lessons during visits to primary schools. In some secondary schools, inspectors did not see any practical work completed in lessons, either as a demonstration or activities carried out by pupils. Leaders typically said that this was linked to the behaviour of pupils or due to the lasting impact of the pandemic. However, it is a requirement of GCSEs and A levels and of the national curriculum that all pupils carry out laboratory work, fieldwork and scientific enquiries.

88. Although it is possible that inspections reduce the likelihood of teachers doing some kinds of practical work, this study raises some concerns about the frequency and type of practical work taking place across secondary schools in England.

89. Overall, across schools, the focus of practical work was generally on developing pupils' knowledge of practical techniques, such as microscopy and titration, and developing their substantive knowledge. Changes in the way practicals are assessed at GCSE and A level might explain some improvement in the focus of practical work. In 2015, before these changes, Ofqual reported that pupils focused too much on planning and analytical abilities rather than their technical skills.[footnote 13] However, there was very little evidence of pupils developing their substantive and disciplinary knowledge at the same time, and then being given opportunities to undertake scientific enquiries. This is a concern, given that the national curriculum at key stage 3 requires that: 'Pupils should decide on the appropriate type of scientific enquiry to undertake to answer their own questions and develop a deeper understanding of factors to be taken into account when collecting, recording and processing data. They should evaluate their results and identify further questions arising from them.'[footnote 14]

90. In some school curriculums, the purpose of practical activities was not considered carefully enough. It was not clear whether activities served a pedagogical role in helping pupils to learn a specific concept, or whether the goal was to learn disciplinary knowledge about practical work. For example, the technique to carry out an acid-base titration could fulfil either purpose, or both. This was problematic because it meant that some teachers were unclear about the teaching goal and so were also not clear about the knowledge they were teaching and assessing. It led to some departments not identifying which practical activities all pupils should be able to complete.

91. Across the small number of secondary schools where we observed teacher demonstrations, these tended to be quite simple, for example showing ice cubes melting or using balloons to help pupils visualise the effects of static electricity. While simple demonstrations can be very effective in helping pupils to learn science, we found few examples of pupils being introduced to phenomena or objects of study that they had not encountered before, for example observing the effects of oscillating chemical reactions.

92. Where practical work was most effective, pupils were confident about using the apparatus. This enabled them to think about the scientific concepts rather than simply the procedures. For example, in one school, Year 7 pupils looked at onion cells under a microscope and, in another school, Year 11 pupils carried out a thiosulfate titration.

93. Occasionally, pupil groups for practical work were too large. For example, in one class, pupils were carrying out titrations in groups of 4. This meant that some pupils did not have a first-hand experience of the techniques they were learning.

94. In some lessons involving practical work, pupils lacked the necessary knowledge to analyse the data that they collected. Often, this was because certain knowledge was assumed and was not explicitly taught or checked beforehand. For example, pupils in one lesson needed to calculate an average, but did not know how to do this. In another example, pupils were completing calculations involving magnification before they knew the different parts of a microscope.

How one school considered practical work in the curriculum

In this school, the subject leader valued the role of practical work. Pupils had regular opportunities to carry out experiments in each topic. For example, when learning about plants in Year 7, pupils carried out a test on leaves to confirm whether starch was present. However, the leader had not considered the purpose of this activity carefully enough in relation to the curriculum. For example, they had not considered whether it was to illustrate the substantive concept of photosynthesis or a technique that pupils needed to know how to carry out, or both. Fundamentally, it was not clear what the essential learning was.

Pedagogy: teaching the curriculum
Summary of the research review in relation to teaching
Science often involves pupils learning abstract concepts that might be contrary to what they expect. Teacher effectiveness, underpinned by strong subject knowledge, is therefore particularly important in science. Research highlights how important it is that teachers' explanations are clear, and carefully build on what pupils already know. Alongside this, pupils benefit from time to discuss ideas, answer questions and practise using the knowledge. Teaching models and analogies can be particularly helpful tools in science classrooms because they provide tangible examples that pupils can use to think about abstract concepts. Teaching models and clear explanations can also help pupils to learn connected knowledge, for example knowing how changes at the macroscopic and tangible levels (for example, a balloon expanding) link to what is happening at the sub-microscopic and cellular levels (for example, gas particles moving further apart). However, all models need to be used with caution because they can lead to misconceptions.

95. Science teachers generally had secure subject knowledge. Inspectors rarely saw examples of misconceptions or errors introduced by teachers. Where subject knowledge was strong, teachers were able to bring into the lesson wider knowledge from across the science curriculum. For example, in one lesson, the teacher explicitly linked previous learning on atomic structure and electrons to new learning on electric circuits. By doing so, this teacher supported pupils to connect their knowledge from different content areas.

96. In some lessons, teachers carefully modelled what they wanted pupils to learn. However, sometimes there were insufficient opportunities for pupils to practise what they had been taught. For example, in one lesson, pupils did not have enough opportunities to develop confidence in writing chemical formulae.

97. Across schools, pupils with SEND were generally well supported to learn the same curriculum as their peers. This involved teachers using a range of approaches, from adapting resources for visually impaired students to providing further scaffolding and chunking of information. Teaching assistants played an important role in supporting some pupils. However, occasionally some pupils with SEND were not given the support they needed, because support was not provided consistently.

98. Generally, teachers were clear about the knowledge that pupils would be learning. They selected appropriate activities to teach that knowledge. For example, sorting activities were used in one A-level classroom to help pupils order the different stages of cell division. In this way, the task of ordering stages was well matched to the curriculum intent, which was to know the stages of cell division. In another classroom, a well-selected video was used to help pupils understand the abstract idea of a chemical equilibrium.

99. At times, the focus of a lesson was on completing a task that was not well matched to the curriculum intent. For example, in some classrooms, pupils were asked to watch videos that were not sufficiently focused on the content they were learning. These videos often introduced too many new terms at once, making it difficult for pupils to know what to think about. In another example, pupils were learning about the relationship between force and the extension of a spring. However, they were spending most of their time simply writing out a method.

100. In a minority of lessons visited, teachers used teaching models to help pupils build knowledge of abstract concepts. For example, in one school, pupils learned about electrical resistance by comparing electrical wires to school corridors. These teaching models were often helpful because they provided a tangible reference point for pupils and teachers to discuss. However, sometimes teachers did not spend enough time explaining the model to make sure that it helped pupils to learn the target concept.

101. In some lessons, teachers were expected to teach too much content at once. This resulted in the teaching moving on before there had been time for all pupils to consolidate their knowledge, get feedback and act on it. This often occurred when a teacher's focus was on keeping pace with curriculum plans or making sure that all content had been covered before an assessment. This issue was identified by inspectors during lesson visits and by looking at pupils' work, and it made the curriculum less effective.

102. In some schools, staff used shared PowerPoint presentations to teach the curriculum. Teachers said that this was beneficial because it helped to reduce their workload. It also enabled helpful resources and whole-departmental approaches to be easily shared. However, a drawback of using PowerPoint was that, unless guarded against, it could encourage teachers to focus on how the activities would be carried out, rather than the knowledge that pupils needed to know.

Assessment
Summary of the research review in relation to assessment
In the research review, we highlighted the importance of assessment having a clear purpose. Drawing on research, we distinguished between 3 different purposes:

Assessment should be designed so that it does not unintentionally narrow the curriculum or lead to unnecessary workload.
Assessment for learning - using assessment to provide feedback
Here, assessment for learning refers to formative assessment. This involves checking if pupils have learned the intended content of the curriculum lesson by lesson. These checks can be low-stakes and informal. They provide pupils and teachers with feedback that can be used to improve teaching. Evidence suggests that formative assessment in science should continue over extended periods and contexts in order to ensure learning has been understood as intended, and embedded in the pupils' memory. This is because pupils show variability in the concepts they recall and whether they are able to use them to understand more complex ideas or undertake activities. Multiple-choice questions can be helpful here to find out whether pupils have specific misconceptions. Teachers' content knowledge plays an important role in their ability to evaluate pupils' answers and provide subject-specific feedback.

103. Where formative assessment worked well, teachers identified the specific knowledge or misconception/error that pupils had. Often these inaccurate answers were only subtly different from the scientific answer, which sometimes made them difficult for teachers to identify. For example, in one school, pupils confused the number of different types of amino acids with the number of proteins in the body.

104. Questioning was the most common way in which teachers tried to ascertain what their pupils knew. Sometimes these questions focused on checking whether pupils had specific misconceptions. However, this was rarely done. Some schools used mini-whiteboards effectively to reveal what everyone in the class was thinking. By doing this, these teachers were not always reliant on questioning only some of the pupils.

105. In some lessons, there was insufficient checking of understanding, and teachers wrongly assumed that what had been taught had been learned. This led them to move on to teaching new content before pupils were ready.

106. Some schools used mid-topic assessments, to identify specific gaps in pupils' knowledge before they reached the end of the topic. In this way, teachers and pupils obtained important feedback before all the content had been taught.

107. Where formative assessment worked well, teachers with strong subject knowledge used questions and tasks throughout the lesson to check the specific knowledge that pupils had learned. Often these tasks gave pupils the opportunity to practise and consolidate their knowledge, while allowing the teacher time to move around the classroom and check what pupils had learned. This assessment was not just checking what pupils knew at the start of the lesson, nor did it involve overly performative strategies to 'show progress'. Rather, teachers' checks of what pupils had learned formed an integral part of every activity.

108. Teachers' feedback was effective when it helped pupils to learn specific content. This took place through whole-class or one-to-one feedback. Feedback was sometimes less helpful, and involved stand-alone questions for pupils to answer that did not directly relate to the mistakes in their answers.
Assessment as learning - using assessment to help pupils to remember what they have previously learned
Assessment as learning refers to the process, over extended periods, through which pupils embed knowledge in their memory. When pupils are asked to recall knowledge this is known as 'retrieval practice' or the 'testing effect'. Like assessment for learning, this type of assessment should be coupled with feedback so that pupils do not reinforce wrong answers. Assessment as learning should focus on reinforcing knowledge of the most important content without 'destroying the shaping of content that makes it memorable'.[footnote 15]

109. In most schools visited, teachers used frequent low-stakes quizzing to encourage pupils to revisit and embed knowledge more deeply in memory. This was usually done at the start of the lesson, and was often a whole-school or departmental approach that drew on the principle of interleaving recall of crucial knowledge through the curriculum. This was most effective when the recall was mostly successful and coupled with feedback. For example, a teacher circulated around the classroom to check what pupils could remember so that, if there were gaps or errors, they were aware and could give feedback or additional work to the whole class, either immediately or at a later stage.

110. In some schools, assessment as learning was sometimes taking place at the expense of assessment for learning. For example, some pupils were asked to retrieve knowledge that they had not successfully learned in the first place. These gaps had not been identified before. As a result, teachers were having to spend too much lesson time on teaching pupils the answers to the retrieval questions. This led to some pupils becoming confused and disengaged.

111. In many schools, retrieval practice only went as far as asking pupils to remember facts in isolation, usually through short quizzes. It was rarely used to support pupils to develop interconnected knowledge, for example by asking them to compare their knowledge of related but different concepts using Venn diagrams or tables.

112. Assessment as learning was much less effective when pupils were asked to recall overly large composites like definitions, without first having secured knowledge of the underpinning components. This is because, although successful in the retrieval task, pupils did not have the prior knowledge to understand what they had retrieved. For example, in one class, pupils were asked to learn the definition of 'isotopes', but did not know what elements or atoms were. The definition, therefore, did not make sense.

113. Some leaders told inspectors that they use retrieval practice at the start of lessons, to address misconceptions. However, as outlined in the science research review, there are a number of significant challenges in addressing misconceptions through quick quizzes. It is likely that quizzing may consolidate misconceptions. Also, there is often a lack of time and opportunity at the start of a lesson for pupils to receive the specific feedback that they need. It is therefore important that quizzes carefully distinguish between errors that are easy to correct, and misconceptions.
Assessment of learning - have curricular goals been achieved?
Assessment of learning refers to summative forms of assessment used to help teachers identify whether broader curricular goals have been achieved. It therefore plays an important role in evaluating the impact of any science curriculum. This assessment should check that pupils have secured the intended substantive and disciplinary knowledge. This includes pupils' ability to carry out specific practical procedures and scientific enquiries, which are important outcomes of a science education. Over-frequent use of summative assessment can lead to unnecessary burdens on staff and pupils. Improper use of summative assessment content can also lead to narrowing of the curriculum, until teaching is little more than an exercise in teaching 'to the test'.

114. Schools used different types of summative assessment to ascertain what pupils knew and remembered. Typically, this included end-of-topic assessments and longer termly examinations. Schools typically carried out 2 or 3 of these longer assessments each year.

115. Most schools assessed both substantive and disciplinary knowledge in key stage 3 assessments. However, some of the schools visited only checked substantive knowledge. This is a concern, given that the national curriculum requires pupils to develop their knowledge of the 'nature, processes and methods of science'.[footnote 16]

116. Approximately half the schools we visited carried out cumulative key stage 3 summative assessments. These tests checked that pupils had remembered knowledge taught in previous years. In the other schools visited, summative assessment at key stage 3 only checked what pupils had learned in recently taught topics.

117. In only a few cases did schools directly assess pupils' ability to carry out specific practical procedures or types of scientific enquiry. Given that competence in these areas is an important requirement of the national curriculum and preparation for practical work in key stages 4 and 5, this is a concern.

118. A few schools focused too much on preparing pupils to answer examination questions without them having first secured an understanding of the components.

119. In rare cases, assessment took up too much time and narrowed the curriculum. For example, in one school, pupils spent too many science lessons completing summative assessments and revising for them. This limited the time available for pupils to learn science.

Systems at subject and school level

Making sure that pupils gain the right science qualifications
Summary of the research review in relation to science qualifications
Science differs from many other subjects at GCSE because pupils can complete different qualifications. In England, science is assessed as either combined science, which is worth 2 GCSEs, or as 3 separate science GCSEs, often referred to as triple science. A small number of pupils complete entry-level or vocational qualifications. Research shows that having a range of qualifications creates some challenges for schools in designing a science curriculum. Schools need to make sure certain pupils are not prematurely excluded from studying specific qualifications. This is especially problematic if the decision to study a specific qualification, for example triple science, comes too early.

120. The majority of the schools we visited offered both combined science and triple science. The proportion of Year 11 pupils entering triple science in these schools ranged from 7% to 50% in 2021. The average was 28%. This figure is similar to the proportion of pupils entered nationally for triple science in 2022, which was 25%.[footnote 17] In 2 schools visited, all pupils were entered for triple science. These were both grammar schools.

121. In a small number of schools, triple science was not offered as a qualification. Instead, all pupils completed combined science. Leaders said that this was for a number of reasons. For example, in one school, leaders were developing capacity for triple science to be taught effectively in the future. In another school, leaders made the decision in consideration of the impact of the pandemic. This has implications for pupils who want to study science at A level. For example, some aspects of quantitative chemistry are not assessed in combined science, but form an important part of A-level chemistry. Leaders therefore need to take this into account when constructing the key stage 5 curriculum.

122. In a few schools visited, a minority of pupils completed an entry-level qualification. This was because leaders believed that these pupils might not manage GCSE content. However, where this worked, leaders designed the curriculum so that, where possible, these pupils could also enter for combined science. In doing so, leaders did not narrow the curriculum for these pupils, and they did not unnecessarily limit what qualification these pupils could achieve.

123. In the best cases, leaders recognised the importance of 'fluidity' when it came to curriculum design and key stage 4 qualifications. These leaders planned the curriculum so that pupils were not restricted to specific qualifications too early. For example, in one school, the curriculum was designed so that pupils could move between combined and triple science until the start of Year 11. This gave those pupils who needed it the time to catch up, so that they could complete the qualification if they wanted to.

124. On rare occasions, inspectors found that some pupils sat qualifications in only 1 or 2 of the 3 separate sciences. In some cases, this meant pupils had not had the opportunity to study all 3 sciences and in other cases entry choice was despite pupils studying all 3 science subjects at key stages 3 and 4. This was unlikely to be in the best interests of these pupils. It is a requirement that all schools, including academies, offer a broad and balanced science curriculum. This includes all pupils learning content from across all 3 sciences.[footnote 18]

Teachers' knowledge and expertise
Summary of the research review in relation to developing teachers' knowledge and expertise
Research is clear that teachers and support staff need regular access to high-quality subject-specific CPD. Strong subject knowledge, and the associated confidence it brings, underpins many areas of high-quality science education, such as assessment and teacher explanations. Access to subject-specific CPD is particularly important for science teachers, given that they frequently teach outside their subject specialism. Evidence suggests that CPD should align with the curriculum and include teachers learning about the nature of science and its methods - which we broadly refer to as 'disciplinary knowledge' in the review. It is not enough to assume that teachers will get better at teaching science, simply by teaching science.

125. Inspectors found that, even within the same school, the quality of teaching can vary considerably between teachers. Reducing this variability by improving teachers' effectiveness should be a key priority for all subject leaders.

126. An important source of CPD in nearly all science departments was informal discussions with colleagues. Given the high frequency and low cost of this type of collaboration, it could be a fruitful way for leaders to develop their team's expertise. For example, leaders could make their team members aware of the staff who have specific knowledge, or restructure areas of a department, so that teachers and technicians meet more regularly.

127. Science technicians played a key role in supporting teachers to deliver high-quality practical work across schools. This support was particularly valued by teachers new to teaching science and those teaching outside their area of specialism. In schools where technicians were valued staff, supported with appropriate training and CPD, practical work was more likely to be high quality, well resourced and meaningful.

128. In the majority of schools we visited, at least one teacher had taken part in some form of external subject-specific CPD, for example through the Institute of Physics or STEM Learning. Typically, the content of these sessions focused on developing teachers' knowledge of physics. We saw fewer instances of teachers undertaking external CPD in either chemistry or biology, for example how to teach quantitative chemistry or carry out biology fieldwork. Other external sessions involved awarding-body training or focused on developing teachers' confidence in practical work.

129. Subject associations such as the Association for Science Education, and professional bodies such as the Royal Society of Chemistry, Institute of Physics and Royal Society of Biology, were valuable sources of subject knowledge for teachers. This support was provided through the courses they offered, or publications and online resources. Many teachers identified the important role these organisations played in providing online CPD throughout the pandemic.

130. In about half of the schools, leaders used some form of departmental time to develop teachers' subject expertise. However, sessions tended to be restricted to pedagogy and often had quite high-level outcomes, for example focusing on how to carry out practical activities or how to use tablets in science classrooms. Where departmental time worked well, there was a clear focus on specific content. In one school, for example, teachers learned how to use a teaching model effectively, to teach pupils about circuits.

131. Despite teachers valuing the CPD that they received, in many schools teachers did not have access to a high-quality ongoing programme of professional development to improve their subject and pedagogical content knowledge. This was because there was no clear plan for how teachers would develop their expertise over time. Instead, there was an over-reliance on stand-alone training sessions, which often restricted CPD in science to learning about practical work. Our findings suggest that there needs to be a much greater focus on developing teachers' expertise in relation to specific areas of the science curriculum and engaging with science-specific research.

