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Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2017). Lenses on Reading (3rd ed.). Guilford Publications, Inc.

Silvestri, K. N. & Baunnman. (2020).  All about literacy theories: Affective Lens. [Video]. https://video.cortland.edu/hapi/v1/contents/permalinks/o2CNf69Q

Silvestri, K. N. & McVee. (2020).  All about literacy theories: Social Learning Lens. [Video]. https://video.cortland.edu/hapi/v1/contents/permalinks/r6LFg34N

Silvestri, K. N. & Newvine, K. (2021, Oct 27). All about literacy theories: Critical perspectives. [Video]. https://video.cortland.edu/Watch/Xy8g4A5T

Silvestri, K. N. & Wilson, N. (2021). All about literacy theories: Cognitive-Processing Models. [Video]. https://video.cortland.edu/hapi/v1/contents/permalinks/Ab6k4WEp

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shared reading

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big books

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Metacognition Instruction

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Webbing

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Making Connections

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KWL Charts

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Cross-age or Buddy Reading

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Pen Pal or ePals

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literature circles

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Word Families

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Guided Reading

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Writer's Workshop

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Phonics

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Automaticity

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Cueing systems

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Stage Models of the Writing Process

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by Colheart and colleagues describe the reading process and what happens when words are and are not recognized.

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by Rumelhart and McClelland states that all “cognitive information is stored as a series of connections between units”  & “connections between units become stronger and faster with repeated pairings” which is connectionism (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 208).

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by Stanovich includes "the idea that not only are text processors interactive and non-linear but they are also compensatory” (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 202).

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first non-linear model by Rumelhart recognizes that high-level processing often assists lower-level functions during the reading process.

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by Laberge and Samuels is another bottom-up cognitive processing model.  It has five major components that start with lower-level cognitive tasks and move into more complex cognitive tasks.

visual memory, phonological memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, and attention

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by Gough views reading from an information-processing perspective. This process suggests that our eyes act like cameras that “read letters like images”, then associate those letters with sounds; afterwards they are built into decoded words and then sentences, eventually these images will be processed with regard to syntax and lastly, meaning is made (Silvestri & Wilson, 2021).

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Culturally Responsive Teaching

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has its roots in "law, sociology, history, ethnic studies, and women's studies" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 174). It raises awareness of how racism has been embedded into our education for many years.

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is when educators explicitly teach students how texts are "organized, how they work, and how they can embody 'genres of power' through the way they are written" (Silvestri & Newvine, 2021). This is essential to understanding because power is intentionally embedded into texts we read.

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encourages students to reflect on their education and socially, culturally, and politically analyze the information they are given.

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focuses on how literacy learning influences people's lives and can reform our society (Silvestri & Newvine, 2021).

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is influenced by social and cultural perspectives

has deep ties to power, privileges, and oppression

can be impacted by one's social identities like race, ethnicity, gender, disability, language, sexual orientation, and family structure; and ideologies such as political affiliation, religion, and moral views (Silvestri & Newvine, 2021)

needs the criticality and advocacy of educators

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acknowledge that higher-level and lower-level processes occur and interact with one another.

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emphasize the importance of what the reader knows (background knowledge) rather than the text (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 202).

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depict lower to higher cognitive processing stages meaning lower cognitive level skills are built upon to achieve higher level skills (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 196).

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focuses on the ways "families, children, and extended family members use literacy at home and in their community" and how it impacts literacy learning (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 93)

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explains what early literacy develop looks like and how it should be used to influence instruction for emerging readers.

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Reading occurs in stages as the child matures: pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, full alphabetic and consolidated alphabetic (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 91).

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by Piaget suggests that cognitive development changes over time and is impacted by four things: maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 85). Piaget also created the four cognitive stages such as sensorimotor (B-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), and formal operational (11-adult).

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states that reading is dependent on the maturity of the child and should not be taught until the reader is 6 1/2 years old (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 85).

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Holdaway states reading is a "natural developmental occurrence" and mimics a child's ability to learn language (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 88). Children must be exposed to literacy and then they will attempt to learn to read.

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suggests that we broaden the definition of literacy to include technology

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focuses on the "relationships between individuals, literacy, power, and social transformation" and how race impacts these focuses (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 174).

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by Faucault "considers the relationships between individuals, literacy, and social transformation" and aims to explain how literacy and education can shape the lives of people and impact their role in society (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 172).

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by Bandura states that learning is social; students can learn from each other

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by Vygotsky states the importance of social interaction when constructing knowledge

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focuses on how culture and history impact social interactions which then influence learning (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 189)

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emphasizes the role and need for oral language and social interaction when gaining literacy (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 159).

