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Frame and shell structures - KS2 - BBC Bitesize

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Discover the differences between shell and frame structures, from skyscrapers to bicycle helmets. Find out about their uses in engineering and design.

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Interactive fraction wall for use in the classroom. Double click the fractions to rotate through 90 degrees.

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Georeferenced Maps viewer - Map images - National Library of Scotland

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View georeferenced historic maps as overlays on modern satellite, LiDAR and map layers

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A collection of resources to aid the teaching of primary mathematics. Randomly generated key stage 1 and 2 exam papers and markschemes.

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Find out more about the continent of Europe with this KS2 primary geography guide from BBC Bitesize.

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Ancient Greece - KS2 History - BBC Bitesize

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KS2 History Ancient Greece learning resources for adults, children, parents and teachers.

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Scenes of Everyday Life in Ancient Greece - The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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As vase painters were able to represent the human body in increasingly complex poses, they more frequently depicted scenes of everyday life.

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Greek Ruins Guide: 10 Must-See Ancient Sites in Greece | Scott Dunn UK

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Explore the ancient wonders of Greece with our guide to must-see Greek ruins. Uncover the history and beauty of these iconic archaeological sites.

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Our Europe Facts for Kids share lots of interesting and fun facts on the European continent.

Europe is the second smallest continent in size but the third largest in population.

The European continent houses land area of 50 countries. However, of these 50 countries only 44 have their capital city on the European continent!

Of the European countries, 27 nations belong to the European Union (EU) which is a political and economic union. Read more about the EU on our special page here.

Now we share 20 facts about Europe everyone should know. Let's start!

Top 20 Europe Facts

1. The European continent is located completely in the northern hemisphere and mainly in the eastern hemisphere.

Europe borders onto the Arctic Ocean in the North, the Atlantic Ocean in the West and the Mediterranean Sea in the South.

2. There are 50 countries in Europe with a total of more than 742 million people living on the continent in 2023.

Click on the flags to learn more about these countries in Europe (further countries will follow!):

3. Largest country: The European part of Russia covers more area than any other country. The three largest countries completely located in Europe are: The Ukraine and France. Read our Ukraine facts here.

4. Largest capital city: Moscow. The Russian capital city houses more than 13 million inhabitants within the city limits. Saint Petersburg is Russia's second largest city with 5.3 million inhabitants. Moscow is the largest city that is entirely on the European continent!

5. Smallest country: Vatican City is the smallest country not only in Europe, but also in the world. The city state, an enclave within Italy, is the smallest country both by population and by size. Read more about Vatican City here.

6. Biggest island: The biggest island on the European continent is the isle of Great Britain/ UK. Greenland is the largest island which belongs to Europe as the island belongs to Denmark. Greenland is commonly referred to as the largest island in the world. Greenland, however, is located on the North American continent!

7. Smallest town: Hum in Croatia is the smallest town not only in Europe but in the world. The town has only 30 inhabitants. Read more about Croatia here.

8. Most populous city: Istanbul, the biggest city in Turkey is commonly referred to as Europe's largest city. However, Istanbul is located on two continents: the western part belongs to Europe while the eastern parts belongs to the Asian continent. Istanbul houses about 17 million people. Read about Turkey/Türkiye here.

However, the most populous city that is located entirely in Europe is Moscow!

9. Most densely populated country: Monaco. The principality bordering the Mediterranean is the most densely populated country in the world.

10. Europe is the continent with the highest population density, which means on the European continent live the biggest number of people per square kilometre or square mile.

11. Northernmost town: Ny-Ålesundon Svalbard in Norway. Only about 35 people live there all year round, but in summer, there are about 120 people staying in the town. The town is used as a base for explorations and research.

12. Northernmost capital city: Reykjavík in Iceland is Europe's and the world's most northern capital city. Read more about Iceland here.

13. Largest landlocked country: Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country in Europe and in the world. 18 million people live in Kazakhstan which is among the ten biggest countries in the world. However, only about one fifth of the country's land area is located on the European continent. The largest landlocked country located entirely on the European continent is the Czech Republic.

Landlocked countries in Europe: Many countries in Europe, mainly in central Europe, do not have access to an Ocean and share national borders only with other countries. These are landlocked countries in Europe:

Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Slovakia, Serbia, Moldova, Macedonia, San Marino and Vatican City.

San Marino and Vatican City are landlocked inside Italy, and Liechtenstein is double landlocked as it is landlocked also by countries Austria and Switzerland that are also landlocked by other countries.

14. Highest mountain: Mount Elbrus in Russia (5,642 m/ 18,510 ft) is the highest mountain in Europe. The mountain is part of the Caucasus mountain range.

The highest peak in the European Alps is Mont Blanc. The mountain which is 4,810 m/ 15,781 ft high sits on the border of Italy and France. The Alps are also the longest and highest mountain range that is located entirely in Europe!

15. Longest river: The Volga River in Russia is Europe's longest river. It is 3,692 km/ 2,295 miles long.

16. Most important commercial waterway: Danube. The river that flows through ten countries is the second longest river in Europe with 2,860 km/ 1,777 miles.

17. Largest port: The port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands is the largest and busiest container port in Europe.

18. Longest Coastline: Norway has the longest coastline in Europe with over 100,000 km/ 62,000 miles; and it is the second longest in the world. Read more about Norway.

19. Biggest Lake: Lake Ladoga near Saint Petersburg in Russia is Europe's biggest lake and one of the world's largest freshwater lakes. The lake is slightly smaller than Lake Ontario, which borders the USA and Canada.

20. Largest waterfalls: The Rhine Falls in Switzerland is the largest plain waterfall in Europe. They are 150 m/ 492 ft wide and 23 m/ 75 ft high.

More Facts about Europe

Europe Facts | People: About 10% of the world's population lives in Europe. In Russia, about 78% of the population, that is more than 110 million people live in the European part of the the world's largest country. Most of the European population groups, almost 90%, belong to one of the three Indo-European language groups of the Slavic, Romance and Germanic language groups.

According to the World Happiness Report from 2018 - 2020, the World's happiest people live in Finland - and they won for the last three years in a row!

Europe Facts | Languages: Most European languages belong to either the Romance languages (such as French, Italian, Spanish), the Germanic languages (among them are German, English) or the Slavic languages (among them Russian, Bulgarian, Polish). Russian is the language with most native speakers (about 100 million), while English as the ' lingua franca' is the language spoken by most people as first and second language (about 270 million people). The five most spoken native languages in Europe are Russian, German, French English, Turkish and Italian.