Subject leadership
Summary of the research review in relation to leadership in science
Science departments often face considerable challenges in recruiting and retaining teachers. Science teachers are more likely to leave teaching than non-science teachers, and recruitment targets in initial teacher education for chemistry and physics are regularly missed. Research suggests that careful school timetabling can play an important role in retaining and developing science teachers. For example, early-stage teachers can benefit from timetables that enable them to teach fewer subjects and year groups.

132. Where science leaders were well supported by senior leaders, they had dedicated time to attend local authority or trust meetings as well as external CPD. This allowed them to look beyond their own school. In some schools, leaders were supported to undertake leadership qualifications, such as the national professional qualification for middle leadership, and experience dedicated coaching and mentoring. However, very few science leaders received dedicated subject-specific support to lead a science department.

133. Some leaders considered the timetable to be a way of reducing teachers' workload. For example, they tried to ensure that teachers taught mostly their specialism and more than one class from the same year group. This was because they thought it reduced teachers' planning time and helped them to develop their expertise because they had less subject matter to focus on.

134. Occasionally, senior leaders were too focused on evaluating the quality of science education in relation to generic features, such as 'extended writing' or 'literacy'. They did not focus on considering whether pupils learned more science.

What pupils know and remember
Summary of the research review in relation to impact
To gain expertise in science pupils need to assimilate content which is well-organised. Pupils need knowledge that builds around key scientific concepts and ideas. Pupils need to remember what they learned previously, so that new knowledge can be incorporated into this emerging schema (pattern of interconnected learning) and become flexible, meaningful and easy to use. However, research is clear that, for some pupils, science comprises an array of disconnected knowledge that lacks any organised structure. As a result, pupils do not appreciate the important relationships that can link and organise the knowledge learned and the logical structure of each scientific discipline remains a mystery.

What inspectors learned from their visits to classrooms and speaking to pupils

135. In most schools, pupils' work followed the intended curriculum sequence. However, in some of the secondary schools, most pupils were not able to remember what they had previously learned in science.

136. In a few schools, pupils demonstrated particularly secure knowledge of science because they knew how different concepts, often from different content areas, connected. For example, pupils in one school made valid comparisons between the transportation systems of plants and the transportation systems of animals, and recognised how sophisticated plants are.

137. In each class, what pupils knew was often quite variable, and some pupils' foundational knowledge was not secure. For example, in one Year 10 class, pupils were drawing diagrams of ions, and some pupils thought the diagram showed an electron. In another class, pupils learned about electric plugs, but did not know that metals conduct electricity.

138. At times, what pupils were learning did not make sense to them. For example, although most pupils could recall that plants carry out photosynthesis, some pupils did not know what the function of this was. As expected from the research literature on misconceptions, some pupils' responses suggested that they held misconceptions. For example, some said that plants 'create energy'. Pupils also demonstrated difficulties in using terms precisely, for example confusing the word 'cell' with 'organelle'.

139. Where pupils' knowledge was particularly fragile, this was often attributed by teachers and school leaders to the effects of the pandemic or classes having experienced changes in teachers and/or supply teachers.
What one group of Year 9 pupils knew about plants
What have you learned about plants?

... last time was Year 7

... plants can spread out their pollen so they can reproduce, and wind takes it

... looked at bees and stuff

... there is nucleus in the centre of a plant

... there is photosynthesis process

What is photosynthesis?

... when a plant takes the food from the sun

These extracts are typical of pupils' scientific knowledge. This identifies that pupils have learned about key processes such as pollination and photosynthesis. However, they have not secured an appropriate depth of knowledge. For example, they hold incorrect ideas about photosynthesis. Simply teaching these pupils new knowledge about plants would likely lead to further confusion. This is why formative assessment is so important.

140. In some schools, inspectors found that pupils had excellent practical skills. These pupils were confident about setting up equipment such as microscopes and oscilloscopes, and weighing out and measuring the volume and masses of chemicals. In addition to their knowledge of practical procedures, pupils were also able to explain, using detailed scientific knowledge, the reasons for the equipment they had selected. They also knew some of the common 'pitfalls' in setting up the apparatus. At key stage 5, a few schools went beyond the required practical activities to ensure that students had sufficient opportunities to practise specific aspects of practical work.

141. In some schools, pupils explained the work of scientists as in some way related to a fair test approach. For example, they identified that scientists 'control variables' and 'repeat experiments'. Some pupils went further and explained why repetitions were necessary, and described how anomalous results could be identified and dealt with. In contrast, some pupils had very limited knowledge of how scientists find things out. Their answers were limited to 'doing research' or 'doing tests'.

142. Overall, few pupils talked about types of scientific enquiry beyond fair testing. For example, pattern seeking, classification or observing over time were rarely mentioned. Peer review and scientific models were referred to by students in only a very small number of schools. Fieldwork was not mentioned by any pupil from any school. This provides further evidence, alongside other areas described in this report, that schools should focus further on developing pupils' disciplinary knowledge so that they have a more genuine understanding of how scientists and science work to establish and refine scientific knowledge.
What a small sample of pupils in one school knew about how scientists find things out
Year 9 pupils:

They do research

They do experiments

... learned about Charles Darwin who discovered some bird on an island

Year 11 pupils:

... analyse data

... use a hypothesis to see if their experiment matches it

They try to keep things the same to see what happens when they change stuff

... don't know

Sixth-form pupils:

... important to get the hypothesis right

They have different perspectives depending on the evidence

These extracts are typical of what inspectors found when they asked pupils about how scientists find things out. Most pupils typically referred to carrying out fair tests and could name some famous scientists. However, often pupils' knowledge was superficial and did not demonstrate that they had a secure understanding of science as a discipline of enquiry, involving a number of different methods.

Appendix

Methodological note

This thematic report draws on findings from 50 research visits to schools in England. These visits were carried out between September 2021 and July 2022.

Deep dives into science took place as part of scheduled school inspections under the Education Inspection Framework. They were carried out by inspectors with relevant expertise in science education who had received training for this work. This inspector carried out a deep dive as part of our methodology for evaluating the quality of education. Inspectors gathered rich range of data from speaking to senior leaders, subject leaders and teachers, visiting science lessons and speaking to pupils. They also reviewed pupils' work in science.

Various criteria were monitored consistently to identify characteristics for the sample that risked being underrepresented. These criteria were: region, inspection outcome, disadvantage quintile, size of school, and a rural or urban location. We made sure that the sample was broadly representative of the national picture and there was some representation from schools with different characteristics. The deep dive evidence collected was split evenly between primary and secondary schools.

Inspectors gathered qualitative evidence about science education in schools they visited. The range of evidence gathered across these visits enabled us to identify common themes in science education which are likely to be relevant in a wide range of schools.

Inspectors focused on gathering evidence which related to the following areas:

When analysing this evidence, we drew on the conception of quality in science education which we outlined in our science research review. This enabled us to consider how science education in English schools relates to our best evidence-based understanding of how schools can ensure a high-quality science education for all pupils.

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Finding the optimum: the science subject report

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Science helps us to answer our biggest questions and to meet our most basic needs: from explaining the deepest mysteries of the universe to the structure of elementary particles that form atoms. The findings of science have fundamentally shaped every aspect of our world.

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Response to Finding the Optimum by Jane Turner Lynne Bianchi and Sarah Earle

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Response to Finding the Optimum by Jane Turner Lynne Bianchi and Sarah Earle

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Landing Page of Padlets for Year 1-6 Programmes of Study units 

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Landing Page of Padlets for Year 1-6 Programmes of Study units 

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PSTT has designed the following symbols (for consistency in their own resources) that could be displayed in your classroom or staffroom to help introduce different types of enquiry approaches to science learning.

These symbols are ©Primary Science Teaching Trust 2019 but may be freely used by teachers in schools for educational purposes, subject to the source being credited.

When using symbols, please do not:

Re-scale or warp, shear or otherwise alter or distort the proportions of any original artwork

Add any visual effects to the symbols (e.g. shadows)

Alter the colours

Change the symbols' orientation

Add any text to the symbol

Add gradations

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Enquiry Approaches - Primary Science Teaching Trust

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Definitions and examples of different types of scientific enquiry.

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1. Home

2. Resources

3. Teaching Resources

4. Subject Leader Support

Enrich primary science at your school with the best science resources, training for staff, school visits, science visitors and competitions.

There are many ways to develop science in your school, and a good starting point is to find out what is happening in science across the whole school. Our Subject Leader Self-evaluation Tool should help you to audit science in your setting and support you to plan your next steps. The tool can be downloaded from the Resources tab.

We also encourage you to consider taking part in the Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM). This year-long CPD programme focuses on developing effective, confident science leadership for whole school impact on science teaching and learning. PSTT is proud to be a long term supporter of PSQM through a strategic partnership with the University of Hertfordshire.

WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACH

To find out what is happening across the school, you may decide to organise a staff meeting or talk to your colleagues individually. To answer some questions, you may need to arrange time out of class to observe teaching, look at books and displays and talk to children. This section is grouped into 8 areas. Click on the titles below for more information.

1. TIMETABLE

Is science taught weekly?

Ofsted's 2013 report, Maintaining Curiosity, recommends that school leaders and governing bodies should provide sufficient weekly curriculum time [for science] so that individual pupils develop good scientific enquiry skills as well as the knowledge they need. The Wellcome Trust's 2018 report, A review of Ofsted inspection reports: in relation to science and maths, states that schools should deliver sufficient weekly curriculum time for science. Children need regular, enquiry-based learning to develop the practical skills necessary for future work in science, technology or engineering. Restricting science to irregular 'science days' in primary schools does not allow enough time for children to develop these skills.

How much time is allocated to science?

There is no statutory requirement to teach science for a fixed number of hours per week and there is a huge variation in the number of hours spent teaching science across schools. The Wellcome Trust's 2017 State of The Nation report of UK primary science education found that on average classes are taught science for the equivalent of 1.7 hours a week and 54% of classes receive less than 2 hours a week.

The Key for School Leaders explains that:

Maintained schools need enough time to cover the content set out in the National Curriculum.

Academies need enough time to allow for a broad and balanced curriculum, including English, mathematics, science and religious education.

As long as you meet those requirements, the number of hours of science teaching for any phase is up to the school. The Campaign for Science and Engineering(CaSE) suggests that two hours is the minimum time needed to teach primary science with the required level of depth and understanding to deliver the science curriculum.

2. Curriculum

The PSQM CPD programme, which runs across the UK, supports subject leaders to effectively implement a curriculum for science that is informed by research evidence and best practice data.

What are the statutory requirements?

In all the countries of the UK, it is a statutory requirement to teach science. Despite apparent differences, the curricula in all these countries seek to provide relevance to real life and encourage the development of children's scientific skills and understanding of scientific processes.

In England

The Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage (published in 2021) sets standards for the learning and development of children up to five years old. All pre-schools and schools with reception classes (ages 4-5 years) must follow these standards. There are seven Areas of Learning and Development. Understanding the World is one of these and involves helping children to make sense of their physical world and their community through exploration and observation of people, places, technology and the environment. It is up to providers to decide how they will approach the curriculum. The following documents offer non-statutory guidance material to support practitioners implementing the EYFS framework in England:

Development Matters in the Early Years Foundation Stage (updated in July 2021 by Department for Education) gives age-related expectations referring to the current curriculum and examples of how to support this.

Birth to 5 Matters (published by the Early Years Coalition in March 2021) also offers similar age-related guidance on what a child might be doing at different stages and what adults might do and provide to support children's development.

At the time of writing (January 2022) there are no exemplification materials linked to the 2021 EYFS curriculum.

The National Curriculum in England (published in 2003) states that science is a core subject, along with English and maths, and is compulsory in Key Stage 1 (Years 1 and 2/ages 5-7) and Key Stage 2 (Years 3-6/ages 7-11). It emphasises that children should be taught about the nature, processes and methods of science by working scientifically. Children are expected to develop specific enquiry skills (asking questions, making predictions, setting up tests, observing, measuring, recording data, interpreting and communicating findings, and evaluating investigations) through carrying out investigations and studying the science content.

In Wales

The Foundation Phase Framework (revised 2015) sets out requirements for children aged 3-7 years. It includes seven Areas of Learning. Knowledge and Understanding of the World (KUW) is one of the areas and is comprised of science, history and geography. The emphasis is on asking questions and trying to find answers through exploration, enquiry and experimentation.

The National Curriculum for Wales (published 2016) sets out the requirements from Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11) and science is included as a discrete subject. Children are expected to develop cross-curricular skills within science (thinking, communication, ICT and number).

Note: a new curriculum, Successful Futures, will be introduced in September 2022 for 3 to 16 year olds. There are six Areas of Learning Experience, one of which is Science and Technology. There is considerable emphasis on developing cross-curricular skills (literacy, numeracy and digital competence) and integral skills (creativity and innovation skills, critical thinking and problem solving, personal effectiveness, and planning and organising skills). There is also greater emphasis on the cultural heritage of contemporary Wales. Teachers will need to consider how the geography of Wales, its local industry and Welsh individuals (historical and contemporary scientists and engineers) have shaped its science and technological activity. From September 2020, some schools are beginning to design their curriculum with this in mind. Curriculum Guidance (published in January 2020) is available to help schools develop their own curriculum for Science and Technology. The following documents outlining the four purposes of the curriculum may also be useful:

In Scotland

In Scotland, the the Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) supports Broad General Education (BGE) designed to provide a rounded education from the early years (age 3) until the end of S3 (age 13/14). The BGE is divided into five curriculum levels (early, first, second, third and fourth) across eight curriculum areas. Primary age learners typically work within early, first and second levels.

Science is one of the eight curricular areas. Through learning in the sciences, children and young people develop their interest in and understanding of, the living, material and physical world. CfE supports science skills and content and places increased emphasis on inter-disciplinary or cross-curricular learning.

Each curriculum area is supported by experiences and outcomes. Experiences and outcomes (often called Es&Os) are a set of clear and concise statements about children's learning and progression in each curriculum area. They are used to help plan learning and to assess progress.

CfE Benchmarks (published 2017) sets out clear statements about what learners need to know and be able to do to achieve a level across all curriculum areas. Benchmarks have been developed to provide clarity on the national standards expected within each curriculum area at each level and to support consistency in teachers' and other practitioners' professional judgements.

Principles and practice - each principles and practice document sets out the purposes of learning within a particular curriculum area, describes how the experiences are organised and offers guidance on aspects such as learning and teaching, broad features of assessment, progression and connections with other areas of the curriculum. The CfE science principles and practice document outlines the importance of developing inquiry and investigative skills and scientific analytical thinking skills across the BGE.

Within CfE literacy, numeracy and health and wellbeing are recognised as being particularly important - these areas are seen as being the 'responsibility of all' staff. All documents are available in both English and Gaelic.

In Northern Ireland

The Northern Ireland Curriculum (published in 2007) for The Foundation Stage (Years 1 and 2/ages 4-6), Key stage 1 (Years 3 and 4/ages 6-8) and Key Stage 2 (Years 5, 6 and 7/ages 8-11) is set out in six Areas of Learning. The World Around Us (WAU) is one of these Areas of Learning. It encourages children's natural curiosity and answers some of their questions about the world from the perspectives of geography, history, and science and technology. Teachers should enable children to develop knowledge, understanding and skills in four connected strands of:

Interdependence

Place

Movement and Energy

Change Over Time

Where possible, links should be made with the other Learning Areas. Therefore, interpretation of the WAU curriculum by the teacher should ensure that science is taught within a meaningful context rather than in isolation. Focus is placed upon the development of cross-curricular skills including Communication, Using Mathematics and Using ICT.

Do long and medium term plans show progression in both subject knowledge and enquiry skills?

Subject leaders need to make sure that their school curriculum shows progression and sequencing of both subject knowledge and enquiry skills. Although children might be more engaged in a practical science lesson, it is important that they are able to understand and remember the underlying knowledge and concepts of the science that they are learning, and explain what they are investigating, rather than the experiment itself. On the other hand, a curriculum focusing only on subject knowledge will not equip children with the skills they need later to work independently in science and to access the secondary science curriculum. To put this simply, whatever curriculum you follow, children should be doing science to learn science.

Further support for teachers in England:

You might be interested in reading Ofsted's 2019 report, Intention and substance regarding the importance of knowledge and concepts. It states that all practical work must be firmly rooted in the science that they are learning.

Teachers may find the PLAN assessment resources useful for understanding knowledge progression in topics and progression in working scientifically skills. Teachers need to be confident about the key learning, vocabulary and working scientifically skills appropriate for their year group. Plan Knowledge matrices and PLAN Working scientifically matrices provide this information. PLAN Examples of work show suitable activities for each age group.

PSTT Fellow, Claire Loizos, who has experience in science subject leadership, has created a document to show curriculum progression in primary science for schools that she supports on the Isle of Wight. We believe that other teachers will find this document useful and we are very pleased that she is happy to share these resources much more widely. You can download the document here and you will find it below Resources tab. For each science topic from Year 1 to Year 6, Primary Science Curriculum Progression provides:

National Curriculum objectives

prior learning

future learning

key questions to ask children

appropriate vocabulary

'sticky' knowledge

key scientists

linked texts

possible investigations for each enquiry type

a BIG question (which could be an assessment opportunity)

Further support for teachers in Wales:

Teachers should refer to the Curriculum Guidance for Science and Technology which defines six statements of what matters (curiosity; design & engineering; living things & the environment; matter & materials; forces & energy; computational processes), the principles of progression and descriptions of learning. The descriptions of learning provide guidance on how learners should progress within each statement of what matters. There are 5 progression steps and steps 1, 2 and 3 correspond to expectations of what learners should attain by ages 5, 8 and 11.

Further support for teachers in Scotland:

Two versions of the Education Scotland STEM self-evaluation and improvement framework for early learning and childcare, ASN, primary and secondary schools are available. One version has been developed for STEM coordinators and senior leaders. A two-page summary version for practitioners has also been produced. The framework includes challenge questions and a series of progression statements for relevant quality indicators to help settings reflect on and plan improvements in relation to STEM.

Teachers may be interested in the Scottish Government second annual report on progress with the STEM Education and Training Strategy which highlights progress made in the first year as the strategy starts to deliver benefits for educators and young people.

Further support for teachers in Northern Ireland:

Teachers may be interested in The Implementation of The World Around Us, a report on a project organised by the Council for the Curriculum, Examination & Assessment (CCEA) and Curriculum Advisory Support Service (CASS) in 2008, which documents how different schools have implemented the WAU curriculum. It includes an audit tool for your school and examples of strategy and an action plan that you may find useful.

Teachers will find the Progression Guidance (published by CCEA), which describes the progression of skills and understanding through the primary years, a useful document.

Are effective cross-curricular links made?

Ofsted's Maintaining curiosity report (2013) stated that teachers who coupled good literacy teaching with interesting and imaginative science contexts helped pupils make good progress in both subjects. This argument could also be applied to other subjects as linking subjects can double the time available to teach both subjects. Several resources are available to support cross-curricular learning and here we have listed some of these:

Let's Go! Science Trails and Let's Go! STEM Trails (both published by PSTT) provide support and ideas for outdoor learning of science and include cross-curricular links to many other subjects. Suitable for ages 4-11.

