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What current techniques exist to remediate PFAS?

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What current techniques exist to remediate PFAS?

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https://www.ovivowater.com/en/technologies/nitrate-trace-impurities-removal/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_content=pfas%20water%20removal&utm_campaign=Ovivo%20Water&gclid=EAIaIQobChMI5LqGkcyc-wIVfvLjBx1ZfgUMEAAYAiAAEgJ7gfD_BwE

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Trace Impurity Water Treatment Solutions

A range of advanced solutions for the purification of drinking water to remove excessive levels of nitrate, heavy metals, PFAS and other impurities, for the municipal water industry and private water supplies.

See Related Products & Technologies

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Elevated levels of harmful impurities are of concern to water suppliers and consumers alike. Where these levels exceed public health guidelines the impurities need to be reduced to provide safe drinking water. Ovivo offers a range of industry leading pre-engineered and customised solutions for drinking water treatment that provide high performance, sustainability and reliability.

A wide range of treatment solutions to provide safe drinking water

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Ovivo is a powerful global brand with over 150 years of experiences and references in water treatment

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Trace Impurity Water Treatment Solutions- Ovivo Water

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Trace Impurity Water Treatment Solutions A range of advanced solutions for the purification of drinking water to remove excessive levels of nitrate, heavy metals, PFAS and other impurities, for the municipal water industry and private water supplies. See Related Products & Technologies Elevated levels of harmful impurities are of concern to water suppliers and consumers alike.

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When was the last time Madison detected PFAS in their water?

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When was the last time Madison detected PFAS in their water?

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Madison Water Utility first discovered PFAS at Well 15 in 2017 while conducting limited testing at wells near landfills and the airport. Well 15 located on E. Washington Avenue was shut down in 2019 amid community concerns about PFAS chemicals found there.

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"An unstable radioactive isotope" (not ideal)

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How many homes do the wells service in Madison?

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How many homes do the wells service in Madison?

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64,839 service connections and pipes to individual properties

https://www.cityofmadison.com/water/about

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Founded as a public utility in 1882, Madison Water Utility is proud to bring safe, high-quality water to more than 250,000 people across Madison, Shorewood Hills, Blooming Grove, Maple Bluff, parts of Fitchburg, the Town of Madison, and the Town of Burke. Our water comes from a deep aquifer beneath Madison and is pumped to the surface by 23 wells located across the city. Compared to lake water, the deep wells provide high quality, clean and safe water that requires little treatment.

How did a UW undergrad's cutting-edge chemistry experiments in 1880 jumpstart Madison Water Utility? Take a look at the video below to find out more about our unique history:

Mission

We are entrusted by the people of Madison to supply high quality water for consumption and fire protection, at a reasonable cost, while conserving and protecting our ground water resources for present and future generations.

Operations

Madison Water Utility is a public water system owned and operated by the City of Madison. Our operations and infrastructure projects are funded by water rates, not taxes. Rates are set by the Public Service Commission. Madison Water Utility is governed by the Water Utility Board whose members are appointed by the mayor and is under the general control and supervision of the Madison Common Council. The Water Utility Board appoints a general manager, subject to the approval of the mayor and common council, who is responsible for day-to-day management and supervision of the Utility.

Madison's Water System Operates with

23 deep wells located at well facilities across the city

895 miles of water main 9,009 hydrants, 21,728 valves

33 reservoirs providing over 43 million gallons of storage

11 district pressure zones

64,839 service connections and pipes to individual properties

Key Services of Madison Water Utility:

We deliver every day a high quality, reliable supply of drinking water that protects public health. The citizens of Madison depend on it for safe water to drink, prepare our food, wash our clothes, and bathe our families.

We work to protect our precious groundwater source by using sustainable practices ourselves and encouraging conservation by our customers. We are all stewards of the water infrastructure and resources handed down to us by previous generations.

We ensure that a sufficient supply of water is available at hydrants throughout the city to fight fires. We keep this water flowing at the right pressure to enable the Fire Department to protect lives and property.

The water pipes below our streets make everyday conveniences possible and provide the Madison community a high quality of life. We all support essential water service by paying for the necessary infrastructure and processes to get water to every customer.

We deliver a reliable and affordable supply of fresh water to support the local economy, to supply business, industry, government, and a world-class research university with an essential need.

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Founded as a public utility in 1882, Madison Water Utility is proud to bring safe, high-quality water to more than 250,000 people across Madison, Shorewood Hills, Blooming Grove, Maple Bluff, parts of Fitchburg, the Town of Madison, and the Town of Burke.