Europe Facts | Religion: Most of the European people are Christians (76%) and there are smaller numbers of Muslims (6%) and Jews and other beliefs. About 18% of all Europeans consider themselves as atheist or not religious.

Europe Facts | Animals: In Europe, there are 270 species of mammals, such as boar, bat, deer, hare and otter. Of all mammal species 15% are endangered among them the wolf, bear and the lynx. There are 75 species of amphibians in Europe, most of them are endemic species in Southern Europe such as newts and salamanders. Slightly more than half of the 800 European bird species breed in Europe, all others migrate to warmer regions during the cold winter months.

Europe Facts | Natural resources: Metals such as zinc and silver and minerals such as copper, iron ore and coal are found in Europe. Some areas in northern Europe have deposits of natural gas and oil. Common agricultural produce that are farmed in Europe are wheat, potatoes, olives, grapes, oranges.

Europe Facts | Agriculture: About 39% of the land area in Europe is grassland or used for growing crops. The most common crops are cereals such as wheat, maize and barley as well as sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables and fruits and wine. France is Europe's biggest producer of agricultural products.

Europe Facts | History: The first humans appeared on the continent about 35,000 BC. The Minoan civilisation in the Bronze Age is seen as the first culture establishing trade and 'technology' from 2700BC. Among the many ethnic groups of the continent, the Greek tribes and the Germanic and the Italic people (later also the Roman Empire) had vast influences on the whole region as had the Celts. Later during the Middle Ages, the population increased due to the Vikings, Mongols, Huns, Magyars, Tartars and many other peoples that arrived and settled in the area. Europe's modern history is largely influenced by wars, such as the 30-Year-War (1618-1648), the French Revolution (1789) and the two World Wars in the 20th century. During World War I (1914-1918) more than 8 million people lost their lives and in World War II (1939-1945) over 18 million people died on the battlefields, during bombardment of the towns and cities and in Nazi concentration camps. In 1993, the European Union was established which today includes 28 countries.

Europe Facts | Landmarks: Five out of the top ten tourist destinations in the world are located in Europe. France is the number 1 tourist destination in the world with about 90 million international tourist arrivals per year.

Among the most visited tourist sites and landmarks in Europe are:

Tower of London in the UK

Eiffel Tower in France

Neuschwanstein Castle in Germany

Alhambra in Spain

Kremlin in Russia

Acropolis in Greece

Foro Romano in Italy

Read about the world's top landmarks you really should know. Click here.
Now test your Europe Geo Knowledge with our Europe Quiz

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Europe Facts | Kids World Travel Guide | Geography | Landmarks

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Read here our Europe facts for kids with interesting and fun facts about the countries in Europe

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Down Ampney Church of England Primary School

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Uncover the many myths surrounding the Labyrinth and the legendary Minotaur with Ashmolean curator, Andrew Shapland.

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Year 4 Mathematics Arithmetic Paper - Compact Version

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A compact version of the Year 4 Mathematics Arithmetic Paper

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The Marathon Route - The story behind the long-distance race

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42.195 km or 26 miles, 385 yards. Runners know the length of a race. But there are some surprising facts when you look at the history of the Marathon route

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Physical map of Greece, equirectangular projection

Click on above map to view higher resolution image

Greece is one of the oldest countries of Europe, lying on the southernmost edge of the Balkan peninsula surrounded by seas on all three sides. The country comprises of a large peninsula (which also has an extra peninsula the Peloponnesus peninsula), and quite a few larger and thousands of smaller islands in the Ionian Sea on the western side, and the Aegean Sea on the eastern side. The largest island, Crete, is also (one of) the southernmost one.

Much of the country's terrain consists of mountains making it one of Europe's most mountainous countries. The largest mountain chain is the Pindus Mountains, that runs about north to south at the center of the main peninsula. The highest summit of these mountains is the Mount Smolikas at an elevation of 2637 meters, but the highest point of the country is Mount Olympus in Thessaly, reaching 2917 meters, making it one of the most prominent summits of Europe. Other mountain chains include the Rhodope Mountains on the northern border with Bulgaria, the Voras range on the border with Macedonia.

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Physical map of Greece, equirectangular projection Click on above map to view higher resolution image Greece is one of the oldest countries of Europe, lying on the southernmost edge of the Balkan peninsula surrounded by seas on all three sides.

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Click on the map to display elevation.

About this map

> Europe

Minimum elevation: -30 m

Maximum elevation: 3,987 m

In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th latitudes. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea. (location, approximate latitude and longitude, coldest month average, hottest month average and annual average temperatures in degrees C)

Wikipedia ( CC-BY-SA 3.0)

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Europe topographic map, elevation, terrain

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Visualization and sharing of free topographic maps. Europe.

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What to See at Olympus - Plan your stay - Visit Olympus

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From small villages to mountain refuges and from sandy beaches to archaeological sites. Check out what to see in Olympus inside!

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Pindos Mountains – Nature, Hiking & Adventure In Northern Greece

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Discover the wild beauty of the Pindos Mountains. From alpine trails and hidden villages to rivers, stone bridges, and bears, explore Greece’s most untamed region.

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Agriculture in North Macedonia - Wikipedia

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Live Cam Port of Heraklion | SkylineWebcams

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Panoramic view of the Port of Heraklion in Crete Live cam

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Exploring and Noticing is part of our Developing Mathematical Thinking collection.

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Working Systematically - Primary teachers | NRICH

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Working Systematically is part of our Developing Mathematical Thinking collection.

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Conjecturing and Generalising is part of our Developing Mathematical Thinking collection.

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Islamic civilisation - KS2 History - BBC Bitesize

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KS2 History Islamic civilisation learning resources for adults, children, parents and teachers.

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How does human sight work? - BBC Bitesize

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Learn about the human eye and how our sight works with 2nd level Science on Bitesize.

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You carry around a pair of cameras in your head so incredible they can work in bright sunshine or at night. Only 2.5cm in diameter, they can bring you the image of a tiny ant or a twinkling star trillions of kilometres away. They can change focus almost instantly and stay focused even when you're shaking your head around. These cameras are your eyes...

Eye-Popping Fact ONE: A crucial part of your eyes is as flimsy as a wet tissue!