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants (published by PSTT) links the work of 10 famous historic scientists to the work of contemporary scientists, giving children an appreciation of how wider scientific understanding develops over time, and offers a series of engaging practical investigations that encourage children to generate their own questions to explore and develop their understanding further. Cross-curricular links to many other subjects are also provided. Suitable for ages 5-11.

Titanic Science (published by PSTT) is a multi-disciplinary resource telling the story of the Titanic that contains individual investigations to highlight science concepts and links to creative writing, history and numeracy. Suitable for ages 7-11.

PSTT's science club resource, Engineering our World, include a history element through introducing 8 famous (mainly historical) scientists and engineers as a stimulus for group-based engineering challenges.

The PSTT has a series of Science and History resources for older primary children (7-11 years) which offers the opportunity to foster interest and engagement in science through cross-curricular teaching and learning of history and citizenship.

The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) has developed cross-curricular science ideas webs to support medium-term planning. These provide ideas for linking science teaching and learning with commonly used primary curriculum history topics: either to link two discrete science and history topics or to give science lessons a history theme. Each resource contains key questions which can be used to drive enquiry-based learning around science topics. Each web is available in three age ranges (5-7 years, 7-9 years and 9-11 years) to cover different abilities.

Children's stories provide a wonderful stimulus for learning science. STEM Learning has several resource packs for all ages based around popular children's books for Teaching science through stories.

A Science Reading Challenge within a school setting, where the focus is reading books for pleasure, can extend children's knowledge of science and show children that science reading can be interesting and fun. To find out more, please click on the link to visit a PSTT resource explaining how to organise your own Science Reading Challenge.

An Overview of PSTT Resources linked to the primary curriculum is available to download. This document is based on the programme of Study for the National Curriculum in England. However, it may still be useful to teachers from all four nations to see which PSTT resources can be linked to common primary science topics across different ages.

You may also be interested in the Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC) primary resources for teachers. Activities provide an opportunity to learn about different science topics and are put into a real life context. These are linked to the National Curriculum for England but could be useful for teachers across the UK. You can search their resources by either the science topic, the type of enquiry or through cross-curriular links.

3. Scientific Literacy
Are children using scientific vocabulary with understanding?
None of the primary science curricula of the UK define age-appropriate science vocabulary. It is left to the class teacher to decide.

PLAN Knowledge matrices list key vocabulary for science topics for different year groups. Although this resource is linked to the English National Curriculum, it could also be useful for teachers across the UK.

Are children learning to reason and to explain their ideas?
Children need opportunities to practise using scientific vocabulary and to take part confidently in discussions with others about issues involving science. There are resources available that allow children to do this.

Bright Ideas, developed as part of a PSTT-funded project, offers strategies to encourage pupils to develop their thinking though talking about science and sharing their ideas in a dedicated discussion slot: Odd One Out; Positive, Minus, Interesting (PMI); and The Big Question.

Explorify, created by The Wellcome Trust, provides a range of science activities (including some Bright Ideas strategies, videos and hands-on activities) designed to spark curiosity and debate.

"I can explain!", created by PSTT Fellow, Ali Eley, consists of beautifully illustrated, high-quality picture cards and language prompts to facilitate rational discussion. Children work in small groups to explore scientific concepts. Through developing and practising effective group talk skills, they link ideas with evidence, and use scientific vocabulary with confidence and understanding.

4. SCientific Enquiry

Are children taught enquiry skills?

Whichever curriculum your school follows, children should have the opportunity to carry out practical investigations in science that help them to develop their scientific skills. These are the skills that scientists need to carry out research and are sometimes referred to as a cycle of plan, do, review. Teachers in English schools will know these skills as working scientifically skills. Elsewhere they could be referred to as science enquiry skills or simply enquiry skills:

asking questions

making predictions

setting up tests

observing and measuring

recording data

interpreting and communicating results

evaluating

Definitions and examples of different enquiry skills can be found here.

Teachers should be aware of the progression of these skills across the primary phases and plan to teach and assess these skills within children's practical investigations. For example, if children are recording data in a table:

With children (ages 5-7), you might model how to use a pre-prepared table with column headings to record observations before you ask children to do this independently.

With children (ages 7-9), you might provide a table (with or without column headings) for children to record their observations.

With children (ages 9-11), you might expect children to draw their own table with appropriate column headings to record their findings (including for repeat readings and averages).

The progression of working scientifically statements taken from the English National Curriculum can be found here.

PSTT has designed symbols to represent enquiry skills (for consistency in their own resources) that could be displayed in your classroom to help the children identify and recall the particular science skills they are using in their science investigations.

You may also be interested in Working Scientifically in the Primary Classroom - Progression of enquiry skills from EYFS to KS3 published by the Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC). This document contains progression grids, guidance and child-friendly self and peer assessment posters. Note: this document will be updated to reflect changes in the EYFS curriculum in England when the new curriculum becomes statutory in Spetember 2021.

Do children regularly carry out practical investigations using a range of enquiry types?

Whichever curriculum your school follows, over the course of an academic year, pupils should carry out several investigations that involve different types of enquiry:

comparative / fair testing

research

observation over time

pattern seeking

identifying, grouping and classifying

problem solving

Definitions and examples of different enquiry skills can be found here. PSTT has designed symbols to represent types of enquiry (for consistency in their own resources) that could be displayed in your classroom to help the children identify what type of investigation they are doing.

The PSTT provides a wealth of resources to support teaching and learning of diffrent types of enquiry. An Overview of PSTT Resources linked to the primary curriculum is available to download. This document is based on the programme of Study for the National Curriculum in England. However, it may still be useful to teachers from all four nations to see which PSTT resources can be linked to common primary science topics across different ages.

If children are carrying out a comparative or fair test, you may find CIEC's Interactive Planning Tool useful. This interactive document supports children working together to consider all the possible variables in an investigation and helps them to plan their practical work. Guidance on how to use the tool is found here.

Teachers might like to consider using Role Badges for children carrying out practical work. These can promote team work and help practical lessons run smoothly. CIEC produces a set of five badges which you can download here.

5. Differentiation

Is every child's prior knowledge considered when teachers plan units of work?

Some children may have a deeper subject knowledge compared with their peers in areas that interest them, and others may have some misconceptions that need to be addressed. To elicit children's understanding before planning and teaching a topic, so that you can differentiate your teaching appropriately, you could use one of these Assessment for Learning (AfL) strategies:

a Concept Map (either a group discussion of initial ideas or children's individual concept maps)

a Bright Ideas discussion slot (or a similar activity from Explorify)

a Concept Cartoon® (published by Millgate House Education)

a sorting activity (for example: materials into different groups depending on their properties or statements into True or False)

a matching activity (this could include real objects, materials, pictures or vocabulary)

an exploring walk (for example: a sound walk around the school building, a nature walk to identify living things in the environment)

a modelling activity (for example: using foil or playdough to create an animal and describe its features)

Note: this is not an exhaustive list.

You can find examples of AfL strategies in the Teacher Assessment of Primary Science (TAPS) Pyramid Tools. Although these examples are taken from English and Welsh primary schools, the strategies that are demonstrated are transferable to any primary school.

Teachers looking for activities to elicit children's understanding at the start of a topic will also find Explore, Engage, Extend (published by PSTT) a useful resource. There are twenty sets of highly engaging practical activities to support teachers with AfL in science. The activities generate rich assessment data, enabling the teacher to plan the topic in response to the children's specific needs. The topics presented are written for Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11 years), but they are also transferable across year groups, and can be easily adapted for the particular curriculum being followed by the school. A free sample unit is available here.

Do teachers adapt the pace, challenge and content of activities for pupils, including SEND and EAL?

To understand science, children need to be taught some abstract concepts and new vocabulary. This can be difficult for deaf children, EAL children, children with dyslexia and children on the autistic spectrum. To develop science skills, children need to carry out practical investigations that can involve group work, using unfamiliar equipment, moving to a different space (possibly outdoors) and science lessons can be noisier than other subjects. This can be confusing for children with dyslexia, dyscalculia, children on the autistic spectrum and for those with visual impairments. To address children's individual needs, teachers can adapt teaching and learning strategies.

For children with dyslexia, dyspraxia, and dyscalculia:

introduce new scientific vocabulary in advance

highlight important instructions and allow more time for children to carry out tasks

provide a laptop or tablet to record information

provide handouts to reduce the need for writing

using Widgit science symbolscan be helpful (simply-drawn colourful symbols that illustrate a single concept in a clear and concise way)

For deaf children:

introduce new scientific vocabulary in advance

make the lesson as visual as possible with pictures, diagrams and film clips to illustrate meaning

For visually impaired children:

seat the child at the front of the class, away from glaring light

describe clearly and familiarise the child with any equipment

give clear instructions relating to moving around the classroom during practical work (avoid terms such as 'over there')

describe in detail important visual observations during practical investigations

offer to read written information (or partner the child with a 'reader')

enlarge any handouts to a bigger size and a clear font style

For children on the autistic spectrum:

some children will benefit from seeing pictures or visual stories about changes in routine that might occur during a practical science lesson

use clear and precise language when giving instructions or explaining abstract concepts

allow more time for children to process instructions

For EAL children:

use more visual clues (diagrams, photographs), making sure that these are culturally appropriate

allow children to work in groups alongside mixed-ability peers during practical work

model and use a speaking frame that uses key vocabulary and language structures

use a writing frame to show how text should be organised

use drama to explain scientific concepts

provide scaffolding so that learners can move from supported to independent learning

there may be opportunities to partner the child with another who can speak their home language, so they can converse confidently. Be careful not to overuse this strategy.

For many children with special educational needs and disabilities, PSTT's Science in My Pocket is a highly versatile resource. The carefully designed and simple science activities in the pockets can be used with children from nursery up to age 11. Instruction cards inside each pocket include supporting background knowledge and notes for the teaching assistant/teacher leading the activity. Science in my Pocket activities have been shown to be effective for:

Speech and language development

EAL - accessing scientific vocabulary in a safe environment

Short term emotional disturbance, e.g. if a child arrives at school upset

Extension work, e.g. children might design their own pockets

Homework activity

Development of specific personal habits of mind, e.g. independence, negotiation, resilience

Developing thinking skills across the curriculum

Promoting good group work

Finally, for all children, it is important to think about how to organise group work in science lessons, whether it is a card sort activity or a child-led practical investigation. The approach will probably vary according to what topic is being taught and the needs of the pupils. Teachers might consider the following strategies:

Working with a group of children who need more support so that they can scaffold their learning

Working with the most able scientists in the class so that they can challenge their learning

Teaching science in mixed-ability groups so that children with good literacy and numeracy skills can support other children. If you do this, it is important that these children do not dominate any practical or group work. It can be useful to assign roles to each member of the group and to make sure that these roles are changed regularly. Here are some suggestions:

Note: all of the children should be involved in drawing conclusions and evaluating their investigation. The Communicating Officer may need to explain that members of the group have conflicting ideas if this is the case.

1. Resources Manager (collects and sets up the equipment)

2. Health and Safety (checks that the experiment is carried out safely and correctly)

3. Data Collector (records the results)

4. Communications Officer (provides feedback to the class about the group's findings and conclusions)

Are all children able to demonstrate their science skills and conceptual understanding in an appropriate way?

Children could record their learning in a wide variety of ways. Whilst teachers should help children to develop the skill of communicating in science and drawing conclusions from their investigations, it is not necessary for primary-age children to write a record of their investigations in the traditional format: method, results, conclusions. Children could use many genres for writing in science: instructions, a consumer report (for example, the best material for an umbrella is...), a newspaper report, a diary entry (for example, a day in the life of a red blood cell), writing a letter or a story.

Some children do not have literacy skills to match their science knowledge or skills. They may struggle to record their ideas, predictions or findings in science through written work.

Children could present their findings from enquiries orally, use PowerPoint presentations, drama, hot-seating, posters, art work or film.

Children could demonstrate what they know using annotated diagrams, posters, card sort activities, concept maps, graphic organisers, True/False statements, or classifying and grouping activities.

You could use a floorbook to keep a record of children's comments, activities and ideas.

6. Assessment

Are teachers using formative assessment to ensure children make progress with their subject knowledge and enquiry skills?

Explore, Engage, Extend is a useful PSTT resource designed to support teachers with formative assessment (assessment for learning, AFL) in science. The twenty activities generate rich assessment data, enabling the teacher to plan the topic in response to the children's specific needs. The topics presented cover the upper primary age range, but they are also transferable across year groups, and can be easily adapted for the particular curriculum being followed by the school.

The Teacher Assessment in Primary Science (TAPS) project, funded by the PSTT, has developed resources that embed assessment of both subject knowledge and enquiry skills within classroom primary science activities for ages 4-11 years. There are two approaches within TAPS:

1. TAPS provides a database of Focused Assessment Plans and Examples.

TAPS focused assessment plans have a particular focus on the assessment of working scientifically ( science enquiry skills) within a topic context - allowing the teacher to assess one skill within a practical enquiry. Taking one focus (i.e. one science enquiry skill) at a time is more manageable with a whole class and increases the validity of teacher judgements. During the lesson children may well be involved in other aspects of scientific enquiry that are not the focus. For example, if the focus is on interpreting data, the children may also have discussed how to carry out the enquiry and used their measuring skills to collect data, but any recording of children's learning is around the focused element. Many teachers find that annotating plans or just noting those children who have 'not yet met the objective' is sufficient for their record keeping. Assessment Indicators on the TAPS plans provide suggestions about what the children might do or say to demonstrate their science skills or knowledge during practical investigations. As these plans have been trialled by schools, teachers working independently can feel secure that their judgements are consistent with those of other teachers. Using a TAPS focused task each half-term, means that the full range of children's scientific knowledge and skills can be considered in depth during the year. It is recommended that the TAPS Focused Assessment activities are used about two thirds of the way through a topic so that the assessment information can be used formatively; areas for children's development can be identified and subsequent teaching can address children's needs. Used in this way,TAPS Focused Assessment plans can provide a tool for both assessment for learning and summative assessment.

Teachers will find the following Overviews of TAPS Focused Assessment Plans, showing progression in science skills, useful for deciding which plan to use with their class:

2. The TAPS pyramid model

The TAPS Pyramid provides schools with a structure to evaluate and develop their assessment processes. It offers a supportive source of examples of assessment for learning strategies (in the Pupil Layer and Teacher Layer) that can be used as formative assessment. By clicking on each box in these layers, you will be taken to examples from a range of schools. The interactive functions allow you to traffic light your assessment systems (on your own saved copy) and make notes on the approaches in your school.

The following pyramid tools are available:

Teachers in England may find CIEC's Enabling Accurate Teacher Assessment in Primary Science a useful document. It provides guidance on carrying out ongoing assessments to inform summative judgements. CIEC also provides an online tracking system for Years 1 to 6 which teachers may wish to use to collate and monitor their assessment judgements.

Is summative teacher assessment reliable?

Whatever method of assessment teachers use, it is important that their judgements are reliable. Not only should subject leaders monitor the children's attainment and progress, they should also monitor the processes used by teachers to make their assessments. It is useful to arrange moderation sessions with other teachers; in larger schools, in academies, in federations and science clusters, it may be easy to arrange a meeting of teachers of similar year groups to share and discuss children's work. In smaller schools, it may be necessary for teachers of different year groups to support each other. However moderation is organised, having a discussion of teacher judgements and a shared understanding of the subject and assessment, will strengthen the reliability and validity of your data.

For moderation of children's scientific knowledge and enquiry skills, these resources may be useful:

Using TAPS focused assessment plans (as described above) and comparing children's work with the Assessment Indicators.

Teachers in England may also find PLAN assessment resources helpful for comparison of age-appropriate attainment in knowledge, conceptual understanding and enquiry skills. PLAN examples of work show the work of one pupil who meets the requirements of the knowledge statements in the English National Curriculum for each topic. Comparing PLAN examples of work for your year group with the work of your pupils could help you identify those pupils who are meeting/not meeting the expectations.

7. safe science
Does the school have access to informed advice and consider safety guidance and risk assessments?
PSTT advises teachers to refer to either the CLEAPSS website or SSERC website for up to date health and safety information when planning practical activities for children. You may also find it is useful to have a copy of the book Be Safe ( published by ASE) in school. Be Safe includes advice on risk assessments for food hygiene, outdoor learning, making things safely and the safe use of chemicals, animals and plants in school.

The Health and Safety at Work Act and subsequent Regulations require employers to protect their employees by, for example, providing safe working conditions, information & training for health and safety, and (model) risk assessments for activities (required under a range of regulations, including COSHH). CLEAPSS or SSERC membership enables employers to discharge these responsibilities.

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, most local authorities are members of CLEAPSS which means that their schools are members. CLEAPSS provides health and safety support for leaders, risk assessments and tried and tested practical activities. If your primary school is a member of CLEAPSS, you can ring the CLEAPSS helpline and get advice on almost anything to do with science. If your primary school is part of an Academy, you will need to check whether your school has membership of CLEAPSS. In the absence of CLEAPSS membership, the employer, be it the governors or trustees, must consider how to fulfil aspects of the Health and Safety at Work Act and its subsequent regulations and teachers should be aware of where they can get appropriate advice.

In Scotland, all 32 Scottish Local Authorities are members of SSERC, a registered charity set up for the benefit of Scottish education. Members can access health and safety advice, risk assessments and whole school guidance.

8. Outdoor learning

Are the school's outdoor spaces and the local environment being used as a learning resource for all science topics?

Outdoor learning is an important way of contextualising science and allows children to engage with the environment around them; something that cannot always be achieved in a classroom. A short review of the literature concerning outdoor learning in primary schools is available from PSTT Fellow, Michele Grimshaw et al. in the ASE's Journal of Emergent Science (2019) Issue 16, p40-45.

The following PSTT resources may help your school to make the most of its outdoor areas:

Let's Go! Science Trails - a book, developed by a group of teachers in the London borough of Haringey and led by PSTT Fellow Jeannette Morgan, offers support and ideas for 29 science Trails covering all aspects of the primary science curriculum to promote outdoor learning from ages 4-11.

Let's Go! STEM Trails - a book describing another 29 Trails to explore science concepts in the outdoor environment of the school grounds and locality, which focus on and link this to technology, engineering and maths in thought-provoking ways. Suitable from ages 4-11.

Playground Science - is a set of fun and informal science activities that children can carry out in their playtimes. The activities use simple instructions and a small amount of equipment to encourage the children to explore the world around them and to develop scientific skills.

Growing Music - a free booklet describing a PSTT/WOMAD Foundation project which brings together music, science and design technology within a cultural context. The project is based on growing bamboo and playing Colombian pan pipes and is suitable for ages 7-11.

Science in My Pocket - a set of science activities in small bags (pockets) for teaching assistants to use with children who need emotional and behavioural support. They can be used indoors or outdoors and mostly involve moving around which suits the needs of many children.

Learning Science Together provides resources for running an Outdoor Detectives family learning event.

An Overview of PSTT Resources linked to the primary curriculum is available to download. This document is based on the programme of Study for the National Curriculum in England. However, it may still be useful to teachers from all four nations to see which PSTT resources can be linked to common primary science topics across different ages.