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emotionally charged

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motivated intrinsically

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Neuroimaging confirms learning cannot take place without the presences of emotions

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mastery goal orientation

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performance goal orientation

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Teacher-Student Relationships

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support level

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collaboration

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topic

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modality

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"provide opportunities for choice & connect students' lives and experiences" (Silvestri & Baunnman, 2020)

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considers the impact of metacognition on reading comprehension. Metacognition is thinking about your own thoughts.

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considers the "relationship between linguistic behavior and psychological processes, including the process of language acquisition (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 63).

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by Rosenblatt states that one's reading experience is unique to the individual's "background schemata" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 60).

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is based around how "knowledge is created and used by learners" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 57).

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by John Dewey who "emphasized the growth of the individual, the importance of the environment, and the role of the teacher in the students' learning" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 57).

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Because constructivism heavily focuses on the individual in their learning environment, it does not adequately consider social or cultural contexts like other literacy theories (Silvestri & Adams, 2021).

This is important to note as other theories address how social contexts and culture are very much so a part of literacy.

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is social; specifically the learning of language, signs, and symbols (Silvestri & McVee, )

is influenced by social, cultural, and historical contexts (Silvestri & McVee, )

includes the learner's history and experiences when constructing meaning

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cannot be directly observed as cognition takes place in the brain

includes how the brain makes sense of the world through experience (Silvestri & Wilson, 2021)

takes into account the internal structures such as mental processing, storage and retrieval of information (Silvestri & Wilson, 2021)

is achieved in stages, processes or processors, and routes where information can be sorted and stored in a meaningful way (Silvestri & Wilson, 2021)

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can only occur when emotional and physical needs are first met

motivation and engagement are needed

"For students to be intrinsically motivated, they must have an emotionally investment in what they are reading, writing, or thinking about." (Silvestri & Baumann, )

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occurs in stages in accordance to one's development and cognitive maturity

can be fostered early on with meaningful experiences

benefits from positive involvement of family

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takes place when individuals merge new knowledge with existing knowledge (known as active construction of knowledge)

is a natural process that happens as we engage with the word around us. It is an "ongoing state of mind" and can only occur when learner is actively involved in the process (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 55).

not always observable and can take place through "internal mechanisms" or the knowledge the learner already has and how they integrate it with new information

occurs as a result of a "hypothesis testing experience"; e.g.- learner makes a guess or hypothesis, tests their hypothesis, if correct they will continue, if incorrect they will try again

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Defn: theories that focus on "historical, social, and ideological structures" AND "social and cultural experiences" and how they encourage or restrict literacy learning (Silvestri & Newvine, 2021).

Origin: Has deep ties to social-learning theories, but focuses on "matters of power" and their impacts on literacy learning (Silvestri & Newvine, 2021).

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defn: theories that explain the connections and interactions occurring in the brain while learning to read or reading.

The development of the cognitive processing models occurred alongside the Cognitive Revolution in the late 1950's (Silvestri & Wilson, 2021). As Dr. Silvestri (2021) touched upon in her Cognitive Processing video, “the metaphor of computers was used to develop ideas about mental structures in the mind”. Mental structures were viewed as the learning activities that were unobservable. Cognitive Processing was a direct reaction to Behaviorism as it aimed to explain what we could not see.

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defn: "emphasizes the active construction of knowledge by individuals" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 81).

Constructivism was developed as a reaction to behaviorism. Behaviorism suggests that learning happens as a result of response-stimulus and that all learning is observable; whereas constructivism focuses on the individual's role in learning and not all learning can be observed (Silvestri & Adams, 2021). Constructivism challenged notions of behaviorism and helped explain the developmental process of reading and language.

"Learning is not an occasional event, to be stimulated, provoked, or reinforced. Learning is what the brain does naturally, continually" (Smith (1971) in  Christie, Enz, & Vukelich (1997) p. 7, in Tracey & Morrow (2017) p. 55)

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defn: considers the impact of emotions, feelings, and affects on higher order cognitive processes like learning.

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defn: literacy learning is based on the learner's developmental stage

This theory was developed at around the same time as constructivist and behaviorist theories. It aimed to answer what constructivism and behaviorism could not; how a child's development and literacy development are correlated.

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defn: social interaction is imperative to the development of knowledge and learning. The social learning lens highlights the "importance of social influences and social interaction for literacy learning" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, p. 159).

Social learning lens was a new development and point of view in the 1950s. Its proceeding theories focused on the cognitive models and information-processing; whereas social learning theories challenged people to view literacy learning from a social, cultural and historical perspective. Social learner theorists sought out to explain what cognitive-processing models could not about reading (Silvestri & McVee, ) This was known as the "social turn" (Silvestri & McVee, )

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By: Ashley Gifford
LIT 528

Studying the theoretical lenses helps educators to make more informed instructional decisions while teaching literacy.