A fly darts towards your head! Light bounces off the insect and enters your eye's cornea, a clear covering over your eye. The light passes through your pupil, the black circle in the centre of the iris, to the lens. The lens focuses the light onto your retina - a thin but vital lining on the back of your eye that is as flimsy as a wet tissue. Your retina acts like camera film, capturing the picture of the fly. This image is sent to the brain, which instantly tells you to - duck!

Eye-Popping Fact TWO: You blink more than 10,000 times a day!

Your sight is incredibly important , so your body has ways to protect your eyes. Each eye sits on a cushion of fat, surrounded by protective bone. Your eyebrows prevent sweat dripping into your eyes, while eyelashes keep dust and other particles out. The eyelids act as windscreen wipers, spreading tear fluid with every blink to keep your eyes moist and wash away bacteria. You blink more than 10,000 times a day! And if anything gets too close, your eyelids slam shut with amazing speed. How fast does this happen? In the blink of an eye - about 2/5 of a second!

Eye-popping Fact THREE: Your eyes adjust in milliseconds to ANY movement of your head!

You bounce your eyes around all the time. Even when you're not running or jumping, your head doesn't stay still. Why isn"t everything a blur when you"re moving? The eyes automatically adjust to the movement of your head with great speed and precision. They're good at following a moving object, and even better at adjusting to the motion of your head. Test it: Keeping your head still, hold up your hand about 30cm away, and quickly move it back and forth. As fast as your eyes are, your fingers become blurry. Now keep your hand still and move your head back and forth. Amazingly, your fingers stay in focus!

Eye-Popping Fact FOUR: Your eyes see everything upside down and backward!

Your eyes are amazing, but the images they send to your brain are a little quirky - they're upside down, backward and two-dimensional! Lucky for you, the cameras in your head come with an impressive software package - your brain - that can fix these problems. The brain automatically flips the images from your retinas right side up and combines the images from each eye into a three-dimensional picture.

There is a small area of each retina, called a blind spot, that can't record what you're seeing. Your brain makes adjustments for this, too. But sometimes it can be fooled! Check it out - hold the tips of your two index fingers together, about 15cm in front of your eyes. Now separate them slightly and look past them at something in the distance. A floating finger that looks like a sausage appears between your fingers. You just fooled your brain into seeing something that isn't there!

Eye-Popping Fact FIVE! Your pupils change size whenever the light changes!

Your black pupils may be small but they have an important job - they grow or shrink to allow just the right amount of light to enter your eyes to let you see. Try this: Go into a windowless room, turn off the light and close the door so there is just enough light to see the pupils in your eyes in the mirror. Your pupils will be far larger than usual, having grown to their maximum size to capture as much light as possible. Now, turn on the light while still watching your pupils. You'll see them shrink to a small dot almost immediately - right before your very, um...eyes!

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Your Amazing Eyes! - National Geographic Kids

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Learn all about the human eye here at NG Kids. How does the eye work? What are the different parts of the eyeball? Why do we blink? Find out here!

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Unleash your creativity with the world's best virtual manipulatives!

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In 1619, the first enslaved Africans arrived in Virginia, one of the newly formed 13 American Colonies. They had been kidnapped from their homes and were forced to work on tobacco, rice, and indigo plantations from Maryland and Virginia all the way to Georgia. According to the law, they had no rights and were not free.

Escaping to freedom was anything but easy for an enslaved person. It required courage, wit, and determination. Many fled by themselves or in small numbers, often without food, clothes, or money. Leaving behind family members, they traveled hundreds of miles across unknown lands and rivers by foot, boat, or wagon. To be captured would mean being sent back to the plantation, where they would be whipped, beaten, or killed.

Not everyone believed that slavery should be allowed and wanted to aid these fugitives, or runaways, in their escape to freedom. As more and more people secretly offered to help, a freedom movement emerged. It became known as the Underground Railroad.

How the Underground Railroad started

Americans had been helping enslaved people escape since the late 1700s, and by the early 1800s, the secret group of individuals and places that many fugitives relied on became known as the Underground Railroad.

The Underground Railroad was not underground, and it wasn't an actual train. It was a network of people, both whites and free Blacks, who worked together to help runaways from slaveholding states travel to states in the North and to the country of Canada, where slavery was illegal.

No one knows exactly where the term Underground Railroad came from. "Underground" implies secrecy; "railroad" refers to the way people followed certain routes-with stops along the way-to get to their destination. The phrase wasn't something that one person decided to name the system but a term that people started using as more and more fugitives escaped through this network.

The operators of the Underground Railroad were abolitionists, or people who opposed slavery. Many were members of organized groups that helped runaways, such as the Quaker religion and the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Often called "agents," these operators used their homes, churches, barns, and schoolhouses as "stations." There, fugitives could stop and receive shelter, food, clothing, protection, and money until they were ready to move to the next station.

A dangerous journey

The Underground Railroad was secret. Nothing was written down about where to go or who would help. So once enslaved people decided to make the journey to freedom, they had to listen for tips from other enslaved people, who might have heard tips from other enslaved people. If they were lucky, they traveled with a conductor, or a person who safely guided enslaved people from station to station.

Whether alone or with a conductor, the journey was dangerous. Slave catchers with guns and dogs roamed the area looking for runaways to capture. People who spotted the fugitives might alert police-or capture the runaways themselves for a reward. The fugitives were often hungry, cold, and scared for their lives.

To give themselves a better chance of escape, enslaved people had to be clever. For instance, fugitives sometimes fled on Sundays because reward posters could not be printed until Monday to alert the public; others would run away during the Christmas holiday when the white plantation owners wouldn't notice they were gone. The fugitives also often traveled by night-under the cover of darkness-following the North Star.

Once they were on their journey, they looked for safe resting places that they had heard might be along the Underground Railroad. A hiding place might be inside a person's attic or basement, a secret part of a barn, the crawl space under the floors in a church, or a hidden compartment in the back of a wagon. At these stations, they'd receive food and shelter; then the agent would tell them where to go next.

To avoid capture, fugitives sometimes used disguises and came up with clever ways to stay hidden. One bold escape happened in 1849 when Henry "Box" Brown was packed and shipped in a three-foot-long box with three air holes drilled in. After traveling along the Underground Railroad for 27 hours by wagon, train, and boat, Brown was delivered safely to agents in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Agents of change

Runaway slaves couldn't trust just anyone along the Underground Railroad. Fortunately, people were willing to risk their lives to help them. Many were ordinary people, farmers, business owners, ministers, and even former enslaved people.