ROLE OF THE SUBJECT LEADER

Why does my school need a subject leader for science?

A recent Ofsted report, 'Intention and substance: further findings on primary school science from phase 3 of Ofsted's curriculum research' (2019), states that,

'Science has clearly been downgraded in some primary schools since the scrapping of the key stage 2 test. This is likely to have a serious impact on the depth and breadth of science understanding and knowledge that pupils take with them into secondary school, which may in turn stifle pupils' later curiosity and interest in the sciences. School leaders need to ensure that teachers have deep subject knowledge and to consider what curriculum design really involves in science.'

Schools need a subject leader to support other teachers in their science teaching.

Primary teachers (and science subject leaders) are usually not specialists in science and this is certainly not essential to be a good science subject leader or teacher of primary science. It is the role of the subject leader to support teachers to ensure that science is always taught well, throughout the school, and that teachers aspire to excellence. Part of the role of the subject leader is to model good practice in the subject and to lead by example.

Schools need a subject leader to ensure that science is taught regularly, taught well and that pupils and teachers are enthusiastic about science.

You may need to make changes to your school timetable or to the curriculum to ensure that pupils are being taught science.

Schools need a subject leader to ensure that the pupils have access to suitable equipment for science.

You may need to source new equipment. This can be difficult if there is little or no science budget to purchase consumables or larger items. You will need to know where to find free resources and use items that are readily available in school.

Being a subject leader can be a daunting prospect, particularly in science because it covers many abstract concepts and is a practical subject. You cannot tackle everything at once. Below, we have provided five areas for the subject leader to consider and we suggest that you review these individually.

We also encourage subject leaders to condsider taking part in the Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM) CPD programme which focuses on developing effective, confident science leadership for whole school impact on science teaching and learning.

You may also find the Explorify Toolkit a useful resource, particularly if you are new to the role of science leader.

1. Subject LEADer Development

Does the subject leader have time allocated to the role?

Monitoring teaching and learning across school, collecting assessment data from colleagues, keeping up to date with new strategies and resources, and sharing relevant CPD with colleagues takes time. Subject leaders need to plan and set aside time when these things can happen. This should not be in subject leader's own time or in their PPA time. You may need to have a conversation with your senior leadership to find out how much time is available for your subject leader role and to decide together on the priorities for the school. It is also important that science subject leaders use this time to develop the subject, rather than organising equipment and cupboards. You can download a list of leadership tasks from the RESOURCES tab.

Does the subject leader have access to relevant CPD?

Continuing professional development (CPD) covers any activity that prompts reflection on the quality of teaching in a school. For example, further reading to improve your own subject knowledge, working with peers, attending courses or conferences and online discussions. Firstly, you need to identify your CPD needs. This is really important because the CPD you choose may have an impact on your own teaching, your colleagues' teaching, the children's learning and school improvement.

If you are looking to develop your role as a subject leader in science, you may be interested in the Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM). This is a year-long CPD programme that focuses on developing effective, confident science leadership for whole school impact on science teaching and learning. It is a paid-for programme that offers CPD and expert mentoring for the subject leader who will work with colleagues across the school to audit existing provision, create and implement an action plan to develop teaching and learning across the school, and write a reflective submission to demonstrate the impact of science leadership in school. You can read more about subject leaders' stories about their PSQM experiences in the ASE Primary Science Special Issue: Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM) January 2019.

Remember, you cannot change everything at once. These questions may help you decide what areas to focus on (though this is not an exhaustive list):

Are there any areas of subject knowledge that I need support with?

Do I need support to be a subject leader?

Is our school's science curriculum suitable for our children?

Am I familiar with different types of enquiry and how these might look in the classroom?

Am I familiar with the progression of enquiry skills that children should be taught?

Am I confident in the assessment of primary science?

How can my school enrich science learning?

What are the needs of my colleagues and can I support them?

There are many CPD providers offering support to primary teachers for science. Many of these organisations including PSTT now offer online CPD. We recommend the following:

PSTT's Why&How Newsletter is for anyone who has an interest in science and offers practical support and updates on news, research, projects and key dates.

PSTT provides free online CPD Units which include Material Science (create a Materials Trail using QR codes within your school),Stories in Science (promoting engagement using puppets and story books), Dramatic science (using drama to examine scientific objects, ideas and perspectives), Datalogging and Eco-monitoring and more...

PSTT also supports a Regional Mentor Programme, webinars and conferences. You can contact our Regional Mentors via the PSTT Office using info@pstt.org.uk.

PSTT has a network of PSTT Fellows throughout the UK who may be able to recommend CPD providers in your area. You can ask about this via the PSTT Office using info@pstt.org.uk.

The Association of Science Education (ASE) hold regional and national conferences and TeachMeets (informal meetings for teachers to share ideas and good practice).

STEM Learning organise courses across the UK which can be funded by Enthuse Awards.

PSTT's Wow Science site links to numerous organisations that support primary science education. Teachers can be assured of the high quality of any resources that are linked to this site.

These learned societies and other organisations also have suitable supporting resources that might be useful:

Has the subject leader taken part in PSQM CPD programme?

Primary Science Quality Mark is not like other quality marks: it is a year-long CPD programme that helps schools to achieve a quality mark, whether science within the school has been a low profile for a while, or the school wants to improve the provision further. It focuses on developing effective, confident science leadership for whole school impact on science teaching and learning.

There are three different PSQM awards to ensure that all schools can achieve the accreditation. The criteria are different for each PSQM to ensure that there is appropriate challenge and development for all schools, whatever their starting point.

To achieve PSQM, subject leaders work with an expert hub leader to evaluate current provision for science and put in place a development cycle that leads to sustanined progress in science across the school. At th end of the year, schools submit evidence of the impact of a range of activities.

Is the subject leader aware of PSTT Fellows and any science clusters in their locality?

Established in 2010, the Primary Science Teacher College is a national network of over 190 award-winning primary science teachers. These teachers, known as PSTT College Fellows, are some of the most innovative and outstanding teachers within primary science and have been recognised through the Primary Science Teacher Awards (PSTAs). Award-winning College Fellows may be supporting primary science teaching in your area.

Working in a collaborative group, we can achieve much more than working in isolation. School clusters provide the opportunity and environment to develop primary teaching, benefit our schools and have a positive impact in the classroom. PSTT encourages schools to join up into clusters so that they can support one another in their development of science teaching and have more resilience to change of circumstances in any one school. PSTT are currently supporting and providing funding to 29 PSTT Clusters in different areas of the UK, and in Scotland, we support collaborative networks through our partnership with SSERC. All of these PSTT Clusters are built around a PSTT College Fellow. Additionally, PSTT provides advice for all schools interested in creating cluster networks for primary science here.

2. SuppORting colleagues
Do teachers have access to advice from the subject leader and to relevant CPD?

As subject leader, part of your role is to help your colleagues:

to identify the areas that they need to develop in order to provide excellent teaching in primary science;

to access quality CPD to address their needs;

keep up to date with new developments and initiatives for teaching primary science.

To identify teachers' individual needs, you might consider asking colleagues to complete a short questionnaire. A Teacher Questionnaire is available to download from the RESOURCES tab. These are some of the questions you might like to ask (this is not an exhaustive list):

What would teachers like to know?

What are teachers unsure about?

Are there certain science topics which teachers struggle with?

Do teachers cover all types of enquiry during the year?

Are teachers using the school's outdoor spaces as a learning resource for science?

Are teachers making links to real life?

Are teachers confident in their assessment of science (both children's subject knowledge and enquiry skills)?

Do teachers know where to access safety guidance for practical science?

Having identified teachers' needs, you will need to consider how to address them. You could organise a staff meeting and share your own knowledge and experiences. You may not feel confident doing this and prefer to find CPD offered by an external organisation. Here are some suggestions.

To improve your subject knowledge:

Visit the guidance on Common Misconceptions in PSTT's Why&How Newsletter (available in issues Autumn 2017 - Summer 2019). Topics covered include: Light, Electricity, Evolution, Science and Fiction, Levers, gears and pulleys, and Time for a change! (states of matter)

Try ReachOut CPD (developed with Imperial College London), which is provided free online.

Dynamic Labs (funded by PSTT) provides resources to support teaching and learning of sound, light and matter.

The Ogden Trust provides a physics CPD programme for primary teachers and a range of curriculum resources for teaching and learning physics.

For CPD on practice or provision:

There are a range of CPD Units on the PSTT website that includeMaterials Science (create a Materials Trail within your school),Stories in Science (promoting engagement using puppets and story books), Dramatic science (using drama to examine scientific objects, ideas and perspectives), and more...

Our PSTT Regional Mentor Programme offers support to schools across the UK. Regional Mentors are able to provide tailored advice via video conferencing and in some instances, depending on locality, they be able to visit you and provide CPD. You can contact our Regional Mentors via the PSTT Office using info@pstt.org.uk. There are also opportunities to benefit from Regional Mentor CPD through PSTT webinars and conferences.

PSTT has a network of PSTT Fellows throughout the UK who may be able to recommend CPD in your area. You can ask about this via the PSTT Office using info@pstt.org.uk.

There are many other CPD providers offering to support schools with primary science. You could try STEM Learning, which offers a huge range of courses and online CPD.

The Association of Science (ASE) organises regional and national conferences that provide excellent CPD opportunities. ASE Teachmeets are also an informal and inspiring way for teachers to share ideas with one another (using an online forum since the COVID-19 pandemic). You can share or just listen.

Other support:

Are your colleagues aware of the PSTT's Wow Science website, which provides links to organisations that provide support for science teachers at primary level? Teachers can be assured that materials promoted on this site are high quality. Additionally, Wow Science regularly produces blog posts to support teaching and learning of science, including though-provoking discussions and practical classroom activities.

The PSQM CPD programme can help all teachers in a school to develop their teaching of science.

3. Monitoring teaching and learning
Does the subject leader review teaching and pupil progress across the school?

There are several ways that subject leaders could monitor science teaching across the school which we discuss below. The PSQM CPD programme also offers guidance and support for subject leaders on monitoring teaching and learning in their setting.

Pupil Voice (using informal interviews with small groups of children, talking to the school council, or children's questionnaires) enables you to understand children's perceptions of science as a subject, whether they engage with science, and what goes on in their science lessons.

Suggestions for arranging a pupil voice session:

Invite 2 or 3 children from each class.

Set aside 20-30 minutes for the session.

Have a list of questions/questionnaire prepared (see below).

Have a short science activity/demonstration that will interest the children and will help the children relax and engage with you.

Let the children know the reason you are talking to them is to find out what they think about science at their school.

Some of the questions that you might like to ask are:

How often do you have a science lesson?

What do you like about science lessons?

What has been your favourite part of science this year?

Do you work in groups in science lessons?

Do you use equipment in science lessons?

What do you find hardest in science lessons?

You can download a Pupil Voice Questionnaire from the RESOURCES tab on this webpage and adapt the questions to suit your audience.

Book looks (reviewing a small sample of children's books from each class) will enable you to find out what the children are recording in science lessons, and whether they are using appropriate age-related vocabulary in science lessons. The amount and style of writing in science books might provide an insight into the frequency and types of practical enquiry the children carry out and how the teacher is differentiating science teaching and learning.

Things you might want to look for in a book look:

Do the children carry out regular practical investigations using a range of types of enquiry?

When the children write about their investigation, do they focus on writing about one part of the investigation or do they write a full science report (using headings such as diagram, method, results, conclusion)? If the children are required to write a full science report, does this happen in the science lesson or in a literacy lesson? Note: this might tell you how much time is spent writing during the science lesson.

Does the book show tables and graphs? Are these different for different children (indicating that the children have worked in small groups and collected data themselves) or the same (suggesting that the teacher carried out the investigation)?

Have the children evaluated their investigation and commented on what they might do differently or next time?

Have the children used age-appropriate science vocabulary?

Do children use a variety of ways of recording their learning in a written format, such as a schematic diagram, a newspaper report, a set of instructions, or a story?

How often do the children complete a worksheet?

Has the teacher marked the work and have the children been given time to reflect on any feedback from the teacher?

Has the teacher used a floorbook to record children's ideas and practical work? You can find out more about floorbooks here.

Learning walks provide a quick way to review the profile of science across the school. Subject leaders could do this alone or with their colleagues during a staff meeting. Some things to look out for:

Is there a science display board in every classroom or in corridors?

Where there are displays in classrooms, do they display age-appropriate science vocabulary?

Are there pictures or even objects to engage children?

Are there examples of children's work?

Are there questions to prompt further questioning and learning?

Are there links to everyday life?

Lesson observations could enable you to see some of the strategies that teachers are using in their lessons. Although lesson observations can provide information about the quality of teaching for the observer (the subject leader or senior leadership), and feedback from the observer can identify strengths and areas for development for the teacher, it can be a stressful process for all concerned. Some subject leaders have preferred to use a team teaching approach as described below.

Team teaching (co-teaching) can be a very useful approach for monitoring the quality of science teaching and an opportunity for the subject leader to provide some CPD for the class teacher. To get the most out of a team teaching lesson, it is important to have a professional dialogue with the class teacher before and after the science lesson that you teach together. Some questions that might help you to prepare a team teaching session:

Is there an aspect of teaching that the class teacher needs to develop? Together, decide on an area for development and how this might be achieved. For example, a teacher may want support on eliciting children's ideas at the start or end of a lesson.

How could the subject leader address the class teacher's needs? The subject leader should reflect on an appropriate way to address the class teacher's needs. In our example, the subject leader may decide to introduce the class teacher to using a Bright Ideas Time or an Explorify activity in his/her teaching. Before the lesson, both parties should agree what will be taught and who will teach each part of the lesson.

How could the subject leader effectively deliver CPD to their colleague?The subject leader could model using either strategy during the lesson (at the start to elicit children's existing knowledge and understanding and/or at the end to assess children's learning) and the class teacher could observe this.

How can the class teacher exemplify their teaching and the children's learning? The class teacher could lead part of the lesson. For example, the class teacher could introduce a practical investigation and supervise the children carrying out their investigation. During this time, the subject leader can observe the teaching and talk to the children about their learning. The subject leader might teach the last part of the lesson, perhaps a plenary.

How can the subject leader make this a positive experience for the class teacher? After the lesson, there should be a professional dialogue in which both parties are able to talk about what they think went well and what perhaps needs improving.

You can read more about co-teaching as a viable model for raising teacher confidence in an article by PSTT Fellow, Kathy Schofield, in the ASE's Journal of Emergent Science (2019/20) Issue 18, 23-28.

4. Resourcing science

Do children have a range of suitable equipment for practical science?

Hands-on practical learning is fundamental to science teaching and requires resourcing to be effective. You will need to purchase some equipment from specialist educational suppliers, for example, TTS Group. Other resources such as wool, jam jars, candles, old seeds, etc. could be collected from parents and the local community by sending out a request in the school's newsletter or the website.

A list of science equipment for all the science topics can be found in the PSTT CPD Unit 'Resourcing Primary Science'. This includes advice on storage, labelling, health and safety, developing pupil responsibility and science audit lists.

Does the subject leader access funding from external sources to support science?

Several organisations provide grants and funding for primary science projects. Below, is a list of some that might be useful. Click on the links to visit their websites and find out more. This is not a complete list. A spreadsheet listing more possibilities can be downloaded from the RESOURCES tab.

Royal Society Partnership Grants help schools and colleges to purchase equipment to carry out and investigate STEM research projects.

The Institute of Physics School Grants Scheme offers for projects which focus on physics.

The Royal Society of Chemistry provides a number of grants for equipment, for running a chemistry club, and also for chemistry-based school engagement activities.

The Microbiology Society provides Educations and Outreach Grants which focus on microbiology.

The British Ecological Society provides Outreach Grants for the promotion of ecological science.

British Science Week provides Kick Start grants for schools to run activities for students at your school.

CREST provides funding to run CREST Awards (a nationally recognised scheme for student-led project work in the STEM subjects).

The Ogden Trust provides funding for the teaching and learning of physics. Schools would need to become part of the Ogden Partnership.

5. Curriculum enrichment

Does the curriculum link science to real world applications?

Science and STEM subjects have a massive impact on our modern lives, whether we study these subjects or not. Yet many socio-economic groups remain underrepresented in science and STEM-related jobs. Many people believe that studying science is only important if they want to become doctors or scientists, but this is not the case.

The PSTT has a wealth of free teaching resources to encourage children to explore the world around them. An Overview of PSTT Resources linked to the primary curriculum is available to download. This document is based on the programme of Study for the National Curriculum in England. However, it may still be useful to teachers from all four nations to see which PSTT resources can be linked to common primary science topics across different ages.

The PSTT has also developed two freely downloadable resources that can help teachers to introduce scientists and their work to primary children:

The PSTT's I bet you didn't know... articles and teacher guides provide access to cutting-edge science research for teachers and young children with links to the primary science curriculum topics. The articles explain what scientists have done and suggest questions for children and teachers to consider in the classroom. The teacher guides (which could be used as classroom presentations) describe activities that children can do to mirror the research.

The PSTT's Engineering our World resource was designed as a stand-alone resource for a science club. Practical activities for children are linked to the work of 'traditional' scientists and engineers. Four males and four females were chosen. Fact sheets for each famous person focus on their main achievement and provide prompts for further learning. Challenge sheets describe an activity that is linked to what the person was famous for and explain the science behind the work.

There are many ways to introduce scientists and their work to primary children, through visits to museums and science discovery centres, or by inviting visiting scientists into the classroom using the STEM Ambassador scheme.

Encounter Edu designs and delivers a STEM and global learning programme for primary age children including live lessons with video links, teacher resources, STEM activities, videos and virtual reality content. Many of the resources are freely available. You can catch up on past live events (e.g. World Ocean Day, Fieldworklive, AXA Arctic Live 2020, and many more) or access either the Teacher Resources, STEAM activities or videos directly. Topics covered include: Oceans for beginners, Ocean Plastics, Submarine STEM, and Google Expeditions which explore many themes such as coral bleaching, Mount Everest, Recycling in New York, volcanoes and rivers.

You may also be interested in Practical Action STEM challenges: a range of free resources that can be used for home learning, science lessons, curriculum enrichment days, and science clubs, which engage children in real world issues including climate change, renewable energy, food security and disaster preparedness.

The Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC) primary resources link science topics to real-world issues. You can search their resources by either the science topic, the type of enquiry or through cross-curriular links.

Does the curriculum link science to your locality?

Linking learning to children's interests and experiences is known to improve outcomes. What science resources do you have in your local area? Here is a list of questions which might help you to make some useful links:

Are there any parents who work in science-related jobs who would be willing to come and talk to the children about what they do?

Are there any industries (e.g. engineering companies, solar farms) who would send a representative to school or allow you to visit their workplace?

What outdoor spaces can you visit to look for evidence of science and its impact on our lives? You will find lots of ideas for taking EYFS, KS1 and KS2 science learning outside in Let's Go! Science Trails and Let's Go! STEM Trails.

Are there any famous scientists (historical or contemporary) living in your area?

Do children learn about the nature of science and the way scientists work?