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Trichloroethylene is a chemical that is used to make refrigerants and degrease metals. Trichloroethylene can be found as a contaminant in both soil and water. Exposure to this chemical can harm the immune and reproductive systems, liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. It is also a known carcinogen.

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How does radionuclides affect water quality?

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How does radionuclides affect water quality?

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Having high amounts of radionuclides can increase your lifetime risk of having cancer and kidney problems. Water more than 15 picocuries of alpha particles per liter of water is the maximum regulated amount for the water to be considered safe

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People who are exposed to relatively high levels of radionuclides in drinking water for long periods may develop serious health problems, such as cancer, ane- mia, osteoporosis, cataracts, bone growths, kidney disease, liver disease and impaired immune systems

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Is high radium content bad and what are its effects?

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Is high radium content bad and what are its effects?

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The max radium content is 5 pCi/L. Our wells come very close to this maximum or even above. We found that in high levels, radium can cause anemia, problems with the eyes, and cavities.
https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Departments-and-Agencies/DPH/dph/environmental_health/private_wells/Radium-in-well-water_March2019.pdf

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How do Radionuclides affect humans when drinking?

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How do Radionuclides affect humans when drinking?

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What are PFAS and how are they regulated?

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What are PFAS and how are they regulated?

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https://www.aaas.org/epi-center/pfas#:~:text=Per%2D%20and%20polyfluoroalkyl%20substances%20(PFAS)%20are%20a%20class%20of,and%20are%20difficult%20to%20destroy.
PFAS are man made contaminants that are difficult to removed in the environment naturally. There is little research on then and they are yet to be regulated

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American Association for the Advancement of Science

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Download the factsheet, What We Know: Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) (PDF) to learn more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of thousands of synthetic chemicals used to make products resistant to water, heat, and stains. PFAS, often referred to as "forever chemicals," do not easily break down in the environment and are difficult to destroy. Detected in drinking water and drinking water sources throughout the United States, their chemical properties make PFAS difficult to treat and remove using conventional water treatment processes.

There is not yet enough research to suggest safe exposure levels for each PFAS. Trace doses of several of the most-researched compounds have been linked to harmful health effects and an increasing number of communities across the country are detecting these chemicals and working to address contamination.
How are people exposed to PFAS?
PFAS are used in industrial applications and found in consumer goods such as clothing, food packaging, cookware, cosmetics, and carpet as well as a fire-fighting foam known as aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). People are exposed to PFAS by consuming contaminated water and food, breathing in dust with PFAS, and contact with consumer products that contain PFAS.

Sources of contamination include not only industrial and manufacturing facilities, but landfills where PFAS have leached into groundwater, and places where PFAS-based firefighting foam AFFF has been used such as airports, military sites, chemical plants, and aboveground petroleum storage facilities.

Designed for long-term stability, PFAS do not easily break down and are difficult to destroy. PFAS cycle through the environment: incineration facilities can release PFAS into the air; contaminated biosolids produced by wastewater treatment facilities have been linked to PFAS in vegetables grown on farm fields where it was applied.

What is the evidence of health effects?

Trace doses of several of the most-researched compounds have been linked to health issues from cancers and increased cholesterol levels to preeclampsia during pregnancy.Scientific research shows that PFAS affect the immune, endocrine and metabolic systems. But very little is known about a majority of PFAS, including how long they linger in our bodies (referred to as half-life), their toxicity and how different PFAs may interact in our bodies.

Research into the potential health implications of PFAS indicates reason for concern. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), one of the most well-studied PFAS, has been linked to kidney and testicular cancer, decreased antibody responses to vaccines, liver damage, increased cholesterol levels, increased risk of thyroid disease, increased risk of decreased fertility, decreases in birth weight, and increased risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia.This evidence of harmful health effects led to the phasing out PFOA and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) in the United States.

Most people in the United States have one or more specific PFAS in their blood, particularly PFOA and PFOS. But there is no treatment for PFAS exposure, and blood testing does not provide a clinical diagnosis or definitively say if a person's health has been or will be affected.