In 1826, Levi Coffin, a religious Quaker who opposed slavery, moved to Indiana. By chance he learned that he lived on a route along the Underground Railroad. Coffin and his wife, Catherine, decided to make their home a station. More than 3,000 slaves passed through their home heading north to Canada.

Frederick Douglass escaped slavery from Maryland in 1838 and became a well-known abolitionist, writer, speaker, and supporter of the Underground Railroad. He hid runaways in his home in Rochester, New York, and helped 400 fugitives travel to Canada.

Another Underground Railroad operator was William Still, a free Black business owner and abolitionist movement leader. By day he worked as a clerk for the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, but at night he secretly aided fugitives. He raised money and helped hundreds of enslaved people escape to the North, but he also knew it was important to tell their stories.

That's why Still interviewed the runaways who came through his station, keeping detailed records of the individuals and families, and hiding his journals until after the Civil War. Then in 1872, he self-published his notes in his book, The Underground Railroad. It's one of the clearest accounts of people involved with the Underground Railroad.

The most famous conductor of the Underground Railroad was Harriet Tubman, who escaped from slavery in 1849. Determined to help others, Tubman returned to her former plantation to rescue family members. Later she started guiding other fugitives from Maryland. Tubman made 13 trips and helped 70 enslaved people travel to freedom. William Still even provided funding for several of Tubman's rescue trips.

Fugitive slave laws

Americans helped enslaved people escape even though the U.S. government had passed laws making this illegal. In 1793, Congress passed the first federal Fugitive Slave Law. This law gave local governments the right to capture and return escapees, even in states that had outlawed slavery. Plus, anyone caught helping runaway slaves faced arrest and jail.

But the law often wasn't enforced in many Northern states where slavery was not allowed, and people continued to assist fugitives. Politicians from Southern slaveholding states did not like that and pressured Congress to pass a new Fugitive Slave Act in 1850 that was much harsher.

This law increased the power of Southerners to reclaim their fugitives, and a slave catcher only had to swear an oath that the accused was a runaway-even if the Black person was legally free. So slave catchers began kidnapping any Black person for a reward. No place in America was safe for Black people. Many enslaved and free Blacks fled to Canada to escape the U.S. government's laws.

But the 1850 law only inspired abolitionists to help fugitives more. Widespread opposition sparked riots and revolts. In 1851, a group of angry abolitionists stormed a Boston, Massachusetts, courthouse to break out a runaway from jail. Other rescues happened in New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

It wasn't until June 28, 1864-less than a year before the Civil War ended-that both Fugitive Slave Acts were finally repealed by Congress.

Future generations

The Underground Railroad successfully moved enslaved people to freedom despite the laws and people who tried to prevent it. Exact numbers don't exist, but it's estimated that between 25,000 and 50,000 enslaved people escaped to freedom through this network.

The Underground Railroad was a social movement that started when ordinary people joined together tomake a change in society. It's an example of how people, regardless of their race or economic status, united for a common cause.

As the late Congressman John Lewis said, "When you see something that is not right, not fair, not just, you have to speak up. You have to say something; you have to do something." That's why people today continue to work together and speak out against injustices to ensure freedom and equality for all people.

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The historic movement carried thousands of enslaved people to freedom. This is their journey.

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The history of slavery in the United States began soon after Europeans first settled in what became the United States. All slaves were freed by 1865 during the Civil War, most by Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation but finally and completely by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

From about the 1640s until 1865, people of African descent were legally enslaved within the boundaries of the present United States by whites and also by Indians and free blacks. Some Indians were also held as slaves.

About 585,000 slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa. The great majority went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.

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Slavery in the United States Facts for Kids

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The history of slavery in the United States began soon after Europeans first settled in what became the United States. All slaves were freed by 1865 during the Civil War, most by Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation but finally and completely by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

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Reflection is when light energy bounces off of an object. When light is reflected, it changes direction.

All surfaces reflect light.

Smooth, shiny surfaces reflect light at the same angle as it came from, whereas uneven surfaces scatter the light in different directions and dull surfaces absorb most of the light energy, and only reflect a little.

Fran: I am looking at my reflection.

When light from an object is reflected by a surface, it changes direction - it bounces off the surface.

So, if we shine this light onto this mirror, then we can see that the light reflects straight out.

Now, light travels in straight lines, so if I change this light so it now hits the mirror at an angle, then the light bounces away at that same angle.

And that means we can change the direction of light.

So let's see what one of my researchers is investigating.

Child: I'm going to see if I can move light using just this mirror.

The light is changing direction when I move the mirror.

That must be because the angle the light is hitting the mirror is changing as I move the mirror.

I wonder what would happen if I shine the light on other surfaces?

Mmm... that one's not so good - but I think I have an idea! Ta da!

Fran: It's not just mirrors that reflect light.

Lots of surfaces can reflect light, even just a little bit.

Shiny, smooth surfaces, like this metal teapot, they reflect light really well.

You can see it there on the table.

Rougher materials, like this crumpled foil, they don't reflect light as well.

And then dull surfaces, like this block of wood, don't reflect my light at all.

So, remember the next time you need to check your reflection, a smooth shiny surface will work best.

Welcome to the Grand Light Stream Derby.

Any moment now...

Yes!

We're off!

The light waves are instantly streaming away at an incredible speed!

The amazing thing is that they will carry on going forever.

Unless they bump into something.

But there's certainly plenty for them to bump into here.

And here comes the first obstacle.

It's a mirror!

Shouldn't be a problem.

A mirror is very reflective, that means of course that the light, just bounces straight off it and there they go!

What a bounce!

They've all just bounced straight off!No problems there, but they're coming up to the next obstacle it's a black wall!

Definitely a black wall!

The colour black is not very reflective.

I think this is going to be more tricky!

Oh and there it goes!

A lot of them have been absorbed!

They're gone!

Some have bounced off and kept going, but there are not so many left now!

But of course they're not slowing down and they're not stopping.

That's just not what light does.

It looks like they're approaching something else.

And they've gone!

Unbelievable!

They have gone into that eye and I think...that's it...they're not coming back.

Light coloured surfaces reflect more light than dark coloured surfaces.

Smooth surfaces, like mirrors and polished metal, are good reflectors.

When you stand in front of a mirror, your body reflects light patterns to the mirror, which bounce back to your eyes.

Reflection is crucial for us to see, our brain converts the light that enters our eyes into an image of what we can see.

People have used various polished objects as mirrors for many thousands of years. The German scientist Justus von Liebig created the first modern glass mirror in 1835.

Mirrors only reflect light back at us, the image itself is reversed.