Group-based engineering challenges and classroom practical enquiries can develop an understanding of how scientists carry out their work. The PSTT has produced the following resources which link children's practical science to the work of real scientists:

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants offers a series of ten investigations based on the work of an influential historic scientist or inventor. It details activities for children that model those carried out by each scientist. By replicating the scientists' methods, children learn about the 'messy' process of carrying out scientific enquiries and how these scientists all worked in different ways (employing different types of enquiry to solve problems).

PSTT's An example that worked well with children in one school is Tim Peake (a British astronaut who visited the International Space Station in 2015), with linked challenges to create and investigate stomp rockets. Engineering our World resource (already mentioned above) provide eight activities linked to the work of a famous engineer or scientist. The approach used (Fact sheets and Challenge sheets) can be used to find out about other scientists or engineers in the world. Other scientists may initially be prompted by the teacher/parent/carer, but children can also be drivers here, taking more ownership of their learning, following their individual curiosity, and consequently fostering stronger connections with science and scientists. We suggest that both teachers and children could take ownership of their science club by brainstorming different scientists that they could investigate in a club sessions, or at home, or in a science week.

The PSTT's I bet you didn't know... articles and teacher guides (already mentioned above) link cutting-edge science research to the primary science topics. When the children's investigations mirror the scientists' research, the children see themselves as scientists because they can copy or reproduce an aspect of real research. This fosters a 'can-do' attitude and engages children who may otherwise not have seen themselves in this role.

Does the curriculum support the development of science capital?

There is much evidence showing that children's interest in science is shaped before they leave primary school. This means that primary teachers play a crucial role in developing children's scientific literacy and their enthusiasm for science.

Science Capital is a concept that is a measure of a person's engagement and relationship with science. Research shows that by growing science capital in individuals, we can help more people to recognise that science is an important part of their lives and cultures, which will help to broaden opportunities and access for STEM-related jobs in the future. Science lessons at primary school may be the first time a child develops an awareness of science and its part in their life.

The 1001Inventions initiatives are great resources to help support children's appreciation of diversity in science. These celebrate the contributions of lesser-known inspirational men and women of different faiths and cultures during the golden age of Muslim civilisation that spread from Spain to China. There are a variety of educational materials (online exhibits, video clips, books, teachers' guides, activity sheets).Note: 1001 Inventions is a UK based not-for-profit science and cultural heritage organisation founded in 2006.

PSTT's Wow Science site specifically sets out to identify the best resources for supporting science learning for primary school aged children, through games, videos, experiment/investigation ideas and other activities that they will find engaging. We aim to provide reassurance to parents that these materials contain accurate scientific explanations where applicable and provide a safe environment for their children to explore. The site therefore provides links to excellent primary science learning materials either on the internet or in apps, helping children (and other family members) to enjoy science both inside and outside the classroom and build science capital.

You can read more about science capital in ASE's Primary Science magazine (June 2020), Issue 163A, p30-34: Increasing science capital by building relationships between industry and the local community (open access).

PSTT's Engineering Our World and I bet you didn't know... resources could be an early step towards addressing the inequalities that currently exist in those who partipate in science post-16 and those who do not. You can read more about the benefits of introducing scientists' work (historical and contemporary) in the primary curriculum with regard to science capital and social justice in an article published in Science Teacher Education* (2020), Issue 88, p25-33: Introducing scientists to primary children: Does this always enhance children's science capital?

*We are grateful to the Association of Science Education (ASE) for making this article open access.

RAISING THE PROFILE OF SCIENCE

There are many ways that teachers can raise the profile of science in their school. Click on the titles below for more information.

1. Science cluBs

Do children have the opportunity to join a science club?

Science clubs in primary schools can be run a number of different ways and there are resources available to support teachers running science clubs. A useful starting point is PSTT's CPD Unit, Science Clubs, which outlines the benefits of running a science club, shares experiences of science club leaders and introduces CREST Awards.

You may also be interested in the PSTT & Children's University Science and STEM Clubs aimed at teachers or other adults looking for support to introduce a primary science or STEM club. These club packs are all free to download and each provides 8 standalone sessions to use with clubs:

Engineering Our World club introduces 8 famous scientists, engineers and artists as a springboard for group-based engineering challenges and is suitable for children aged 7-11.

Sensory Sparks club provides activities aimed specifically towards children with special needs.

Challenge Chasers club provides 8 science activities presented as challenges to solve for children aged 7-11.

Earth Explorers club aims to develop environmental awareness through activities and is suitable for children aged 5-7.

PSTT continues to develop club resources; several new packs are currently in development. These will be freely available from our website.

2. Science competitions

Do children take part in local and national science competitions and citizen science surveys?

Many organisations run regional and national competitions which can be exciting for primary children to take part in. This list below offers some examples but it is by no means exhaustive:

The Great Bug Hunt is an annual competition organised by the Royal Entomological Society and the Association for Science Education. Children are encouraged to explore a safe outside space and report back on their findings. Entries can be a poster, report, video, podcast or a poem. There are three categories: years 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and 5 and 6. The school of the winning pupils in each category, selected by a panel of experts from both the ASE and Royal Entomological Society, receive a bundle of insect exploration-related prizes.

The d 7-11.Nancy Rothwell Award, organised by the Royal Society of Biology, celebrates specimen drawing in schools and highlights the benefits of combining art and science. There is a category for children age

The Special Species Competition, organised by the Linnean Society, asks children to create a new species and is suitable for all age groups.

The FIRST® LEGO® League, organised by the Institute of Engineering and Technology, provides hands-on STEM experiences for children aged 4-16 years. To take part, schools will need Lego® kits which can be expensive. However, there are a number of funding packages available for educational settings, home schoolers and youth groups.

The Great Exhibition at Home is an engineering challenge for children aged 7-14 organised by Big Ideas and supported by The Royal Academy of Engineering.

The Classroom Display competition allows teachers to upload and share their classroom displays to inspire others and is organised by STEM Learning.

The Primary Engineer Leader's Award asks children to consider, 'If you were an engineer, what would you do?' and submit their designs in this annual competition.

3. Science visits

Do children experience science outside school?

Across the UK, there are over fifty science and discovery centres and museums that work with researchers from local universities and industry to provide opportunities for school children to 'meet the experts', attend curriculum-based workshops and careers events, and become involved in large-scale experiments. These centres employ over 5000 professional science engagement specialists, who have the skills to create and deliver fun and engaging activities for all parts of society. A list of science centres can be accessed here. There may also be smaller museums in your region, as well as nature reserves or parks which you could visit.

However, we know that there are many challenges in getting a class of primary children out of school: an already packed timetable, time consuming form-filling and cost. Many UK science centres charge entry fees (except for the national museums) but, even if entry were free, the cost of transport to the centres can be prohibitively high.

If you are unable to arrange a visit to a science-based museum, you can still take science learning outside and we recommend that you do. Further suggestions for outdoor learning are given on this page, under the WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACH - see section 8. Outdoor learning.

You might consider inviting a science 'expert' into the classroom through the STEM Ambassador scheme and the use of local experts (including parents).

The following resources enable teachers to introduce science 'experts' in the classroom remotely:

PSTT's Science At Work provides videos of present-day and historic scientists and engineers talking about their work and answering questions submitted by children.

PSTT's I bet you didn't know... articles and teacher guides introduce the work of contemporary scientists in language that children can understand and describe investigations which children can carry out to mirror cutting-edge research.

PSTT's A Scientist in Your Classroom is a CPD unit which explores the many ways in which you can work with a scientists in your classroom.

Facetime a Farmer, offers free fortnightly video calls between famers and classrooms (organised by LEAF Education).

4. Science events

Do children take part in school, local or national science events?

There are many ways for children to experience science events:

A Science Day or a Science Week

You will need to plan for this at least a term before the event: talk to senior management about any changes to the regular timetable, agree a budget, apply for funding from external organisations, invite any external providers, and share your ideas with staff so that they understand the purpose of the event and what is required from them. You could choose a theme for the whole school to follow. Children might carry out investigations with their own class teacher, or you might arrange a special timetable which allows children to visit different teachers and carry out a number of different practical activities during the day/week. Children could stay with their own class or you might decide to create mixed-age groups. The choice is up to you. The following list of questions are intended to help you to think about the different options and assist with planning for a science event:

Will you work with other local primary or secondary schools to share resources and ideas?

How will the regular timetable change? Do you need to inform meal time supervisors of any changes to using the hall?

Will you have a whole school assembly to launch the event?

Will you invite external providers?

Will the older children run any activities?

Will you ask staff to plan their own science activities or will you provide a list of activities?

How will you use the outdoor spaces?

Will you have a celebration assembly at the end to share the children's experiences? Will parents be invited to this?

How might you share the outcomes of the science event with a wider audience? For example, will you use the school website, the school newsletter, or invite the local press?

British Science Week is a ten-day celebration of STEM subjects that is usually held in March. It is coordinated by the British Science Association (BSA) and is funded by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS).You may want to organise your school science week to coincide with this but you could organise your event at any time. British Science Week provides free activity packs suitable for children under 5 years old and children between 5 and 11 years old, a citizen science competition, advice on publicising your event, finding speakers, presenters and volunteers, and information about a series of grants for funding your event.

You can read more about organising Science Days in an article written by PSTT Fellows in ASE'sJournal of Emergent Science (2019) Issue 17, p45-49.

A Science Fair

A Science Fair can be a stand-alone event or part of a Science Week. It can be an event that showcases children's work or an event that provides hands-on practical activities led by children for visitors to try.

Whichever type of Science Fair you plan, there are some questions that you will need to consider in advance. Here are some questions to support your planning of the event:

Will all the children take part or will it be optional?

Will the children present individually, in small groups or as a class?

Will there be a theme or will you invite children to share something of their choosing?

Who will remind the children/teachers to have their work ready on time? You might need to keep reminding children and staff about the event via School Council, assemblies and staff meetings.

Where will the event take place? For example, will it be inside or outside? Is your school hall big enough?

Will there be a guide showing where different stalls are located?

Will visitors be asked to follow a one-way system to visit the stalls?

Who will organise tables, positions and display boards?

Who will you invite to attend? For example, each class could have a period to showcase their work to the rest of the school, or you might invite parents/carers to come.

How will you publicise the event? For example, will it be in the school newsletter, the school website, social media, or the press.

Will children receive certificates for taking part?

If the Science Fair is to showcase children's work, you may also want to consider these questions:

Will the children carry out their investigations and prepare what they will present at school or at home? For example, will staff provide time in science lessons or will teachers set home learning projects?

If children are carrying out their investigations or preparing their presentations at home, how will you make sure that they all have access to the equipment they might need?

If the Science Fair is to present hands-on activities, you may want to consider these questions:

Will the stall holders explaining the activities be from just one year group, from the science club or from across the school?

How could younger children be supported to be facilitators?

Will you provide instructions for each activity?

Will you train your facilitators?

The Great Science Share for Schools (GSSfS) is an annual campaign that encourages children to share their science questions with new audiences. The website also provides resources to support teachers in holding a GSSfS event. This event runs each June and children are encouraged to explore their own science questions and then share their findings using practical resources, becoming 'teachers' to other pupils.

Useful resources for project ideas:

A Science Reading Challenge

A Science Reading Challenge within the school setting, where the focus is reading science books for pleasure and is not too teacher-directed, can show children that science reading can be interesting and fun. To find out more about the benefits for children and how to organise a Science Reading Challenge in your school, visit the PSTT's Science Reading Challenge resource. You can download ideas for possible launch events and activities. You can also download bookmarks, passports and certificates.

An Inter-school Science Challenge

You may be able to work with other primary schools in your locality to organise a science/STEM challenge. The event could be a one-day event when children from different primary schools work together to solve a science/STEM challenge. Alternatively, the children might work on a challenge in their own school over several weeks (perhaps just one year group working on a project in their science lessons or a mixed age group in a science club) and then meet at an inter-school event to share their work and develop it further. It might be worth approaching a local secondary school to see whether any of their pupils would be able to support your primary children with their activities, and whether they could host this event.

Resources that could support an inter-school science challenge:

A Citizen Science Project

Citizen science is scientific research conducted in whole or in part, by amateur scientists. Several organisations organise citizen science projects that primary children can take part in. The following is a list of some suitable projects for primary age children, but is by no means exhaustive:

Zooniverse is the world's largest platform for people-powered research. It lists several research projects but not all will be suitable for primary children. You will need to decide what is suitable for your children.

PSTT's Air Pollution Research resource provides support for primary school children, their teachers, parents and other stakeholders to learn about and carry out investigations into air pollutants is a great starting point for a citizen science project.

The Garden Bird Watch organised by The British Trust for Ornithology since 1995, asks people to keep a simple list of the species of birds that visit their garden, to understand how and why populations of garden birds are changing.

The Big Butterfly Count organised by the charity Butterfly Conservation since 2010, is a nationwide survey of butterflies each summer to assess the health of the environment.

Open Air Laboratories (OPAL), founded by Imperial College London in 2007, organise UK-wide citizen science projects suitable for all ages.

The Natural History Museum has projects and downloadable resources to enable you to set up your citizen science project

Dark Sky Meter is a project investigating the effects of light pollution and might be suitable for children aged 6-10 years.

5. Wider community
Do children share science wIth parents, e.g. family learning nights, interactive homework?

There are several ways to engage parents and carers with children's science learning:

Teachers could send home science challenges - for ideas see PSTT's Science Fun at Home.

Invite parents/carers to a Science Day or Science Fair - suggestions for organising science events are given on this page, under the RAISING THE PROFILE OF SCIENCE tab; section 4. Science events.

Involve parents in a whole school Science Reading Challenge - for further information, visit PSTT's Science Reading Challenge resource.

Invite parents and children to come to school together to learn science through problem solving and investigative activities. PSTT's Learning Science Together provides everything that you need to do this in your own school.

Consider creating a central science display in school, something that visitors may see that includes examples of science from across the school.

Do children work with community groups, e.g. in local parks?

PSTT's Garden Watch encourages children to identify wildlife in their communities, understand why it's there and get hands-on to nurture it. This resource includes class presentations, explanatory letters for parents, promotional flyers and survey activity books.
Does the school publicise its science, e.g. on its website or email newsletters?

Consider how your school shares the children's achievements in science. There are lots of ways that you could publicise what is going on in regular science lessons, science clubs and science events:

Does the school website have a science section?

Does the school website celebrate what each class is learning and is science included in this?

Does the school newsletter share children's science learning and publicise science events that will happen/have happened in school or even notable external science events? For example, would you mention when there is an eclipse of the moon, or a sighting of a comet?

Does the school use social media to advertise events?

Are science events published in the local newspaper?

RESOURCES

The following resources may be useful for subject leaders wanting to audit and develop science in their schools:

Subject leader self-evaluation tool, which could inform your action plan (available in colour and black & white)

Guidance for Science Subject Leaders - Whole School Approach

Guidance for Science Subject Leaders - Role of the Subject Leader

Guidance for Science Subject Leaders - Raising the Profile of Science

Subject leader tasks

Pupil voice questionnaire

Teacher questionnaire

Progression in science enquiry skills across year groups (statements taken from the 2013 English National Curriulum)

Primary Science Curriculum Progression for all science topics (includes key vocabulary and possible enquiries)

Funding opportunities

Overview of PSTT Resources and how they connect to the primary curriculum

Subject leader self-evaluation tool - B&W copy [94.19kB]

This self-evaluation tool will help you to audit science in your school and identify your next steps.
DOWNLOAD

Role of the Subject Leader [260.99kB]

Guidance for science subject leaders (2) - a downloadable copy of the subject leader toolkit

DOWNLOAD

Progression of working scientifically (enquiry skills) [166.63kB]

This document shows progression of enquiry skills from ages 3-11.
Note: the statements are taken from the English National Curriculum (2013) and the Statutory Framework for EYFS (2021), both published by DFE. DOWNLOAD

Primary Science Curriculum Progression [766.27kB]

For each topic, from Year 1 to Year 6, this document provides National Curriculum objectives, key questions to ask children, appropriate vocabulary, key scientists, possible investigations for each enquiry type and more...
Note: the objectives statements are taken from the English National Curriculum (2013).DOWNLOAD

Funding opportunities [168.39kB]

This document lists some organisations that provide grants for primary science.

DOWNLOAD

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subject leader
subject coordinator
psqm
developing science
science curriculum

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Subject Leader Support | Primary Science Teaching Trust

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Home Resources Teaching Resources Subject Leader Support Enrich primary science at your school with the best science resources, training for staff, school visits, science visitors and competitions. There are many ways to develop science in your school, and a good starting point is to find out what is happening in science across the whole school.

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sarah.eames@pstt.org.uk
twitter @sarahpurplee
Proud to be a teacher and PSTT Area/Regional Mentor

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Being Focussed: Monitoring the 10 Key Issues to improve Learning in Science

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Being Focussed: Monitoring the 10 Key Issues to improve Learning in Science

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Centre for Industry Education Collaboration, University of York

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Here at CIEC, we aim to promote excellence in primary science teaching and learning, increase children's and teachers' awareness of STEM careers and industries, and raise children's science capital.

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Wellcome 2014 Primary Science: Is it missing out?

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Wellcome 2014 Primary Science: Is it missing out?

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Energising Futures | Free Resources for STEM Education

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Welcome to Energising Futures from bp Educational Service, home of education teacher resources for your whole school. Access a range of classroom activities to help plan your lessons.

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Practical Action is a global innovator, inspiring people to discover and adopt ingenious, practical ways to free themselves from poverty and disadvantage.

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Wet break?  these quick videos are fascinating

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Wet break?  these quick videos are fascinating

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How about putting these ten min  BBC Hey, What if ... Programmes on.

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We find out some epic answers to some impossible questions!

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Ofsted has today published the first review in a new series looking at what makes for a high-quality education in different subjects across the curriculum.

Today's review focuses on science. It explores a range of research and evidence to identify factors that can influence the quality of science education in schools in England. It also highlights some of the barriers that prevent their implementation.

The review recognises that there is no one way of achieving a high-quality science education. Rather, it considers a number of key principles that can play a central role in shaping the quality of school science.

Her Majesty's Chief Inspector, Amanda Spielman said:

I'm really pleased to publish our science subject review today. This is the first in a series of subject reviews we will publish over the coming months, which will inform our thinking about what makes a high-quality subject education in schools.

The science research review was planned before the COVID-19 pandemic began, but its publication is timely. As part of education recovery, schools will need to think carefully about what content to prioritise and how best to teach it.

We hope that the principles identified in this review will be helpful as science subject leaders plan and adapt their curriculums.

In the review, we identified a number of principles that literature suggests can contribute to high-quality science education. These principles include the importance of:

planning the science curriculum so that pupils build knowledge of key concepts and the relationships between them over many years; this prevents pupils from seeing science as a list of isolated facts

pupils remembering long-term the content that has been taught; this is because building domain-specific knowledge leads to expertise

explicitly teaching pupils the concepts and procedures needed to work scientifically

starting curriculum planning right from the early years by introducing pupils to wide-ranging vocabulary to describe the natural world (these words should not be overly technical)

teachers giving clear explanations that build on what pupils already know and explicitly focus pupils' attention on the content being learned

making sure practical work has a clear purpose, forms part of a wider teaching sequence and takes place only when pupils have enough prior knowledge to learn from the activity

science teachers and technicians having access to regular, high-quality subject-specific continuous professional development (CPD); this is especially important given that many science teachers are teaching outside of their subject specialism

Our next step in this project will be to look at how science is being taught in schools. On inspection, we will use our subject deep-dive methodology to gather rich evidence on the quality of science education. We will publish a report in spring 2022 to share what we have learned with schools, parents and policymakers.