Evidence is now emerging that shorter chain PFAS such as GenX, used as replacements for the phased-out chemicals, also persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in people with possible health effects.Federal agencies are funding and conducting research to better understand exposure to additional PFAS.
How are PFAS regulated?
There are not yet any federally enforceable standards for PFAS in drinking water in the United States but the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has begun developing a national primary drinking water standard for PFOA and PFOS and is considering ways to evaluate additional PFAS. The EPA established a health advisory level in 2016 for two PFAS -- PFOA and PFOS -- at a combined total of 70 parts per trillion in drinking water. As of June 2022, the EPA has lowered the health advisories for PFOA, PFOS and set final health advisories for GenX and PFBS. The health advisories are now 0.004 ppt for PFOA, 0.02 ppt for PFOS, 10 ppt for GenX, and 2,000 ppt for PFBS.

In the absence of a federal drinking water standard, numerous U.S. states have enacted limits for PFAS in drinking water, surface water and groundwater based on different health effects such as fetal and infant growth delays, thyroid dysfunction, infertility, alterations in liver function, and/or impaired immune function.

Beginning in 2023, the EPA will require some of the largest public drinking water systems to monitor for 29 different PFAS.

Under the Toxic Substances Control Act, manufacturers are now required to submit detailed information on some PFAS to the EPA to guide potential regulatory action and are prohibited from using certain long-chain PFAS without prior review and approval. No PFAS have been designated hazardous substances yet.

In recent years, states have regulated the presence of PFAS in drinking water, food packaging and consumer products; restricted use of PFAS firefighting foam; allocated funds for cleanup and remediation and sued manufacturers of PFAS chemicals.

Some experts and environmental advocates suggest regulating PFAS as a class rather than trying to regulate each chemical individually, establishing a single drinking water standard for the entire PFAS class, for example. Other potential strategies include regulating groups of PFAS, or subclasses, that have similar chemical properties or regulating by common adverse health effects, co-occurrence with other PFAS or a combination of these characteristics.

Some suggest that PFAS should be restricted to essential uses and only permitted when there are no safer alternatives. There are already many functional alternatives to PFAS that provide adequate technical performance and continued innovation will deliver many more. The Department of Defense is researching effective alternative fire-fighting foams to AFFF.
For more information
The AAAS EPI Center helps local and state leaders understand the current scientific evidence as they seek to address potential PFAS contamination. Additional information can be found in our Addressing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Drinking Water: Guides for Local and State Leaders. Please contact epicenter@aaas.org for additional resources, information, or to participate in a PFAS event.

Additional Resources

U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Perfluoroalkyls

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, PFAS Action Plan
C8 Science Panel
Interstate Technology Regulatory Council (ITRC), PFAS Fact Sheets
Last updated July 26, 2022

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Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Drinking Water

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A class of thousands of synthetic compounds used in everything from housewares to fire-fighting foam, trace doses of several of the most-researched PFAS have been linked to harmful health effects. There is not yet enough research to suggest safe exposure levels for each PFAS.

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Why does well 6 have a high sodium concentration, but the wells around it have lower levels?

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Why does well 6 have a high sodium concentration, but the wells around it have lower levels?

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Well 6 is on university ave. which is a highly salted in the winter.

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A copy of Salt and Drinking Water is also available in Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF)

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What testing methods were used to create this report?

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What testing methods were used to create this report?

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The city posts their methods:
https://www.cityofmadison.com/water/water-quality/water-quality-testing

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Madison's drinking water is closely regulated by both the EPA and DNR. Our testing experts conduct more than a thousand tests every month to continuously monitor quality and safety, ensuring Madison's drinking water more than meets strict Federal and State drinking water standards.

Latest Annual Water Quality Report.

Find out the water quality for wells serving your address.

What We Test For

Other Concerns

Detailed Information

Madison Water Utility puts an enormous amount of our water quality testing data online, giving you the ability to access detailed information about your water.

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Madison's drinking water is closely regulated by both the EPA and DNR. Our testing experts conduct more than a thousand tests every month to continuously monitor quality and safety, ensuring Madison's drinking water more than meets strict Federal and State drinking water standards. Latest Annual Water Quality Report.

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Well 6
MadisonWaterUtilityActiveFacilities.pdf (cityofmadison.com)

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Where are the wells that supply my home?

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Where are the wells that supply my home?

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The wells are all south, and some of the wells that supply are super far away!https://www.cityofmadison.com/sites/default/files/city-of-madison/water/documents/MadisonWaterUtilityActiveFacilities.pdf

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What is the PPM value to be considered Hard

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What is the PPM value to be considered Hard

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I found that anything that is 180 ppm is considered very hard. All of the people in my group had hardness well over that.

