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Some researchers have found a trend towards universalism for leadership, while others believe that culture continues to be a determining factor.

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There is also a debate about whether there are specific behaviors, attitudes, and values that leaders in the 21st century need to be successful.

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Bass and his associates have conducted research on the universality and effectiveness of transformational and transactional leadership.

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Globalization and its impact on leadership styles in Latin America.

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Globalization and its impact on leadership styles in Latin America.

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Initial universality observed among Latin American countries.

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Initial universality observed among Latin American countries.

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Midlevel managers from Arab countries were surveyed and found to have higher attitude scores for capacity for leadership and initiative

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1.Increased investment from MNCs
Knowledgeable workforce in high-tech industry
Balancing traditional values with high-tech future.

2.Focusing on both people and tasks, are effective in the Indian work environment.

3.This may stem from India's unique population diversity.

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A. Combination of authoritarian and participative behaviors.
B. Leaders who welcomed input from subordinates were viewed as weak.
C. Social distance between managers and subordinates.
D. Greater participative behavior near the U.S. border due to globalization.

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 Leadership Styles in Other Latin American Countries

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 Leadership Styles in Other Latin American Countries

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1.High-people and high-task approach
Emphasis on both people and task orientation.

2.Participation and internal control, differences appear in the sharing of information and goals.

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Transformational leaders are visionary agents who can motivate their followers to accept new goals and ways of doing things

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Charismatic leadership focuses on an executive's abilities to inspire and motivate subordinates. Transactional leaders exchange rewards for effort and performance.

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A. Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia also exhibit authoritarian behaviors.
B. Differences in leadership styles among countries.

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A. Haire and associates found different results for Chile and Argentina.
B. Peru's leadership styles may be closer to those in the United States.

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Bass's analysis of studies conducted in various countries found that very little of the variance in leadership behavior could be attributed to culture, and he concluded that his model of leadership has considerable universal potential, although adjustments may be necessary when moving across cultures.

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Similarities in International Leadership Styles

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Similarities in International Leadership Styles

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A. Increasing economic advancement may lead to more participative styles.
B. The importance of contingency application of leadership styles.
C. Enlightened participative leadership styles from economically advanced countries may have value in managing international operations.

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Bass discovered that there was far more universalism in leadership  than had been believed previously. Additionally, after studying thousands of international  cases, he found that the most effective managers were transformational leaders and they  were characterized by four interrelated factors.

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Transformational leaders are a source of charisma and enjoy the admiration of their followers. They enhance pride, loyalty, and confidence in their people, and they align these followers by providing a common purpose or vision that the latter willingly accept

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These leaders are extremely effective in articulating their vision, mission, and beliefs in clear-cut ways, thus providing an easy-to-understand sense of purpose regarding what needs to be done.

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Transformational leaders are able to get their follow-ers to question old paradigms and to accept new views of the world regarding how things now need to be done.

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These leaders are able to diagnose and elevate the needs of each of their followers through individualized consideration, thus furthering the development of these people.

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The Arab managers’ scores for sharing information and objectives, participation, and internal control, however, all were significantly lower

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Bass identified four other types of leaders, with the transformational leader being the most effective. The other types are contingent reward (CR), active management-by-exception (MBE-A), passive management-by-exception (MBE-P), and laissez-faire (LF).

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Bass developed a leadership model that illustrates the effectiveness of all five types of leaders.

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Bass developed a leadership model that illustrates the effectiveness of all five types of leaders.

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He found that the 4 I's were positively correlated with each other, but less so with contingent reward, and there was an inverse correlation between these four factors and the laissez-faire leadership style.

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The researcher concluded that the results were accounted for by the culture of the Middle East region.

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While there may be differences in leadership behavior from country to country, Bass concluded that universal leadership behavior is far more common than many people realize. .

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However, culture can create some problems in using universal leadership concepts in certain countries.

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More recent research provides some evidence that there may be much greater similarity between Middle Eastern leadership styles and those of Western countries.

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Western management practices are very evident in the Arabian Gulf region because of the close business ties between the West and this oil-rich area and the increasing educational attainment

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A tendency toward participative leadership styles among young Arab middle management, as well as among highly educated managers of all ages.