To find out more about Ofsted's curriculum work, read the principles behind the research reviews and subject reports.

Thank you for your feedback

Report a problem with this page

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Ofsted publishes science research review - the first in a series of subject reviews

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Ofsted has today published the first review in a new series looking at what makes for a high-quality education in different subjects across the curriculum.

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Free Resources and support

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The Primary Science Teaching Trust helps improve the teaching and learning of science to children and young people in the UK.

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These two reports were published by SCORE (Science Community Representing Education), in response to two commissioned reports - Under the Microscope: the State of Resourcing of Practical Science in Primary Schools and Under the Microscope: the State of Resourcing of Practical Science in Secondary Schools and Sixth Form Colleges. In these reports, SCORE presents its own summaries, findings, data and recommendations to support practical work in schools and colleges.

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"An excellent resource that can be used at a school level and subject teacher level. The science resources and content matrices offer clear support for moderation with a significant number of free resources over several years."

Welcome to

PLAN primary science resources support the planning and assessment of the
Science National Curriculum in England

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PLAN primary science resources support teachers in primary schools to plan and assess the science National Curriculum for England. The resources also support the moderation of assessment and include CPD materials for use by subject leaders.

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DfE Teacher Assessment Exemplification Science KS1 2018 for SCIENCE

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DfE Teacher Assessment Exemplification Science KS1 2018 for SCIENCE

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Wellcome Trust  Great Science Leadership

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Wellcome Trust  Great Science Leadership

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PSTT has designed the following symbols (for consistency in their own resources) that could be displayed in your classroom to help children identify and recall the particular science skills they are using in their science investigations.

These symbols are ©Primary Science Teaching Trust 2019 but may be freely used by teachers in schools for educational purposes, subject to the source being credited.

When using symbols, please do not:

Re-scale or warp, shear or otherwise alter or distort the proportions of any original artwork

Add any visual effects to symbols (e.g. shadows)

Alter the colours

Change the symbols' orientation

Add any text to the symbol

Add gradations

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Enquiry Skills - Primary Science Teaching Trust

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Learn essential scientific skills with PSTT's Enquiry Skills resource. Download definitions, examples, and symbols for ages 5-12.

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DfE Teacher Assessment Exemplification Science KS2 2018 for SCIENCE

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DfE Teacher Assessment Exemplification Science KS2 2018 for SCIENCE

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Ofsted survey report looking at science teaching in 91 primary and 89 secondary schools between 2010 and 2013.

Documents

Request an accessible format.

If you use assistive technology (such as a screen reader) and need a version of this document in a more accessible format, please email enquiries@ofsted.gov.uk. Please tell us what format you need. It will help us if you say what assistive technology you use.

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This Ofsted survey report highlights the importance of teaching science for understanding. For pupils to achieve well in science, they must not only acquire the necessary knowledge, but also understand its value, enjoy the experience of working scientifically, and sustain their interest in learning it.

Thank you for your feedback

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Science education in schools: maintaining curiosity

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Ofsted survey report looking at science teaching in 91 primary and 89 secondary schools between 2010 and 2013.

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ASE Primary Science Great Science Share - free pdf

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ASE Primary Science Great Science Share - free pdf

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Michele Grimshaw's 1001 Invention links 

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Michele Grimshaw's 1001 Invention links 

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Teacher Assessment Framework KS2 2018 for english maths and science

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Teacher Assessment Framework KS2 2018 for english maths and science

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Endeavour has everything teachers need to deliver inspiring lessons about plant science and the environment.

It is packed with free, innovative, curriculum-aligned activities for pupils of all ages.

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Expand your knowledge on plant and fungal science from the world's best experts.

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Lynne Biannci and Richard
Great Activities

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New and experienced leads can raise the profile of science in their schools with this guidance. We have tips, ideas and example resources to download in every section. So, take them away and adapt for your school!

HOT TIP #1

Lead by example

If you are passionate about science, your enthusiasm will be infectious. Keep the profile of science high by teaching it well in your class, offering support to your colleagues and talking about it at every opportunity.

HOT TIP #2

Establish regular release time

Establish regular and protected subject leader release time with your head teacher from the beginning. Without this it will be difficult to truly establish yourself in the role and complete all the actions you have planned for science.

Subject audit and surveys

As science leader, you will need to build a picture of what science currently looks like in your school - the good bits and the bad bits! The best way to do this is by undertaking an audit of key areas and asking your pupils, teachers and parents.

Resources - What resources does the school have? Are they accessible, useable, up-to-date and fit for purpose? Will they support teachers to deliver the curriculum effectively?

Budget - Is there a dedicated budget for science? If so, how much is it and what can you use it for?

Teaching - Is science taught regularly in all classes? For how long each week? Are the lessons timetabled as discrete sessions?

Planning - What are the expectations from your senior leadership team (SLT) for science planning? Where are teachers getting their objectives, resources, ideas from? Is there a whole-school curriculum overview? Is there a scheme of work?

Books - What does science learning look like in the books?

Learning - What other evidence of science learning is there around the school? Do teachers set science-related home learning activities?

Display - Does every class have an up-to-date, interactive science display? Is there a whole school science display?

Assessment - Is there any science assessment (formative or summative) taking place? If so, what is the data used for?

Policy - Does your school have a science policy? Is science part of your school development/improvement plan (SDP/SIP)?

Undertaking a short questionnaire with your staff and pupils across the school is an extremely useful activity, as it will complement the findings from your subject audit. It will provide you with a clear idea of where science is working well and where it needs to improve. The survey should only consist of a few straightforward questions, both open and closed, from which you can begin to identify your key priorities. When asking pupils, work with a small, mixed group from each year and talk through the questions and their answers so you gain a clear understanding of their thoughts. A parent survey can also provide valuable information.

Getting started

During your first year as a science leader you can make some big steps. However, it is important not to try and do everything at once. Prioritise your tasks by creating a set of clear and manageable objectives in a subject action plan and focusing on some core baseline activities.

Put simply, an action plan is where you set out your main objectives for the year, framed under key priority areas (themes). We recommend that you keep things simple at first and have no more than 5 key priority areas. As a starting point, it makes sense to align your priorities with core elements such as 'leadership & management', 'teaching & learning', 'assessment & progress', 'inclusion' and 'enrichment'.

If however you have access to your school development/improvement plan (SDP/SIP), you can align your key priority areas with this; there may even be a school template for you to use that includes broad action areas. This will ensure members of SLT are on board and your leadership is in line with that of the overall school.

To create the objectives for each priority area, be guided by the valuable information you gathered in your initial subject audit and surveys. Think: What issue has been highlighted? What are the key things (objectives) that if achieved would address this issue? For each objective, you should then identify 2-3 key actions you will need to take to achieve it, including the necessary personnel, time and resources. It can also be useful to set out termly markers (i.e. what you want to see at certain stages), which you can use to break down the actions into achievable chunks and then measure your progress against them.

For you: what skills/knowledge do you need to develop to be able to fulfil your role - Subject knowledge? Pedagogical knowledge? Leadership skills? Remember, some of this CPD might be available through your science leader network meetings or online. Learn more by visiting STEM Learning, Primary Science Teaching Trust, or Reach Out CPD.

For your staff: find out what CPD your teachers need/want (as part of your initial audit activities). Can you provide it internally through staff meetings or 1:1 support? Do they need support to find the training externally? Can they access it online? Could team teaching as a regular strategy help teachers build confidence with unfamiliar topics?

Create a CPD plan for you and your staff and spread it out over the year to allow time for new initiatives and training to be properly trialled and embedded. Begin by booking in a regular staff meeting slot with your head teacher as a minimum (half-termly is a good starting point).

Primary Science Quality Mark: Registering for the Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM) is an excellent way of focussing your energies as a science leader. PSQM is a year-long intensive CPD programme which helps schools to achieve a quality mark. It is suitable for schools where science has been a low profile for a while and who want to improve their provision further. Subject leaders will develop effective, confident science leadership which has whole school impact on science teaching and learning and raises the profile of science. (For more information visit PSQM http://www.psqm.org.uk or read our blog post https://explorify.uk/blog/psqm-raising-the-profile-of-science-across-the-whole-school).

Whether your school is in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland or Wales, good curriculum coverage is a non-negotiable. In England, you must make sure teachers know the statutory curriculum topics, objectives and key vocabulary they are required to teach over the year, as well as when they should be teaching them. It is useful to create a topic overview map to avoid clashes, provide clarity and indicate progression through the school. Teachers must also incorporate the 5 types of scientific enquiry into their science provision. An enquiry types map can be used to plan ahead for where topics provide opportunities to use the different enquiry types. (For top tips on how Explorify activities can be used to support the types of enquiry, read this helpful article: https://explorify.uk/blog/working-in-a-scientific-way)

In Scotland, the curriculum for excellence organises the sciences into five topic areas. You must ensure that your school's curriculum covers the progression in knowledge and skills across the year groups. The 'Experiences and Outcomes' document, (which can be found on the Education Scotland website), provides concise statements about children's learning and progression and should be used to help teachers plan their lessons, as well as assess progress.

In Northern Ireland, the statutory requirements for science and technology are incorporated within 'The World Around Us' Area of Learning (which can be found on the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment website). A key element when designing your science curriculum is to ensure you incorporate the three 'Cross-Curricular Skills' and five 'Thinking Skills and Personal Capabilities' within your sequences of learning.

In Wales, there are six complementary 'Statements of what matters' for science, in the curriculum for Wales on Hwb. For each statement, there are descriptions of learning, which provide guidance on how learners' knowledge and skills should progress. You must support teachers to ensure they are providing opportunities to support this progression.

As a subject leader in any nation, you must be clear on how the 'big ideas' of science are mapped across your curriculum to ensure progression; i.e. how your curriculum is designed to help make sure that children's learning builds appropriately each year as they move through school. In addition to this, it is important to design a curriculum for the children in your school. It is worth reflecting on what is special about science in your school and how you can incorporate this into the curriculum; e.g. links to your local community, real-world problem solving, outdoor learning or cross-curricular links.

In terms of how each teacher plans to teach their curriculum topics to their class, depending on the feedback from your initial subject audit, you might need to provide guidance and support. This could take the form of a standardised planning format for them to use, links to quality-assured online resources (e.g. PLAN's knowledge and working scientifically matrices https://www.planassessment.com/teacher or Explorify's planning examples: https://explorify.uk/blog/planning-for-science-teaching) or even 1:1 meetings with teachers to help plan a sequence of lessons.

Timetabling: Ensure that science is given dedicated space on each teacher's timetable; this should be at least 2 hours each week. But remember, science can be taught at any time of the day - encourage teachers to look out for those meaningful cross-curricular links and other opportunities to teach science. For example, why not try an Explorify activity as your early morning work or straight after lunch?

Variety: In addition to the variety included in the curriculum, supporting your staff to resource their lessons, include outdoor learning and cross-curricular links in their teaching and use home learning opportunities to enhance science will guarantee a good variety of experiences for all pupils. It is also important to incorporate a range of techniques for children to record their learning. 'Evidencing inspiration' provides a few examples for how this can be done for Explorify activities.

Displays: Each class should have an up-to-date science display in their classrooms. At its simplest, this could include key vocabulary, images and questions to engage and interest pupils in the topic. The more interactive the display however, the more likely it is to help support their learning and enjoyment of science.

Before being able to assess their children, teachers must understand what a 'secure' learner looks like for each set of topic objectives. They may need support with this, and PLAN's example assessment resources ( https://www.planassessment.com) are a simple and effective way for teachers to gain this initial understanding; it would be beneficial to introduce this to your teachers as early as possible so that they have time to understand it and embed it in their practice. Our blog posts are a useful starting point. Read How can Explorify help with assessment and PLAN - good practice in assessment.

Teachers then need a way of recording their ongoing (formative) assessment for each pupil, which can be done in a variety of ways. One approach is to include the topic objectives on a cover sheet in each child's book, so the teacher can make formative judgements as they mark their pupil's work.

Various organisations also provide useful resources and guidance on assessment in science (e.g. PSTT's TAPS pyramid tool provides a structure to support you to evaluate and develop your assessment processes: https://pstt.org.uk/resources/curriculum-materials/assessment). Whatever form the assessment takes however, it must be a continuous and flexible process that ultimately supports and enhances the learning of the pupils.

Rolling activities

As your first year progresses, there are a few other important 'rolling' activities that will support you and your school to improve science teaching and learning.

At least once a term, you should look at the work being done in class science books (or whatever recorded evidence is available) to ensure teachers are covering the objectives, providing a variety of learning experiences and there is evidence of progression. A standardised format for recording your observations can be a useful tool, and it is important to communicate your findings to teachers. Feedback can then be used to celebrate the things that are going well and provide targeted support where it is needed.

Getting the opportunity to see science being taught is extremely valuable for monitoring the subject. There are a variety of ways of doing this, however it is vital that it is positioned as a collaborative and formative, rather than judgemental, experience and that all teachers are on board. It is often useful to have a specific focus for your monitoring to make it both manageable and meaningful.

Depending on timetabling and the amount of release time you have, you might organise a set of formal lesson observations (perhaps even involving members of SLT), where a date and time is set for you to observe a science lesson in each year group, and written feedback is provided to the teacher.

Alternatively, a less formal approach is to drop into a science lesson (with advanced warning) and watch/get involved with what is happening, talk to the children about what they are learning and then provide verbal feedback to the teacher at the end of the day.

Both of these monitoring approaches will give you an excellent insight into how science is going across the school. They will also give you the opportunity to work with teachers on sharing best practice and addressing any areas for development as part of an ongoing constructive dialogue.

Science should not be confined to the classroom, and there are a variety of ways to enhance the curriculum and raise the profile of science:

Run a science club: A science club is a great way to provide pupils with fun, informal and hands-on science activities outside of their normal science provision. This could be run after school or during lunch time and it is a good opportunity to allow children to have an input in their science learning by making suggestions for activities and investigations they would like to try. Other related alternatives are eco club, gardening club, innovators club, science ambassadors...basically, anything STEM-related.

Hold a science week: The British Science Association runs a national science week in the Spring term and provides excellent free resources based on their chosen theme for you to use in school (To find out more visit https://www.britishscienceweek.org/). Organising a set of science-related activities for the whole school is a great way to excite pupil's interest in science; these could include a science assembly, practical workshops, a scientific challenge/competition, or preparing a science demonstration. It is also an opportunity to make links across the curriculum and generally think more creatively with your science learning. PSTT's Whistlestop Science Weeks provide sets of ready made ideas and activities for science weeks or one off days. (To find out more visit https://pstt.org.uk/resources/whistlestop-science-weeks/) Invite parents to get involved where possible to raise the profile of science even further.

Organise educational visits: Encourage teachers to take their class on as many science-related visits as possible across the year. This is an excellent way to broaden children's understanding of what science is and take advantage of the wonderful resources that are out there. Support teachers by sharing suggestions of places they can visit in your area or organisations that can deliver workshops at your school; these can, of course, be either directly related to the science topic they are teaching or have a more general science focus.

Invite science visitors into school: As well as taking pupils to experience the science going on around them, just as valuable is bringing the science into school. Debunk the view of a crazy-haired, lab coat-wearing scientist by inviting in a range of people from STEM-related backgrounds to introduce the children to what they do. STEM Ambassadors, for example, are people from a wide variety of STEM-related jobs and disciplines who offer their time, enthusiasm and expertise free of charge ( stem.org.uk/stem-ambassadors). Children will love to interrogate these experts and it will really open their eyes to the varied roles covered by the term 'scientist'.

Hold parent workshops: Inviting parents to take part in a short science workshop will not only raise the profile of science but will also enable parents to better support their children with their science learning. Providing a brief overview of the curriculum and teaching of science at your school will help them to understand what their child is learning; demonstrating some simple experiments with everyday items will help spark their interest in doing science at home with their child; and introducing them to resources they can access (such as BBC Terrific Scientific) will enable them to continue their child's science learning outside of the school day.

Take it further

Having established the foundations in your first year, it is vital that you continue to oversee, monitor and develop these core 'baseline' and 'rolling' activities. Begin each year with your subject audit and pupil/teacher voice surveys to re-establish your overview of science and set updated objectives in your action plan. Your confidence as a subject leader will have increased, as will your subject knowledge and you can really reflect on your progress, embed those things that have been working well and adapt those things that have not gone as planned.

If you remain in position as science leader for the next few years, then you have an excellent opportunity to really develop and innovate science teaching and learning at your school. Grab this chance to put your own personal stamp on the subject; the more personally invested you are, the more you will enjoy your leadership role. Here are a few suggestions for ways that you can develop and strengthen science in your school:

Build an online presence for celebrating science at your school. Create a dedicated science space on the school website to share news and events; start a science blog for children and parents to engage with; start a school science twitter page to share the learning being done at school. You can also follow support organisations and resources for tips and engagement opportunities. Why not start by following ours @ExplorifySchool. You could also create a page or group for your school Facebook, or simply use your own profile (if you have one) to join a Primary science group on Facebook to network with other science teachers - like Explorify's Staffroom Group.

Experienced leaders

If you have been a science leader for several years, have the day-to-day management of your subject sorted and have very much made it your own, there are still things you can do. Here are a few suggestions:

Link up with local schools: Working in partnership with another school is a great way to easily share ideas and resources and even organise for pupils from each school to interact through shared science activities. These links can be with other primary schools, but secondary schools are often open to this and they can provide a wider range of resources (science laboratories for one!) and different expertise (which can even help develop your own subject knowledge). Experiencing science at a secondary school is also very inspiring for primary pupils.

Form a local science moderation hub: Meeting a couple of times a year to share work and assessment data with other science leaders near to you is an excellent way to ensure assessment of science in your school is in line with that of other schools. You can also use these opportunities to share best practice.

Reach out to local community organisations: Find out what is happening in the community around you; e.g. youth clubs, after-school provision, community centres. They may be involved in providing informal science learning. There may be a range of resources that families can access in their local area outside of school to further their engagement and enjoyment of science.

PSQM Gilt and Outreach Award: If you have already achieved the PSQM Award and have embedded good practice in science leadership, teaching and learning, you might consider applying for 'Gilt' and 'Outreach' to further develop science in your school and beyond. Find out more on the PSQM website.

Take a look at our definition of primary science leadership and some more ideas on developing great science leadership, which are both available to download as pdfs on the Wellcome website.

Written by: Thomas Barton

Primary Science Project Manager at Wellcome

I joined Wellcome after having been a teacher and science lead in primary schools in London. I now support improvements in science teaching & learning in UK primary schools.