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4 pCi/L is considered hazardous, but it is difficult to reduce it below 2 pCi/L.

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What are the health affects of too much manganese from well water?

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What are the health affects of too much manganese from well water?

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"Children and adults who drink water with high levels of manganese for a long time may have problems with memory, attention, and motor skills" https://www.health.state.mn.us/communities/environment/water/contaminants/manganese.html#:~:text=Children%20and%20adults%20who%20drink,too%20much%20manganese%20in%20it.

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The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) developed guidance values to keep your household drinking water safe. Because these are guidance values, public water systems are not required to meet these values and some do not.

1. If you have an infant who drinks tap water or drinks formula made with tap water, a safe level of manganese in your water is 100 micrograms of manganese per liter of water (µg/L)* or less.

2. If you have an infant who never drinks tap water or formula made with tap water, a safe level of manganese in your water is 300 µg/L or less.

3. If everyone in your household is more than one year old, a safe level of manganese in your water is 300 µg/L or less.

Drinking water with a level of manganese above the MDH guidance level can be harmful for your health, but taking a bath or a shower in it is not. Manganese in your water can stain your laundry, cause scaling on your plumbing, and make your water look, smell, or taste bad. Manganese can also create a brownish-black or black stain on your toilet, shower, bathtub, or sink.

The only way to know the level of manganese in your drinking water is to contact your public water system or have your tap water tested. All water testing should be done through an accredited laboratory. Contact a Minnesota Department of Health accredited laboratory to get a sample container and instructions on how to submit a sample. You can also contact your county to see if they have any programs to make testing your water easier.

If you have a household water treatment unit, the unit may reduce the level of manganese in your drinking water. An MDH study in Dakota County found that water softeners can be an effective way to reduce the level of manganese in drinking water. You can learn more about water treatment options at Home Water Treatment. Contact MDH (651-201-4700 or health.drinkingwater@state.mn.us) with questions.

* One microgram per liter (µg/L) is the same as 1 part per billion.

If you have a private well

Some Minnesota groundwater naturally has levels of manganese higher than the MDH guidance values. You may want to test your drinking water for manganese, especially if infants drink your tap water. You are responsible for keeping your well water safe and testing it as needed.

If you are on a public water system

Public water systems may test their water for manganese, but they are not required to. You can contact your public water system to find out if they test the water for manganese. If your public water system does not test for manganese, you can arrange and pay for an accredited laboratory to test your water. Remember that certain types of home water treatment units may make the level of manganese lower in your tap water than what your water system detected.

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The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) developed guidance values to keep your household drinking water safe. Because these are guidance values, public water systems are not required to meet these values and some do not.

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Uranium is a naturally-occurring radionuclide that decays over time and forms radium. Both elements are naturally present in rocks and soils. Radium breaks down further to form the radioactive gas radon. All three of these elements can dissolve in water, which means they can accumulate in wells.

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On this page:

Rule Summary

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates radionuclides in drinking water to protect public health. Radionuclides in water at amounts greater than the drinking water standards may cause health problems.

On December 7, 2000, EPA published the Radionuclides Final Rule. The new rule revised the radionuclides regulation, which had been in effect since 1977. The revisions set new monitoring requirements for community water systems (CWS). This ensured customers receive water meeting maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for radionuclides in drinking water.

For more information on radionuclides in drinking water see the Basic Information page.

Radionuclides Rule Quick Reference Guide

This document provides a simple and straightforward description of the Rule. The guide includes critical deadlines and requirements for PWSs and states, and information on monitoring requirements.

Rule History

In 2000, EPA revised the radionuclides regulation, which had been in effect since 1977. The revisions set new monitoring provisions for community water systems (CWS). This ensured that all customers of CWSs receive water meeting the maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for radionuclides in drinking water.

EPA also issued a standard for uranium, as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1986. The current standards are:

Combined radium 226/228 of 5 pCi/L;

A gross alpha standard for all alphas of 15 pCi/L (not including radon and uranium);

A combined standard of 4 mrem/year for beta emitters.

The new MCL for uranium is 30 µg/L.
Federal Register Notices and Documents Pertaining to the Radionuclide Rule History
The Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water's (OGWDW's) Technical Support Center (TSC) develops analytical methods. These methods help determine the concentrations of chemical and microbial contaminants in drinking water.

EPA issued a final rule with three additional analytical methods. These include inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) technology for compliance determinations of uranium.

In 2004, EPA published minor corrections to the Radionuclides Rule. The correction identified a detection limit for uranium and clarified Rule language.