When light from an object is reflected by a surface, it changes direction.

Light bounces off the surface at the same angle as it hits it.

Smooth, shiny surfaces such as mirrors and polished metals reflect light well. Dull and dark surfaces, such as dark fabrics, absorb light so they do not reflect it well.

Here's what you want to know about reflected light.

When you look at something you can see it because light rays are reflected into your eye. The iris controls how much light enters the pupil.

The light rays are bent and focused by the lens onto the retina at the back of your eye. But at this stage, the image is upside down.

When the light sensitive cells in the retina are hit by the light, they send messages to our brain which then turns the images the right way up.

And that's how we see.

Did you know?

Did you know that people have used the principles of reflection to create clever gadgets.

In WW1 people used the mirrors in periscopes to see over the top of the trenches.

Submarines still use periscopes to see what it above them.

Important words you need to know about reflection.

Absorb - To take in or suck up.

Dull - It is not bright or shiny, or doesn't have very much colour.

Light - Beams that can be seen by the human eye, it travels in straight lines and will keep going until it is blocked by a solid object.

Optics - The study of light.

Reflection - When light from a light source is bounced back off of an object.

Reflectors - Objects that reflect light, like mirrors.

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What is reflection? - KS2 Science curriculum - BBC Bitesize

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Learn about reflection with these interactive learning resources for KS2 Science students aged 7-11 from BBC Bitesize.

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What is a Surinam toad?

With its flat, flounder-like appearance, triangle-shaped head, and tiny eyes, the Surinam toad doesn't look like most other toads. It also doesn't give birth like one.

In one of the strangest birth methods in the animal kingdom, babies erupt from a cluster of tiny holes in their mother's back.

The odd characteristics don't stop there. These amphibians have long fingers that end in four star-shaped sensory lobes that inspired their other common name, the star-shaped toad.

Surinam toads are also called stargazers because their tiny, lidless eyes sit on top of their heads.

Hunting and diet

As fully aquatic species, Surinam toads live in slow-moving water sources, such as rainforest pools and moist leaf litter throughout eastern Trinidad and Tobago and much of the Amazon Basin, including its namesake country, Surinam.

Blending into their environment with brownish or olive skin and a death-like stillness, the toads both stay safe from predators and catch crustaceans, fish, and invertebrates in the water.

To sense prey, the nocturnal creatures use the sensory organs at their fingertips. They'll then suck the animal into their teethless, tongueless mouths, or scoop them up with their hands.

Mating and reproduction

Males call to females by snapping a bone in their throat, the hyoid, which makes a sound underwater. When he finds a receptive female, he grasps her around the back with his arms, a position called amplexus.

Interlocked, the pair will somersault through the water for hours until the female releases about a hundred eggs. The male fertilizes the eggs, then pushes them onto her back. A thick layer of skin will grow over the eggs until they are nestled in protected, honeycomb-like pockets.

Baby toads don't go through a larval or tadpole stage, instead erupting from mom's back as fully formed, half-inch toadlets after about three to four months.

Though such back-breaking labor may seem odd, it's actually safer for the newborns. Sealed into mom's back, they're less vulnerable to predators, making toads are a great example of parental care. Newly hatched toadlets swim away on their own. (See more strange ways animal mothers carry their babies.)

Conservation status

The Surinam toad population is not currently in danger, though its habitat is threatened by human encroachment, such as logging, farming, and ranching.

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With its flat, flounder-like appearance, triangle-shaped head, and tiny eyes, the Surinam toad doesn't look like most other toads. It also doesn't give birth like one. In one of the strangest birth methods in the animal kingdom, babies erupt from a cluster of tiny holes in their mother's back.

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The Surinam toad is an ambush hunter, lying patiently in wait for unsuspecting prey to pass by. The toad eats mostly crustaceans, small fish, worms, and other invertebrates. When the Surinam toad senses movement with its star-tipped fingers, it lunges forward and eats its prey in one gulp.

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Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History

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What Are They?

Periodical cicadas are insects that spend most of their lives underground as nymphs, feeding off the sap of tree roots. They emerge to transform into adults and mate. Some periodical cicadas emerge every 13 years and others emerge every 17 years. The males "sing" by vibrating a membrane on the sides of their bodies.

After mating, the female makes slits in tree branches and lays eggs there. The eggs hatch six to seven weeks later, the nymphs fall to the ground and go into the soil, and the cycle begins again. The adult periodical cicadas only live three to four weeks.

Two Broods of Periodical Cicadas Will Emerge in the United States in 2024

Periodical cicadas emerge in groups called broods. Starting in late April, Brood XIII (the Northern Illinois Brood, which has a 17-year life cycle) and Brood XIX (the Great Southern Brood, which has a 13-year cycle) will emerge from underground in the Midwest and Southeast, respectively. These two broods have not emerged at the same time since 1803! Smithsonian entomologist Floyd Shockley estimates these emergences could produce more than one trillion cicadas. But don't worry - they don't bite. (Source: New York Times article, Jan. 19, 2024.)

Teaching Resources: Natural History of Cicadas

We compiled this collection of digital resources and experiences in 2021 to explore the natural history of cicadas during the Brood X emergence. The resources are all complementary, aiming to help students, teachers, and anyone interested learn a bit more about cicadas.

The interactive module linked at the top is the most robust experience, and integrates the other digital media resources that are also listed on this page.

Interactive Lesson

Understanding a cicada's life history can help quell fears about them and even spark curiosity and interest in them. This interactive module, The Natural History of Cicadas, will provide learners with an overview of the natural history of cicadas through videos, audio, images, graphics, and text. Each section of the lesson concludes with a fun interactive that reinforces learning, helping your learners gain these skills:

Sort basic natural history statements about cicadas as true or false

Match each life cycle stage to the correct description

Recall what a cicada eats and identify the type of mouthparts a cicada has

Identify a periodical cicada from an annual cicada and recall how much time it spends underground

Sort statements about periodical cicada emergence events as true or false

Cicada Life Cycle

There are about 3,000 species of cicadas worldwide and they all have a similar life cycle. This video provides a brief overview.

Handout

Download the handout below.

Cicada Life Cycle Infographic Handout (PDF)

Podcast: Natural History in Your Backyard - Cicadas and Brood X

Feeling curious, nervous, or excited about the cicada emergence? This podcast is for you! Learn about cicadas and the Brood X emergence in 2021 directly from an expert: Smithsonian Entomologist Floyd Shockley. The podcast was moderated and produced by museum educator Maggy Benson.