Email us at Explorify

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Tips, ideas and example resources to download from Explorify. | Subject audit Action Plan | CPD | Monitoring

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Spark Website

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Wellcome State of the Nation updated 2019 

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Wellcome State of the Nation updated 2019 

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What's inside

facts and figures on UK primary science education - from how science is taught, to what pupils think of it

Who this is for

UK policy makers

UK primary school educators

anyone interested in primary science education in the UK

At the start of our primary science campaign, we surveyed science leaders, teachers and pupils across the UK. We'll be repeating this research later, so we can track the state of primary science education over time.

On average, UK primary schools teach science for 1 hour and 24 minutes a week. Only 42% teach science for two or more hours a week, which we recommend.

82% of science leaders 'strongly agree' that it's important for pupils to study science.

30% of survey respondents think science is 'very important' to their senior leadership team. This is compared to 83% for English and 84% for maths.

52% of science leaders have had external continuing professional development for a day or more in the past year to help them lead or develop science in their school.

25% of teachers are concerned that they may not be able to answer children's questions about science.

When identifying what support their school has given to improve science teaching in the past year, teachers report:

their school providing access to lesson plans and materials (34%)

coaching or mentoring from their science leader (31%)

science training from their science leader (23%)

no support for improving science teaching (30%).

When asked how much they like science at school, 44% of pupils say they 'like it a lot' and 41% 'like it'.

30% of pupils would like a science-related job when they grow up. Boys are more likely to want a job in engineering (or a related industry) or to become a 'scientist'. Girls are more likely to want to become a vet (or another job related to animals) or pursue a career in healthcare or medicine.

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State of the nation' report of UK primary science education | Wellcome

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The vision of our five-year primary science campaign is that all pupils will experience an exciting, inspiring and relevant science education at primary school. Read our report on primary science education delivery across the UK.

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Article on the importance of assessment Oct 2020

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ASE Primary Science Free Magazine Explorify Assessment Edition 

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ASE Primary Science Free Magazine Explorify Assessment Edition 

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Getting to Grips with Assessment p20

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PLAN Knowledge Matrices - can be found here

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PLAN Knowledge Matrices - can be found here

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The PLAN primary science resources include a range of resources that are designed to support teachers to implement effective and robust planning and assessment

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PLAN (Naomi Hiscox) Blog on Ofsted Research review April 2021

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PLAN (Naomi Hiscox) Blog on Ofsted Research review April 2021

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Updated: May 14, 2021

Before launching into the content of the report, it is worth reminding ourselves that, though the report is new, it is a review of existing research into the factors that influence the quality of science education. This is not new research. It summarises what is already known from existing research, a lot of which will already be familiar to you. What it does usefully do is draw all that research together into a single document which we can refer to when reviewing science in our schools.

It is also worth stating that the report is not a summary of things that Ofsted has found, during inspections, that schools aren't doing. Many of you will already be delivering science teaching that is based on the factors identified in this report that are associated with quality science education. However, Ofsted will use the content of the review when they examine how science is taught in England's schools and will publish a report on this in due course.

In the following information, we have followed the structure of the Ofsted report, so the headings below are taken directly from the report itself. The content quoted from the report comes from the summary sections at the start of each section of the report.

"Expertise in science requires pupils to build at least two forms, or categories, of knowledge. The first is 'substantive' knowledge, which is knowledge of the products of science, such as models, laws and theories. The second category is 'disciplinary knowledge', which is knowledge of the practices of science. This teaches pupils how scientific knowledge becomes established and gets revised. Importantly, this involves pupils learning about the many different types of scientific enquiry. It should not be reduced to learning a single scientific method."

In recent years, there has been a great deal of emphasis given to schools having knowledge-rich curricula. This report makes it clear that, in science, this does not mean pupils learning more 'substantive' knowledge, or scientific facts. It is about developing them as scientists which highlights that teaching the working scientifically skills, or 'disciplinary' knowledge, is equally important. The 'disciplinary' knowledge helps pupils learn the 'practices of science', in other words, how to work like scientists.

However, there is more to developing 'disciplinary' knowledge than pupils simply practicing the working scientifically skills. While they are carrying out their scientific enquiries, they should be recognising that the working scientifically skills help them acquire new knowledge or adapt their thinking. This knowledge needs to be made explicit. It is not just about doing the activity. Time must be given for pupils to reflect on the evidence they gather to answer their scientific enquiry questions and use it to develop their 'substantive' knowledge. It should be highlighted to them that this process is how scientific knowledge is developed, revised and becomes established.

It is important that pupils are taught the 'disciplinary' knowledge across different topics, alongside the 'substantive' knowledge, so that they develop them in specific science contexts across 'each science', in other words biology, chemistry and physics.

The understanding and use of a broader range of scientific enquiry types, beyond fair testing, has moved on a great deal in primary schools, since the introduction of the National Curriculum. There will always be debate around the definitions and types of scientific enquiry that are included in the National Curriculum, but the PLAN primary science resources include a useful definition of each, with examples, of the five that currently feature.

"In high-quality science curriculums, knowledge is carefully sequenced to reveal the interplay between substantive and disciplinary knowledge. This ensures that pupils not only know 'the science'; they also know the evidence for it and can use this knowledge to work scientifically."

This highlights the role of scientific enquiry in the teaching of science, as pupils will come to appreciate that knowledge is based on evidence from scientific enquiry and that knowledge is also required to carry it out. Pupils need the disciplinary knowledge, in other words the working scientifically skills, to carry out a scientific enquiry, but they may also need substantive knowledge. For example, in Key Stage 1, in order to successfully complete a scientific enquiry to identify the best material to use to mop up a spill, pupils will need an understanding of absorbency. In upper Key Stage 2, pupils will not be able to make a scientific prediction about the descent of a parachute, if they do not have the substantive knowledge about air resistance and gravity.

"A high-quality science curriculum not only identifies the important concepts and procedures for pupils to learn, it also plans for how pupils will build knowledge of these over time. This starts in the early years. Research shows that high-quality science curriculums are coherent. This means the curriculums are organised so that pupils' knowledge of concepts develops from component knowledge that is sequenced according to the logical structure of the scientific disciplines. In this way, pupils learn how knowledge connects in science as they 'see' its underlying conceptual structure."

"Importantly, this sequencing pays careful attention to how to pair substantive with disciplinary knowledge, so that disciplinary knowledge is always learned within the most appropriate substantive contexts."

Teachers need to choose carefully the scientific enquiry activities that support the development of the substantive knowledge that they are covering. They can then choose the most appropriate disciplinary knowledge (working scientifically skills) to introduce based on the scientific enquiry activity chosen and the needs of their pupils. Pupils should then be provided with additional opportunities to develop this disciplinary knowledge (working scientifically skills) further in different 'substantive contexts', in other words in other topics.

There is also a cross-over between the knowledge content in science and other subjects. This needs to be taught consistently, regardless of the subject. For example, whether pupils learn the substantive knowledge about the water cycle in geography or science, the vocabulary used should be the same and pupils should understand that it is the same water cycle being taught in both subjects. Similarly, when teaching the disciplinary knowledge of drawing graphs, the expectations of how to draw an appropriate graph are the same regardless of the subject.

"evidence shows the importance of practice when learning science. Practice makes sure that learned knowledge is accessible and not forgotten."

It often feels as though there is insufficient time in school timetables for science. Wellcome's Understanding the 'state of the nation' report of UK primary science education in 2019 recommends two hours a week is required to cover the National Curriculum content in sufficient depth, but the average is just one hour 24 minutes a week. It is, therefore, vital that teachers make every minute count. The PLAN Knowledge matrices can help by specifying the key learning that must be covered. Focusing on this allows teachers time to provide a range of opportunities for pupils to access the substantive knowledge over a period of time while also giving opportunities for them to practice and develop their disciplinary knowledge.

Within a year-group, it may be appropriate to break some National Curriculum topics into smaller sub-topics taught at different times in the year, providing opportunities for pupils to access prior learned knowledge. For example, materials in Year 1 or 2 could be taught for several weeks each term rather than in one block. Some knowledge is best taught throughout the year, such as seasonal changes, plants and living things in their habitats. This also provides good opportunities for pupils to access their previously learned knowledge.

Where there are connections between topics or subjects, these are further opportunities for pupils to access their previously learned knowledge.

"Pupils also need to learn about the different ways that scientists engage in their work through reading, writing, talking and representing science. "

Pupils learn in a variety of ways and should be encouraged to do so. Using high quality science books as part of reading in English reinforces and broadens science learning. It may also be appropriate to use reading as a way to introduce children to key vocabulary they will meet during their science lessons.

Giving pupils time to talk about their developing science knowledge helps to clarify their thinking and is useful preparation for communicating in writing.

"There is also evidence from research into scientific misconceptions that suggests they can be addressed and pre-empted by changing what is taught and when."

"Practical work forms an important part of a science education. This is because it introduces pupils to the objects, phenomena and methods of study. However, research identifies that practical activities are often carried out with insufficient attention to their purpose."

Scientific enquiry and practical work must form part of the teaching of science, however, it is vital that teachers are clear about its purpose. Substantive knowledge can, and should, be developed while pupils carry out scientific enquiry, but it is important that this knowledge development is made clear to them.

Scientific enquiry also provides a specific context for pupils to learn and develop their disciplinary knowledge, both their working scientifically skills and their understanding of how evidence is used to inform the development of science knowledge.

"Evidence suggests that high-quality practical work [...] takes place only when pupils have enough prior knowledge to learn from the activity."

On first reading this statement, it could be interpreted as meaning that pupils should be taught the substantive knowledge for a topic before they engage in practical work. This could result in a series of dry lessons during which the knowledge is taught that is then followed by scientific enquiry work where the knowledge may get forgotten. However, I believe that it is actually reminding us of the interplay between substantive and disciplinary knowledge.

It is often useful to include a short exploratory activity to teach the scientific concepts and vocabulary that pupils will need to use while they carry out scientific enquiry. In Ofsted's report, this is referred to as 'discovery learning'. For example, it is meaningless for pupils to investigate the variables that affect how a parachute falls, if they have not been introduced to the concepts of gravity and air resistance. A short exploratory activity where pupils drop a parachute is an effective way of introducing these concepts before the pupils embark on the scientific enquiry. Similarly, before carrying out an activity to investigate the conditions in which minibeasts prefer to live, pupils will need to have explored the habitats concerned to name and identify the minibeasts that inhabit it. In these examples, pupils are taught some substantive knowledge, as part of an exploratory activity, which they will then develop further during the scientific enquiry activity.

It is important that scientific enquiry is successful in meeting its intended purpose, in other words, it is developing knowledge. Sometimes, pupils may need to be taught a specific working scientifically skill in order to complete a scientific enquiry activity successfully. For example, if a scientific enquiry activity involves the use of a new piece of measuring equipment, pupils should be shown how to use the equipment (taught some new disciplinary knowledge) before they start on the scientific enquiry activity, otherwise time will be wasted in gathering poor data.

"Research highlights the importance of teacher explanations in science that build from what pupils already know. These explicitly focus pupils' attention on the content being learned."

It is the role of the teacher to help pupils make sense of their observations and the evidence they gather during scientific enquiry activities and to highlight how this builds on their prior learning. Teachers may find it useful to prepare clear explanations, in advance, that they either share orally or in written form after the pupils have completed the scientific enquiry activity. These explanations should include the careful introduction of key scientific vocabulary. This will support pupils to include the newly acquired substantive knowledge into their conclusions or predictions in further scientific enquiries.

"Evidence shows that, despite the best curriculum and teaching, pupils will learn different things from what was intended. This means that teachers need to frequently check pupils' understanding to identify 'gaps' and misconceptions. This must be coupled with subject-specific feedback, so pupils know how to make progress in learning the science content."

Teachers need to be clear about the expected learning (PLAN Knowledge matrices - Key learning) and should then build assessment opportunities into all lessons to check on their pupils' developing substantive and disciplinary knowledge (PLAN matrices - Possible evidence). They can then provide further opportunities to address any identified gaps and misconceptions either with the whole class, smaller groups or individuals. This may be done by feedback marking on written work, verbal feedback during activities, a starter activity in the next lesson or small group teaching.

"A second role of assessment is to prevent pupils from forgetting what they have learned. This is known as the testing effect. Research shows that when pupils retrieve knowledge from memory, over extended periods of time, this increases the likelihood that it will be remembered."

Planning a series of lessons over a period of time to develop the knowledge contained in one National Curriculum statement allows the opportunity for pupils to retrieve the knowledge from their memories over time.

It may be appropriate to include quick, low stakes quizzes as a regular feature throughout topics to provide retrieval time and check that learning is remembered.

"A third role of assessment is to check that pupils have reached specific curricular goals. This is known as summative assessment and must be carefully used to ensure that its high-stakes nature does not lead to curriculum narrowing and/or increase unnecessary burden on staff and pupils."

"A high-quality science education depends on effective subject and school leadership. This starts with allocating sufficient curriculum time to teach the science curriculum. However, research shows this does not always happen, particularly in primary schools."

"It is also paramount that leaders ensure that science teachers and technicians have access to regular, high-quality subject-specific continuous professional development (CPD). This is especially important in science given that many teachers are teaching outside of their subject specialism."

Book us or another high-quality CPD provider, and have a look at the PLAN CPD packages.

Finally, pupils need access to sufficient resources so that they can carry out practical work, both in the classroom and field. This should be in appropriately sized groups, which better enable first-hand experiences.

Before launching into the content of the report, it is worth reminding ourselves that, though the report is new, it is a review of existing research into the factors that influence the quality of science education. This is not new research. It summarises what is already known from existing research, a lot of which will already be familiar to you. What it does usefully do is draw all that research together into a single document which we can refer to when reviewing science in our schools.

It is also worth stating that the report is not a summary of things that Ofsted has found, during inspections, that schools aren't doing. Many of you will already be delivering science teaching that is based on the factors identified in this report that are associated with quality science education. However, Ofsted will use the content of the review when they examine how science is taught in England's schools and will publish a report on this in due course.

In the following information, we have followed the structure of the Ofsted report, so the headings below are taken directly from the report itself. The content quoted from the report comes from the summary sections at the start of each section of the report.

"Expertise in science requires pupils to build at least two forms, or categories, of knowledge. The first is 'substantive' knowledge, which is knowledge of the products of science, such as models, laws and theories. The second category is 'disciplinary knowledge', which is knowledge of the practices of science. This teaches pupils how scientific knowledge becomes established and gets revised. Importantly, this involves pupils learning about the many different types of scientific enquiry. It should not be reduced to learning a single scientific method."

In recent years, there has been a great deal of emphasis given to schools having knowledge-rich curricula. This report makes it clear that, in science, this does not mean pupils learning more 'substantive' knowledge, or scientific facts. It is about developing them as scientists which highlights that teaching the working scientifically skills, or 'disciplinary' knowledge, is equally important. The 'disciplinary' knowledge helps pupils learn the 'practices of science', in other words, how to work like scientists.

However, there is more to developing 'disciplinary' knowledge than pupils simply practicing the working scientifically skills. While they are carrying out their scientific enquiries, they should be recognising that the working scientifically skills help them acquire new knowledge or adapt their thinking. This knowledge needs to be made explicit. It is not just about doing the activity. Time must be given for pupils to reflect on the evidence they gather to answer their scientific enquiry questions and use it to develop their 'substantive' knowledge. It should be highlighted to them that this process is how scientific knowledge is developed, revised and becomes established.

It is important that pupils are taught the 'disciplinary' knowledge across different topics, alongside the 'substantive' knowledge, so that they develop them in specific science contexts across 'each science', in other words biology, chemistry and physics.

The understanding and use of a broader range of scientific enquiry types, beyond fair testing, has moved on a great deal in primary schools, since the introduction of the National Curriculum. There will always be debate around the definitions and types of scientific enquiry that are included in the National Curriculum, but the PLAN primary science resources include a useful definition of each, with examples, of the five that currently feature.

"In high-quality science curriculums, knowledge is carefully sequenced to reveal the interplay between substantive and disciplinary knowledge. This ensures that pupils not only know 'the science'; they also know the evidence for it and can use this knowledge to work scientifically."

This highlights the role of scientific enquiry in the teaching of science, as pupils will come to appreciate that knowledge is based on evidence from scientific enquiry and that knowledge is also required to carry it out. Pupils need the disciplinary knowledge, in other words the working scientifically skills, to carry out a scientific enquiry, but they may also need substantive knowledge. For example, in Key Stage 1, in order to successfully complete a scientific enquiry to identify the best material to use to mop up a spill, pupils will need an understanding of absorbency. In upper Key Stage 2, pupils will not be able to make a scientific prediction about the descent of a parachute, if they do not have the substantive knowledge about air resistance and gravity.

"A high-quality science curriculum not only identifies the important concepts and procedures for pupils to learn, it also plans for how pupils will build knowledge of these over time. This starts in the early years. Research shows that high-quality science curriculums are coherent. This means the curriculums are organised so that pupils' knowledge of concepts develops from component knowledge that is sequenced according to the logical structure of the scientific disciplines. In this way, pupils learn how knowledge connects in science as they 'see' its underlying conceptual structure."

"Importantly, this sequencing pays careful attention to how to pair substantive with disciplinary knowledge, so that disciplinary knowledge is always learned within the most appropriate substantive contexts."

Teachers need to choose carefully the scientific enquiry activities that support the development of the substantive knowledge that they are covering. They can then choose the most appropriate disciplinary knowledge (working scientifically skills) to introduce based on the scientific enquiry activity chosen and the needs of their pupils. Pupils should then be provided with additional opportunities to develop this disciplinary knowledge (working scientifically skills) further in different 'substantive contexts', in other words in other topics.

There is also a cross-over between the knowledge content in science and other subjects. This needs to be taught consistently, regardless of the subject. For example, whether pupils learn the substantive knowledge about the water cycle in geography or science, the vocabulary used should be the same and pupils should understand that it is the same water cycle being taught in both subjects. Similarly, when teaching the disciplinary knowledge of drawing graphs, the expectations of how to draw an appropriate graph are the same regardless of the subject.

"evidence shows the importance of practice when learning science. Practice makes sure that learned knowledge is accessible and not forgotten."

It often feels as though there is insufficient time in school timetables for science. Wellcome's Understanding the 'state of the nation' report of UK primary science education in 2019 recommends two hours a week is required to cover the National Curriculum content in sufficient depth, but the average is just one hour 24 minutes a week. It is, therefore, vital that teachers make every minute count. The PLAN Knowledge matrices can help by specifying the key learning that must be covered. Focusing on this allows teachers time to provide a range of opportunities for pupils to access the substantive knowledge over a period of time while also giving opportunities for them to practice and develop their disciplinary knowledge.

Within a year-group, it may be appropriate to break some National Curriculum topics into smaller sub-topics taught at different times in the year, providing opportunities for pupils to access prior learned knowledge. For example, materials in Year 1 or 2 could be taught for several weeks each term rather than in one block. Some knowledge is best taught throughout the year, such as seasonal changes, plants and living things in their habitats. This also provides good opportunities for pupils to access their previously learned knowledge.

Where there are connections between topics or subjects, these are further opportunities for pupils to access their previously learned knowledge.