EPA published a Notice of Data Availability (NODA). The NODA included new information that had become available since the 1991 proposed revisions to the 1976 Radionuclides Rule. The Agency also developed a technical support document to accompany the NODA.

This document provides background information and further describes the analyses discussed in the NODA. The document also contains a Preliminary Health Risk Reduction and Cost Analysis, which presents the analyses of:

Projected impacts,

Costs,

Risk reductions, and

Benefits for the uranium National Primary Drinking Water Rule (NPDWR) and the new monitoring requirement for radium-228.

Documents pertaining to the NODA
In 1997, EPA held a public meeting to discuss regulatory issues associated with the 1991 Radionuclides Rule proposal.

In 1991, EPA proposed revisions to the July 9, 1976 Radionuclides Rule. The final Rule published in 2000 finalized this 1991 proposal.

Compliance

EPA has developed materials to assist drinking water system owners and operators, as well as States and Primacy Agencies. The links on this page will redirect to guidance and tools for the Radionuclide Rule.
Compliance for Public Water Systems Compliance for Primacy Agencies
Additional Tools and Resources

Radiation Protection Programs

EPA's Agency-wide Radiation Protection Program comprises seven groups of projects and issue-specific programs. You can find descriptions of the programs, as well as program contacts and news, on their webpage. The webpage also includes information on:

laws and regulations,

publications

and technical materials.

EPA's Radiation Protection Program Radionuclide Rule Presentations Question and Answer Fact Sheet 2007 Radionuclide Implementation Workshops

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On this page: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates radionuclides in drinking water to protect public health. Radionuclides in water at amounts greater than the drinking water standards may cause health problems. On December 7, 2000, EPA published the Radionuclides Final Rule. The new rule revised the radionuclides regulation, which had been in effect since 1977.

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What is the national PFAS standard concentration for drinking water?

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What is the national PFAS standard concentration for drinking water?

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https://www.ecos.org/pfas/#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20the%20agency%20issued,2%2C000%20ppt%20for%20GenX%20chemicals.

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The Environmental Council of the States (ECOS)

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Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large family of synthetic chemicals used for a wide variety of purposes. In recent years, scientists have concluded that some of these substances can pose human health risks. In 2016, EPA issued a lifetime health advisory of 70 parts per trillion (ppt) for two PFAS compounds (PFOA and PFOS) in drinking water. In 2022, the agency issued interim, updated drinking water health advisories of 0.004 ppt and 0.02 ppt for PFOA and PFOS, respectively, as well as final health advisories of 10 ppt for PFBS and 2,000 ppt for GenX chemicals.

States have responded in different ways to EPA's advisories. Since 2016, some states requested further federal regulatory action and a number of them have taken regulatory action themselves. The increasingly complex landscape of federal and state activities is making it harder for each state to address its citizens' concerns about PFAS risks. EPA, for its part, in 2021 developed a national strategy for addressing the health risks of PFAS contamination, and said it will propose a federally-enforceable regulation for PFOA and PFOS in Fall 2022. As EPA develops and implements its strategy, ECOS is helping states communicate and coordinate with EPA, other federal agencies, and each other about scientific and policy developments, newly-identified sources and exposure pathways, and best practices for investigation, corrective action, and public engagement.

ECOS White Paper: Processes and Considerations for Setting State PFAS Standards
Updated March 31, 2022
In recent years, federal, state, and international authorities have established various health-based regulatory values and evaluation criteria for a number of specific per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in response to growing concerns with contamination. At this time, the U.S. has no federally enforceable PFAS standards, leaving individual states to navigate various avenues for addressing PFAS contamination. Some states have established legally enforceable values for certain PFAS in drinking water, groundwater, surface water, soil, or other environmental media (e.g., drinking water Maximum Contaminant Levels [MCLs]). Other states and regulatory agencies have opted for non-enforceable values such as guidance levels, screening numbers, or advisories that may apply to PFAS for which promulgated standards do not exist.

The Environmental Council of the States (ECOS) in 2019 compiled information on state PFAS standards, advisories, and guidance values. Sharing data and regulatory approaches helps federal, state, and international authorities avoid unnecessary duplication of efforts, as well as understand and communicate about differences in guidelines. This paper outlines ECOS' findings on state efforts and considerations for future regulatory activities on PFAS. The document was initially published in February 2020 and updated in March/April 2021. This March 2022 update reflects the addition of three states and new regulatory and scientific activities that have occurred over the past year. ECOS will continue to update it annually as appropriate.
Read the updated white paper on setting state PFAS standards. Notes as of March 2021:

If your state has updated standards or would like to be included in the next update to this white paper (2022), please email Sarah Grace Longsworth of ECOS.