Part 1: Natural history of cicadas, the Brood X emergence, and cicada adaptations

Part 2: How museums collect cicadas and you can track cicadas, too!

Part 3: What to expect with the Brood X emergence in 2021

Visit the Cicada Safari App webpage to learn more about tracking cicadas and using the app that Floyd mentioned in the podcast!

Webinar Video

Brood X, one of the broods of periodical cicadas that spends 17 years underground as nymphs, emerged in the Eastern United States in 2021. In this video, Smithsonian Entomologist Floyd Shockley teaches us about these cicadas, their special adaptations and life cycle and unique things about their natural history that you may not have known. Floyd joins us from the National Museum of Natural History, where he shows viewers live cicadas and cicadas preserved in the Smithsonian's Entomology collection. This Zoom webinar aired May 26, 2021. Watch the cicada webinar video.

Related Resources

Cicada Origami (PDF)

Credits
Image at top of page by James St. John, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr. Cicada Origami by Jacque Lynn Davis, CC BY-NC 2.0 via Flickr; original origami image edited to read "17 year cicada" instead of "13 year cicada."

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Get teaching resources about periodical cicadas, including a periodical cicada lesson, handout, life cycle video, podcast, and webinar video.

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You'll find seahorses in the world's tropical and temperate coastal waters, swimming upright among seaweed and other plants. Seahorses use their dorsal fins (back fins) to propel slowly forward. To move up and down, seahorses adjust the volume of air in their swim bladders, which is an air pocket inside their bodies.

Tiny, spiny plates cover seahorses' bodies all the way down to their curled, flexible tails. The tail can grasp objects, helpful when seahorses want to anchor themselves to vegetation.

A female seahorse lays dozens, sometimes hundreds, of eggs in a pouch on the male seahorse's abdomen. After seahorse moms make their eggs, they pass them over to the males to carry until the young are released. When it's time to give birth, the dad pumps water through the pouch, releasing hundreds of fry, or baby seahorses, in just a few minutes. Called a brood pouch, it resembles a kangaroo's pouch for carrying young. Seahorses young hatch after up to 45 days in the brood pouch. The baby seahorses, each about the size of a jelly bean, find other baby seahorses and float together in small groups, clinging to each other using their tails. Unlike kangaroos, baby seahorses do not return to the pouch. They must find food and hide from predators as soon as they're born.

Take this fun quiz to see how much you know about seahorses.

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Seahorses are tiny fishes that are named for the shape of their head, which looks like the head of a tiny horse. There are at least 50 species of seahorses. You'll find them in the world's tropical and temperate coastal waters, swimming upright among seaweed and other plants.

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Life Cycle And Biology - British Dragonfly Society

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All photos published on this site are copyright of the original photographer and are reproduced with their permission. All other content of this site is copyright of the British Dragonfly Society except where explicitly stated otherwise. The British Dragonfly Society is a registered charity in England & Wales 1168300 and in Scotland SC049416.

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J2data enables schools to meet the data handling requirements of the national curriculum programmes of study for KS1, KS2 and KS3.

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Info

The satellite images used in this interactive are part of Landsat's extensive record, spanning more than 50 years.

The Landsat series of Earth-observing satellites are jointly managed by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).

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Type your name and see it spelled out in stunning Landsat satellite imagery. Explore Earth from space, letter by letter, with NASA and USGS Landsat images.

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This activity allows manipulation and investigation of various types of angles. The online protractor tool can be used to practice measuring angles. It can be used at a variety of different grade levels. At its most basic for teaching about types of angles, acute, obtuse or reflex. For more advanced use to create angle problems in which the missing letter angle values have to be found. You can click and drag the handles to change the angles and the values will updated.

The controls

The mode control is used to it selects the type of angle problem.

Next to this is number of lines. But please note this control is disabled for both 'one' and 'intersect' modes.

the random button sets each angle to a random value

the equals button make all the angles equal.

the Protractor button when clicked will show or hide a protractor

Paper can select spots, squares or none for the background.

Use the angles display to choose whether to show or hide angles

In all the modes individual angles can be shown or hidden for example click the angle (a). Notice when the value is hidden the angle value next to the angle arc is replaced by the corresponding letter.

The handles at the end of each line can be clicked and dragged to change the angle.

Mode 'one' Identifying angle types.

The initial mode is unique in that there is only one angle. This mode is great for identifying various types of angles. Click the angle type ctrl to either show or hide the type. So now you can change the angle by dragging a handle or clicking dice for a random value. The angle types definitions are listed in the glossary below.

Complementary Angles mode

In this mode a complementary angle is shown, complementary angles add up to 90° Initially the 90° is split by just one line but this can be changed by selecting a different number of lines. A standard school problem is to have one missing angle that needs to be calculated. You can produce infinite such problems by selecting calculate from angles display, now press dice for a new problem.

Supplementary Angles mode

Supplementary angles are angles that add up to 180°. This mode behaves exactly the same as the previous.

Angles at a point mode

The angles at a point add up to 360°. In this mode press = button to make all the angles equal. This can be good way to start a problem followed by small adjustments to the lines by dragging.

Angles at intersecting lines mode

The final mode deals with angles produced by an intersection of two lines. If you have selected calculate you will notice that only one angle is given and all the other 3 can be worked out using the vertically opposite rule, or spotting the supplementary angles.

Angles Glossary

Acute Angle

Any angle that is less than 90°

Right Angle

An angle that is 90°

Obtuse Angle

An angle greater than 90° but less than 180°

Straight Angle

An angle of 180° which makes a straight line

Reflex Angle

An angle greater than 180°

Related activities

The interactive clock angles activity can also be used in explaining angles.

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Online protractor & angle maker | interactive angle visualiser | visnos

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Easy measure angles, using interactive whiteboard angle simulator. Online protractor or angle problems with acute, obtuse, reflex angles. Further complementary, supplementary and angles at a point. Use on interactive whiteboards, angles can be automatically shown or measured with a protractor.

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Using a Protractor - measure angles
Estimation - report angles to the nearest whole number

Common Core Connection for 4th Grade

Recognize that angles are formed when two rays share a common endpoint.
Understand concepts of angle measurement.
Measure angles in whole-number degrees using a protractor.

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Measure Angles at Math Playground! Practice measuring angles with a protractor.

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Troops from the British Empire - World War Two and total warfare - KS3 History - homework help for year 7, 8 and 9. - BBC Bitesize

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Find out about troops from the British Empire with BBC Bitesize History. For students between the ages of 11 and 14.