"Pupils also need to learn about the different ways that scientists engage in their work through reading, writing, talking and representing science. "

Pupils learn in a variety of ways and should be encouraged to do so. Using high quality science books as part of reading in English reinforces and broadens science learning. It may also be appropriate to use reading as a way to introduce children to key vocabulary they will meet during their science lessons.

Giving pupils time to talk about their developing science knowledge helps to clarify their thinking and is useful preparation for communicating in writing.

"There is also evidence from research into scientific misconceptions that suggests they can be addressed and pre-empted by changing what is taught and when."

"Practical work forms an important part of a science education. This is because it introduces pupils to the objects, phenomena and methods of study. However, research identifies that practical activities are often carried out with insufficient attention to their purpose."

Scientific enquiry and practical work must form part of the teaching of science, however, it is vital that teachers are clear about its purpose. Substantive knowledge can, and should, be developed while pupils carry out scientific enquiry, but it is important that this knowledge development is made clear to them.

Scientific enquiry also provides a specific context for pupils to learn and develop their disciplinary knowledge, both their working scientifically skills and their understanding of how evidence is used to inform the development of science knowledge.

"Evidence suggests that high-quality practical work [...] takes place only when pupils have enough prior knowledge to learn from the activity."

On first reading this statement, it could be interpreted as meaning that pupils should be taught the substantive knowledge for a topic before they engage in practical work. This could result in a series of dry lessons during which the knowledge is taught that is then followed by scientific enquiry work where the knowledge may get forgotten. However, I believe that it is actually reminding us of the interplay between substantive and disciplinary knowledge.

It is often useful to include a short exploratory activity to teach the scientific concepts and vocabulary that pupils will need to use while they carry out scientific enquiry. In Ofsted's report, this is referred to as 'discovery learning'. For example, it is meaningless for pupils to investigate the variables that affect how a parachute falls, if they have not been introduced to the concepts of gravity and air resistance. A short exploratory activity where pupils drop a parachute is an effective way of introducing these concepts before the pupils embark on the scientific enquiry. Similarly, before carrying out an activity to investigate the conditions in which minibeasts prefer to live, pupils will need to have explored the habitats concerned to name and identify the minibeasts that inhabit it. In these examples, pupils are taught some substantive knowledge, as part of an exploratory activity, which they will then develop further during the scientific enquiry activity.

It is important that scientific enquiry is successful in meeting its intended purpose, in other words, it is developing knowledge. Sometimes, pupils may need to be taught a specific working scientifically skill in order to complete a scientific enquiry activity successfully. For example, if a scientific enquiry activity involves the use of a new piece of measuring equipment, pupils should be shown how to use the equipment (taught some new disciplinary knowledge) before they start on the scientific enquiry activity, otherwise time will be wasted in gathering poor data.

"Research highlights the importance of teacher explanations in science that build from what pupils already know. These explicitly focus pupils' attention on the content being learned."

It is the role of the teacher to help pupils make sense of their observations and the evidence they gather during scientific enquiry activities and to highlight how this builds on their prior learning. Teachers may find it useful to prepare clear explanations, in advance, that they either share orally or in written form after the pupils have completed the scientific enquiry activity. These explanations should include the careful introduction of key scientific vocabulary. This will support pupils to include the newly acquired substantive knowledge into their conclusions or predictions in further scientific enquiries.

"Evidence shows that, despite the best curriculum and teaching, pupils will learn different things from what was intended. This means that teachers need to frequently check pupils' understanding to identify 'gaps' and misconceptions. This must be coupled with subject-specific feedback, so pupils know how to make progress in learning the science content."

Teachers need to be clear about the expected learning (PLAN Knowledge matrices - Key learning) and should then build assessment opportunities into all lessons to check on their pupils' developing substantive and disciplinary knowledge (PLAN matrices - Possible evidence). They can then provide further opportunities to address any identified gaps and misconceptions either with the whole class, smaller groups or individuals. This may be done by feedback marking on written work, verbal feedback during activities, a starter activity in the next lesson or small group teaching.

"A second role of assessment is to prevent pupils from forgetting what they have learned. This is known as the testing effect. Research shows that when pupils retrieve knowledge from memory, over extended periods of time, this increases the likelihood that it will be remembered."

Planning a series of lessons over a period of time to develop the knowledge contained in one National Curriculum statement allows the opportunity for pupils to retrieve the knowledge from their memories over time.

It may be appropriate to include quick, low stakes quizzes as a regular feature throughout topics to provide retrieval time and check that learning is remembered.

"A third role of assessment is to check that pupils have reached specific curricular goals. This is known as summative assessment and must be carefully used to ensure that its high-stakes nature does not lead to curriculum narrowing and/or increase unnecessary burden on staff and pupils."

"A high-quality science education depends on effective subject and school leadership. This starts with allocating sufficient curriculum time to teach the science curriculum. However, research shows this does not always happen, particularly in primary schools."

"It is also paramount that leaders ensure that science teachers and technicians have access to regular, high-quality subject-specific continuous professional development (CPD). This is especially important in science given that many teachers are teaching outside of their subject specialism."

Book us or another high-quality CPD provider, and have a look at the PLAN CPD packages.

Finally, pupils need access to sufficient resources so that they can carry out practical work, both in the classroom and field. This should be in appropriately sized groups, which better enable first-hand experiences.

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Thoughts on Ofsted's research review of the factors that influence the quality of science education

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On 29 April 2021, Ofsted published the latest report in its research review series that identified the factors that influence the quality of science education in schools in England. It is a substantial report and significant portions of it are of greater relevance to secondary schools than primary schools.

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TAPS Teachers Assessing Primary Science 

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TAPS Teachers Assessing Primary Science 

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The PSTT advises teachers to refer to either the CLEAPSS website or SSERC website for up to date health and safety information when planning practical activities for children.

The PSTT is not liable for the actions or activities of any reader or anyone else who uses the information in these resource pages or the associated classroom materials. The PSTT assumes no liability with regard to injuries or damage to property that may occur as a result of using the information contained in these resources. The PSTT recommends that a full risk assessment is carried out before undertaking in the classroom any of the practical investigations contained in the resources.

All materials are ©Primary Science Teaching Trust (PSTT) and are freely available to download and share for educational purposes. Whilst educators are free to adapt the resources to suit their own needs, acknowledgement of copyright on all original materials must be included. Rights to images included in the resource have been purchased for PSTT use only - as such, these images may only be used as part of this resource and may not copied into or used in other materials.

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Guidance and resources to support teaching and assessment.

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It's birlliant!

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including STEM careers, stories with science links and eco friendly christmas crackers.

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This collection of books includes a range of suggestions for broadening the representation in your science-related classroom books. It includes biographies of inspiring people as well as a range of texts linked to specific curriculum themes that include a broad range of representation.

This list of stories linked to the curriculum includes possible investigation questions and suggestions of which key stages those questions could be used in. Worth a look when you're making plans for your next science module!

These cards were designed to help children frame their thinking in science lessons, supporting with posing questions, discussing investigations and explaining results. In my classroom, they've been cut out and turned into keyrings, and I often display the relevant card on the interactive whiteboard when we're engaging in discussion. They could also be stuck into science books, displayed on tables or added to science displays. They could also be used to support pupils who can find talking through their ideas difficult, including pupils with SEND.

This list was created to help develop pupils' science capital by highlighting the range of STEM careers available to them. It is intended for use by teachers to select careers linked to their current science topic and discuss these with pupils, perhaps even having them take on the roles of these scientists in lessons. You could, for example, challenge students to be meteorologists in their seasons lessons, or horticulturalists in their lessons on plants. It would also be helpful to add the names for these different types of scientists to your vocabulary lists, displays and knowledge organisers.

This is a list of possible discussion questions (and some simple activities) for children to take part in with their families at home. It's currently in an early state, as it has been somewhat rushed together to provide for teachers who would like to keep their pupils engaged in science in the event of potential school closures, so apologies for any typos or errors! I'll be looking to develop it in the future.

There are currently only links to Year 1-6, but anyone interested in tasks for Early Years pupils can head here to download sets of low-resource science activities for younger learners:
https://www.stem.org.uk/resources/community/resource/258613/early-yearsreception-science-homeworks

This idea came to be after I saw a post on social media about how much plastic waste is generated by Christmas crackers. While the amount of waste stated in the viral post does not seem to be factually accurate, you can't deny there is too much waste generated by these things! We're making them for our enterprise project this Christmas; I thought others might like to too!

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Diverse Representation in Science - Book Corner SuggestionsDownload This collection of books includes a range of suggestions for broadening the representation in your science-related classroom books. It includes biographies of inspiring people as well as a range of texts linked to specific curriculum themes that include a broad range of representation.

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ASE Primary Science Free Magazine Teacher Assessing Primary Science TAPS

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ASE Primary Science Free Magazine Teacher Assessing Primary Science TAPS

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Programmes of Study

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Our primary science resource packages provide a useful starting point for teachers in planning and delivering science lessons or in supplementing a teacher’s own planning.

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Twig Reporters like Newsround once a week 5 mins

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Twig Reporters like Newsround once a week 5 mins

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How about putting these ten min  BBC Hey, What if ... Programmes on.

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Twig Science Reporter is a weekly science news service for your K-8 classroom.

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The ASE's 2024 flagship Annual Conference takes place at the University of Northampton's Waterside Campus in January, from the 4th to the 6th...

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The Ogden Trust - Promoting the teaching and learning of physics

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The Ogden Trust aims to increase the uptake of physics post-16 by supporting physics education and engagement for all young people (4-18), particularly those in under-represented groups. The Trust supports schools, teachers, projects and programmes that are committed to enhancing physics teaching and learning.
Explore the Trust

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The Ogden Trust: supporting physics education & engagement

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The Ogden Trust supports schools, teachers, projects and programmes that are committed to enhancing physics teaching and learning: Making Physics Matter.

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Health and Safety and lesson ideas

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As a word document for you to add your ideas

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2020 Development Matters Where is my science

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DfE Development Matters - non-statutory guidance

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DfE Development Matters - non-statutory guidance

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Facebook page opens in new window Twitter page opens in new window

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Raising the profile and quality of science in 1000’s of UK primary schools since 2011

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A fossil hunter's story project resources - overview

Our award-winning film, SEA DRAGON, sets the scene for the whole project, introduces Mary, and reflects the themes and main ideas being addressed through the learning activities.

This interactive resource features a series of nine core and six enrichment activities presented as four topics: Fossil hunter Mary; Strange creatures; The end of the line; and Evidence, beliefs and ideas. Collectively these activities give insights into Mary's life, explore the science of fossils and reflect on the influence of historical, cultural and religious thinking in changing ideas.

Together the learning activities develop three themes:

Mary Anning, fossils and evolution covering the significance of fossils in our understanding of evolution and the role Mary Anning played in this (content knowledge)

The value of engaging with enquiry (procedural knowledge)

The nature of scientific, historical and religious knowledge (epistemic knowledge)

The activities support the use of dialogic teaching, in which children express and share their ideas in group or whole class discussion and teachers encourage children to explain their thinking. The enquiry-based approach emphasises the role in learning of the identification of questions, and the collection and use of evidence in seeking answers.

The activities are designed to be used flexibly, mainly in science lessons but in some cases are equally appropriate in history, religious education and English. Each activity includes key questions, curriculum links and vocabulary, what children do and learn, classroom resources plus background information for teachers.

Project team

Professor Derek Bell, Marianne Cutler, Professor Wynne Harlen and Stuart Naylor, with Karen Shoebottom.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to Hester Binge, Richard Bizley, British Science Association, Tracy Chevalier, Lawrie Doran, Dean Lomax, Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre, Clemens Majunke, Terhi Kylliainen, Felix Levinson, Geological Society of London, James Morgan, Jurassic Coast Trust, Natural History Museum, Teacher Scientist Network and Bonnie Zahl; and to our Advisory group of Professor Berry Billingsley, Naomi Hiscock, Daniel Hugill, Professor Chris King, Professor Tom McLeish, Professor Michael Reiss (Chair), Michael Riley and Dr James Williams.

Pilot schools

Arundel C of E Primary School, West Sussex; Bromley High GDST, Greater London; Bures CEVC Primary, Suffolk; Cutteslowe Primary School, Oxford; Downton Primary School, Wiltshire; Exeter Road Community Primary School, Exmouth; Fairford Primary School, Gloucester; Heathfield Knoll School and Nursery, Kidderminster; Howes Primary School, Coventry; Kingsmead Primary School, Northwich; Mearns Primary School, East Renfrewshire; Micklem Primary School, Hemel Hempstead; Millbrook Park C of E Primary School, London; Parkgate Primary School, Southampton; Rosehill Methodist Primary Academy, Ashton-under-Lyne; Sandfield Close Primary School, Leicester; Semley CE VA Primary School, Wiltshire; St Bernadette's Catholic Primary School, Birmingham; St Blaise C of E Primary Abingdon, St Edward's Catholic Primary School, Birmingham; St Mary's Primary School, Bridport; St Peter's Catholic Primary School, Marlow

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A fossil hunter's story project resources - overview Our award-winning film, SEA DRAGON, sets the scene for the whole project, introduces Mary, and reflects the themes and main ideas being addressed through the learning activities.

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Six recommendations for improving primary science, including developing vocabulary and working scientifically.

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Look on Explorify Teacher Support - Tackle the Tricky bits - Explore with your class

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Look on Explorify Teacher Support - Tackle the Tricky bits - Explore with your class

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For each of the PoS Themes

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Ideas for how to explore this topic with your class and explain it in a way they will understand.

children exploring animal skeletons with their teacher

The second part of this topic guide leads on from the tricky scientific concepts that we explained in part one ( you can revise them here). Now you're clear on what the children need to know and have the background science under your belt, you're ready to apply these ideas for teaching animals, including humans to your class!

To teach a broad topic like this one, there are lots of important connections that should be made with your pupils' learning in other topics (e.g., living things and their habitats, evolution and inheritance). As they are learning a lot about humans, they also have their own experiences to draw upon!

1. Animal identification

Research using a range of sources will be an essential scientific skill for children to develop in this topic. Your pupils will inevitably have lots of questions about different animals, so it is important they have the opportunity to access useful websites to find their own answers. National Geographic, The Wildlife Trusts, RSPB and the World Wildlife Fund are excellent places to start.

For those animals that might be found in your local environment, it is really valuable for children to observe them first hand and identify their characteristics. A local nature walk is a great way to begin this topic and get your children excited. It is also a way for your pupils to begin gathering information for grouping animals and creating classification keys. For example, they could identify animals with and without skeletons, compare how they move or what they eat.

There are also lots of Explorify activities that are a great way to introduce your pupils to the huge variety of animals and begin finding similarities and differences. Highlights include: To flee or not to flee, Funky feet, The sound of silence, In the swim, Golden jewel, Hanging out, In your eyes, I spy, Prints, Brown and hairy, Brown and bumpy, Prickly and spiky, Tip the scales, Mystery markings, Puddle pals, The damselfly's day, Bottoms up, Wrigglers and Odd octopus.

2. Understanding animal lifecycles

Again, there are lots of useful sources of information to support children's understanding of life cycles and processes of reproduction. But, the more hands-on, the better! If they can observe animals growing and developing it can be a very powerful learning experience. Sourcing hens' eggs to incubate and hatch or caterpillar eggs to observe developing into butterflies is simple and effective (although you will need a small budget). Similarly, if you have space to create a wild outdoor area where you can grow plants that will attract insects or a pond for tadpoles and fish it is very worthwhile.

Lots of your children will also have pets, which make great case studies for how different animals develop from birth to adulthood. A home learning challenge to present a project about their pet or favourite animal can give children ownership of their learning.

These What's Going On? activities are a good way to begin a discussion about life cycles: Coming out to play and  Unexpected eggs.

3. Understanding themselves!

When learning about the different parts of their body and how they function, there are a variety of Explorify activities to add an extra dimension to your lessons.
a. Senses
For the sense organs, See the light and Hidden depths provide a close up of the human eye and ear and What if we couldn't smell things? and How do smells travel? will get your children discussing how their noses work.

Why not research the senses of other animals and compare them to humans? Your children could create a sensory league table or design a Top Trump card game with the senses of each animal given a rating out of 100 based on their research.
b. Skeleton
Creating a human skeleton using dog biscuits and labelling the main body parts is a fun challenge to help children identify how our body is given its structure and protection. To develop their understanding further, you can explore what would happen if humans did not have skeletons or What if my bones were bendy?

Comparing the human skeleton to those of other animals is a brilliant way of seeing how and why animals have physical similarities and differences. Light as air and Funny bones are great examples to begin with.
c. Digestion
Learning about the process of digestion is best done by making it happen! This BBC video demonstrates how to make a model of the digestive system, which your children will love to try! The Big Question How long is the gut? will also give your pupils the opportunity to discuss how they would investigate the route food takes through their digestive system and enable them to work together.

Children love to look at their teeth in a mirror and identify the different types. Why do we have different teeth? is a great Big Question activity to get them started. Once they know why they have different teeth, have fun posing the question What if you had teeth like a snake? or What if toothbrushes didn't exist? and find out what they think.
d. Circulation and staying healthy
To learn about their circulatory system, children should be up out of their seats and getting their blood pumping. Investigating the effects of exercise on their heart rate is a great opportunity to focus on scientific skills such as taking accurate measurements, recording data in different ways and identifying scientific evidence to support or refute their ideas. Get your blood pumping is a nice Odd One Out activity to provide a bit of context to their investigation.

Other Explorify activities to provide some inspiration for investigating the importance of exercise include Big Questions: How could you measure the benefits of walking?, How fast can you jump a mile?, How can we stay fit as we get older? and What sport makes you sweat the most?; What ifs: What if we couldn't exercise?, What if we didn't use cars anymore? and a fun What's Going On? video Born to dance.

To understand what makes a healthy diet, your pupils can research different food groups and design meals based on what they find out. Even better, take a trip to your local supermarket and ask children to create a balanced shopping list for their family. Get your children talking about food with these Explorify activities: What if you only ate chips?, Which breakfast is best? and Fuel up.

Learning about germs, microorganisms and keeping clean can be kickstarted with the Big Question How clean are your hands? and the Odd One Out Small but powerful.

4. Use a concept cartoon
(Taken from Science Concept Cartoons® Set 1 Revised Edition (2014) and Science Concept Cartoons® Set 2 (2015). © Millgate House Education Ltd www.millgatehouse.co.uk)

This concept cartoon presents a range of viewpoints about how the circulation system works, including common misconceptions and the scientifically correct response. Get your pupils to consider what they think about the different opinions. It will help them to justify their own ideas and clarify their scientific thinking.

You can even design your own concept cartoons based on the needs of your children or to assess a particular piece of understanding. Or why not let your children have a go at creating their own?

We'd love to know how these ideas worked for you. You can tell us on Twitter, join our Facebook Staffroom Group or send us an email!

Image credit: Children exploring animal skeletons with their teacher by Wavebreakmedia via Shutterstock SL

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Animals, including humans...explore with your class

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Ideas for classroom activities to inspire your pupils and support you in your teaching of primary science

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Chapter 1 - Life processes in animals and plants