U.S. EPA's Office of Water's Standards and Health Protection Division houses the Agency's Fish Advisory program, which supports states in their formulation and issuance of fish consumption advisories. In September 2020, staff in that program and in the EPA Office of Research and Development compiled an updated list of state's advisory thresholds since ECOS's compilation in the appendices of this white paper. That listing can be found here. Much of this information has been incorporated into Appendix F of the updated ECOS PFAS standards white paper.

PFAS Monitoring

When ECOS updated its white paper in 2021, some states noted that they monitor for many more PFAS than are actually regulated, and that it would be helpful to get a sense for PFAS that other states monitor for. ECOS began compiling a spreadsheet, and will update it regularly as it receives information from states. Please email Sarah Grace Longsworth of ECOS to include your states' PFAS monitoring lists.

PFAS Monitoring Spreadsheet - Updated April 15, 2022

PFAS Risk Communications Hub

In 2018, ECOS and ASTHO interviewed environmental and health agency staff from 13 states and developed case studies on their risk communication strategies and lessons learned for PFAS and HABs. Building upon lessons learned from this effort, ECOS and ASTHO in 2019 developed a clearinghouse of PFAS risk communication resources to help state environmental and health managers more easily collaborate and disseminate audience-appropriate information on chemicals of emerging concern.

Check out the case studies and other risk communication resources on the clearinghouse webpage on ERIS.

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PFAS - The Environmental Council of the States (ECOS)

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Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large family of synthetic chemicals used for a wide variety of purposes. In recent years, scientists have concluded that some of these substances can pose human health risks. In 2016, EPA issued a lifetime health advisory of 70 parts per trillion (ppt) for two PFAS compounds (PFOA and PFOS) in drinking water.

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Effects of excess sodium in drinking water

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Effects of excess sodium in drinking water

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Elevated levels of sodium and chloride can also impart a salty taste, interfere with the watering of certain plants, and increase the corrosivity of water, which in turn can affect household plumbing.

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https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/aquifers-and-groundwater#:~:text=Groundwater%20occurs%20in%20the%20saturated,into%20it%20and%20withdraw%20water.

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Skip to main content

Official websites use .gov
A.gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock () or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

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Aquifers and Groundwater | U.S. Geological Survey

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A huge amount of water exists in the ground below your feet, and people all over the world make great use of it. But it is only found in usable quantities in certain places underground - aquifers. Read on to understand the concepts of aquifers and how water exists in the ground.

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How does the water hardness of WI compare to the rest of the U.S? 

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How does the water hardness of WI compare to the rest of the U.S? 

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https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/hardness-water#:~:text=Measures%20of%20water%20hardness&text=General%20guidelines%20for%20classification%20of,mg%2FL%20as%20very%20hard.
Overall, WI has moderate hardness compared to the U.S. The Southwest U.S. has the hardest water while the Southeast has softer water.

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Skip to main content

Official websites use .gov
A.gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock () or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

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Hardness of Water | U.S. Geological Survey

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In scientific terms, water hardness is generally the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water. But in layman's terms, you may notice water hardness when your hands still feel slimy after washing with soap and water, or when your drinking glasses at home become less than crystal clear.

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What is the average water hardness in Wisconsin?

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What is the average water hardness in Wisconsin?

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"Wisconsin water is considered moderately hard. The average water hardness for the Wisconsin resident is around 158 ppm."
Water hardness in Wisconsin and city hard water information (hydroflow-usa.com)

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EXAMPLE: What's a "DBP" and why does it matter?

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EXAMPLE: What's a "DBP" and why does it matter?

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"DBP" stands for "disinfection by product", and is a class of contaminants that form when disinfection chemicals, like chlorine, interact with other elements in a water matrix, like organic and inorganic compounds. Some DBPs can have harmful health effects, like increased risk of cancer. Here's some more information: https://doh.wa.gov/community-and-environment/drinking-water/disinfection/disinfection-byproducts

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What are disinfection byproducts and how are they formed? Water systems add chlorine to drinking water to kill or inactivate harmful organisms in a process called “disinfection.” During this process, chlorine also reacts with naturally occurring organic matter that may be present in drinking water.…