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All Saints' Church, Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, GL7 5QW

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All Saints’ Church, Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, GL7 5QW

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Welcome to the Parish of Down Ampney, which is part of the South Cotswolds Team Ministry. We are a small congregation which welcomes all people. We hope you might come and join us for one of our services. You would be very welcome.

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Charles Darwin is celebrated as one of the greatest British scientists who ever lived, but in his time his radical theories brought him into conflict with members of the Church of England.

Young Charles Darwin

Born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Darwin was fascinated by the natural world from a young age. Growing up he was an avid reader of nature books and devoted his spare time to exploring the fields and woodlands around his home, collecting plants and insects.

In 1825 Darwin enrolled in medical school at the University of Edinburgh, where he witnessed surgery on a child. Surgeries at the time would have been carried out without the use of anaesthetic or antiseptics, and fatalities were common.

Watching this procedure left Darwin so traumatised that he gave up his studies without completing the course.

During his time in Edinburgh, Darwin also paid for lessons in taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a former enslaved man from Guyana. The skills Edmonstone taught Darwin became crucial just a few years further into his career.

After his time in Scotland, Darwin went to Cambridge University to study theology.

The voyage of HMS Beagle

In no rush to take holy orders, in 1831 Darwin accepted an offer to embark on a five-year voyage aboard HMS Beagle.

He was recommended by one of his Cambridge professors for the role as naturalist and companion to the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy.

The journey would change both his life and the trajectory of Western scientific thinking.

Darwin explored remote regions and marvelled at a world so different from the one he knew. He encountered birds with bright blue feet, sharks with T-shaped heads and giant tortoises.

On his travels Darwin collected plants, animals and fossils, and took copious field notes. These collections and records provided the evidence he needed to develop his remarkable theory.

Darwin returned to England in 1836. A highly methodical scholar, constantly collecting and observing, he spent many years comparing and analysing specimens before finally declaring that evolution occurs by a process of natural selection.

What is the theory of natural selection?

To this day the theory of evolution by natural selection is accepted by the scientific community as the best evidence-based explanation for the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.

The theory proposes that the 'fittest' individual organisms - those with the characteristics best suited to their environment - are more likely to survive and reproduce. They pass on these desirable characteristics to their offspring.

Gradually these features may become more common in a population, so species change over time. If the changes are great enough, they could produce a new species altogether.

On his travels Darwin had collected finches from many of the Galápagos Islands - off the coast of Ecuador - which helped him to formulate his idea.

Some of these finches had stout beaks for eating seeds, others were insect specialists. But Darwin realised that they were all descendants of a single ancestor. As they dispersed to different islands, the birds had adapted to eat the various foods available. Natural selection had produced 13 different species of finch.

Darwin's pigeons

From his travels on HMS Beagle, Darwin suspected that the environment might naturally manipulate species, causing them to change over time - but he couldn't find a means to explore this effectively in the wild.

Experimenting with artificial selection in pigeons gave him a way to study how far a species could change.

By artificially selecting features - crossing birds with particular characteristics to generate different offspring - he gathered valuable evidence for evolution by natural selection.

To illustrate his theory, Darwin bred the birds to have exaggerated features.

The similarity between artificial selection and natural selection is at the heart of his explanation of evolution in his revolutionary book On the Origin of Species.

After completing his experiments, he gave all 120 of his pigeon specimens to the Museum. They are currently part of our bird collections kept at Tring, Hertfordshire.

A shared discovery

Darwin knew his radical ideas would be met with stiff opposition. Even after 20 years of research, he worried about how his theory of evolution would be received as it challenged widely held religious beliefs of the time.

He delayed publishing on the topic for a great number of years while he assembled a mountain of evidence. When he learned that the young naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace had developed similar ideas, Darwin volunteered to send Wallace's ideas to a journal for immediate publication.

On advice from friends, the two scientists organised a joint announcement. Their theory of evolution by natural selection was presented at the Linnean Society in London.

Both had studied the natural world extensively and made a number of observations that were critical to the development of the theory.

The following year, Darwin published the contentious but now-celebrated book, 'On the Origin of Species'.

On the Origin of Species

Published in 1859, On the Origin of Species provoked outrage from some members of the Church of England as it implicitly contradicted the belief in divine creation.

Despite accusations of blasphemy, the book quickly became a bestseller.

Great apes

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex - which Darwin published in 1871 - fuelled even greater debate as it suggested that humans descended from apes.

The Bishop of Oxford famously asked Thomas Huxley, one of Darwin's most enthusiastic supporters, whether it was through his grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey.

Despite the attacks, Darwin's conviction in the scientific explanation that best fit the available evidence remained unshaken.

He was keen for his ideas to reach as many people as possible and for his books to be read in many different languages. Part of his success has been attributed to his conversational and approachable writing style.

On the Origin of Species was so influential that within a year it had been published in German. In Darwin's lifetime, his book was translated into German, Danish, Dutch, French, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish.

Our Library has 478 editions of On the Origin of Species in 38 languages and in Braille.

Darwin and the tree of life

Charles Darwin used the concept of a tree of life in the context of the theory of evolution to illustrate that all species on Earth are related and evolved from a common ancestor.

The tips of the branches show the species that are still alive today. The tree also shows those that are now extinct. Darwin explained:

'From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these fallen branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only in a fossil state.'

Orders, families and genera are all groups that can be used to classify organisms.

The lines on the tree show evolutionary relationships between species. For example, a recent version of the tree of life would show a line between some types of dinosaurs and the earliest birds, as scientists reason that birds evolved from a particular lineage of dinosaurs.

This means that species that are closely related are found close together stemming from the same branch.

For example, humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans are all great apes, so they all belong to the same branch of the tree of life.

Darwin's legacy

Although Darwin's theory of evolution has been modified over time, it remains fundamental to the study of the natural world. Darwin changed not only the way we see all organisms, but also the way we see ourselves.

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Charles Darwin: History's most famous biologist

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Charles Robert Darwin, 1809-1882, was one of the greatest British scientists who ever lived. He transformed the way we understand the natural world with his theory of evolution by natural selection.

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A life-changing friendship

Wallace was born in Usk, now in Monmouthshire, in 1823. After leaving school he worked at his brother's surveying firm until he was hired as a teacher in Leicester in 1844. That year he formed a friendship with a local man and keen naturalist, Henry Walter Bates, which was to bring unexpected opportunities.

Bates introduced an enthusiastic Wallace to the methods and delights of collecting beetles. Four years later, the two men decided to leave England's green shores and head to South America. They were drawn to this fascinating continent by two books: Charles Darwin's report of his voyage on the Beagle, and the explorer Alexander von Humboldt's account of his journeys there.

Adventures on the Amazon

Wallace and Bates arrived in Brazil, at the mouth of the Amazon, in 1848. Their aim, inspired by their enthusiasm for studying nature, was to investigate the origin of species. They planned to finance the trip by collecting specimens and selling them. In order to cover more ground, the two men split up. Wallace went north by river, collecting in areas previously unexplored by European naturalists. He amassed thousands of unique and exciting animal specimens, mostly birds, beetles and butterflies.

After more than four years collecting, Wallace booked passage and sailed back to England, but disaster struck on the high seas. The ship caught fire and sank along with virtually all his specimens and diaries. Fortunately the crew and passengers were rescued by a passing ship in the mid-Atlantic.

Undaunted, Wallace started planning his next collecting expedition almost immediately. Within a year he left England again and set sail for the Far East.

The Malay Archipelago and Wallace's Line

Wallace began his travels through the Malay Archipelago (now Malaysia and Indonesia) in 1854. Over a period of eight years, he accumulated an astonishing total of 125,660 specimens, including more than 5,000 species new to science.

Wallace noticed a striking pattern in the distribution of animals around the archipelago. He proposed an imaginary line dividing the region in two major parts. Later known as Wallace's line, this marked the boundary between the animal life of the Australian region and that of Asia.

On returning home, Wallace published a travel book, The Malay Archipelago. His vivid account of the beautiful, undisturbed islands opened up a whole new world to readers. Highlights include his colourful descriptions of birds of paradise and orang-utans, and encounters with native peoples.

'In this archipelago there are two distinct faunas... yet there is nothing on the map or on the face of the islands to mark their limits' ( From a letter in which Wallace describes the line that would eventually be named after him)

Wallace and Darwin

One day in 1858, while feverish and confined to his hut on the island of Ternate (now in Indonesia), Wallace had a flash of inspiration. He realised how species evolved - they changed because the fittest individuals survived and reproduced, passing their advantageous characteristics on to their offspring. Wallace immediately wrote to someone he knew was interested in the subject, Charles Darwin.

Darwin had been working on the very same theory for twenty years, but was yet to publish. He sought the advice of his friends, who determined that the ideas of both men would be presented at a meeting of the Linnean Society. Darwin's masterpiece, The Origin of Species, came out the following year.

From that time on, Darwin overshadowed Wallace and it has usually been his name alone associated with the theory of evolution by natural selection. But Wallace expressed no resentment at this, and in fact he was Darwin's greatest fan. His role in the matter, and Darwin's support, ensured his entry to the highest ranks of the scientific establishment.

'He could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters!' ( Charles Darwin)

The surprising spiritualist

Wallace and Darwin did not agree on everything. Wallace, to the discomfort of many contemporaries, was a spiritualist. He believed that natural selection could not explain the human intellect, and that the human spirit persisted after death. A tireless thinker, he wrote widely on this and other diverse topics including land ownership, workers' rights, law, economics and museums. By the time of his death, Wallace had written more than 20 books and over 1,000 articles and published letters. Wallace, unlike Darwin, is not a household name but increasingly his outstanding achievements are receiving the acclaim they deserve.

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video and filmfamous natural historians and expeditions

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A life-changing friendship Wallace was born in Usk, now in Monmouthshire, in 1823. After leaving school he worked at his brother's surveying firm until he was hired as a teacher in Leicester in 1844. That year he formed a friendship with a local man and keen naturalist, Henry Walter Bates, which was to bring unexpected opportunities.

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Video

Museum curator George Beccaloni introduces us to Charles Darwin, the most famous biologist in history, in this video. He talks about the collecting expedition that helped Darwin formulate the theory of evolution by natural selection and shows us some of the specimens from that voyage.

For more detail about Darwin's life read the Work and Timeline sections. Here you'll find out more about Darwin's theory, which he co-discovered with Alfred Russel Wallace.

Work

The young naturalist

Born in 1809, Darwin was fascinated by all living things from a young age. While growing up he was an avid reader of nature books and devoted his spare time to exploring the fields around his home, collecting plants and insects.

In 1825 he became a medical student at the University of Edinburgh but was so traumatised by an operation performed on a child without anaesthetic that he gave up his studies without completing the course. He then went to Cambridge University to study theology. Darwin graduated four years later, but was in no hurry to take holy orders. Instead, he set off on a journey that was to change his life, and much more besides.

Drawing of HMS Beagle from 'A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World' 1912 by Charles Darwin

In 1831 Darwin embarked on a five year voyage aboard the Beagle. The ship sailed to South America to carry out surveying work. Darwin, who had been recommended by one of his Cambridge professors, had a joint role as naturalist and companion to the ship's captain, Robert FitzRoy.

Darwin explored remote regions and marvelled at a world so different from the one he knew. He encountered birds with bright blue feet, sharks with T-shaped heads and oversized tortoises.

Everywhere he went, Darwin amassed plants, animals and fossils, and took copious notes. These collections and records were to provide the clues he needed to develop his remarkable theory.

The theory of natural selection

Darwin returned to England in 1836. A methodical and industrious scholar, he spent years analysing his specimens.

Cactus finch found in the Galapagos Islands, collected during the Voyage of the Beagle.

Darwin realised that evolution occurs by the process of natural selection. The 'fittest' animals or plants - those with the characteristics best suited to their environment - are more likely to survive and reproduce. They pass on these desirable characteristics to their offspring. Gradually those features become more common, causing the species to change over time. If the changes are great enough, they could produce a new species altogether.

Darwin had collected some finches from the Galápagos Islands, which helped him to formulate his idea. Some had stout beaks for eating seeds, others were insect specialists. Darwin realised that they were descendents of a single ancestor. As they dispersed to different islands, the birds had adapted to eat the various foods available. Natural selection had produced 13 different species.

A joint announcement

Darwin knew his radical ideas would meet with stiff opposition. He delayed publishing them for many years while he assembled a mountain of evidence. He sought the advice of Cambridge professors, pig breeders and pigeon fanciers.

During this time, Darwin learnt that Alfred Russel Wallace, a young naturalist, had developed similar ideas to his own. Scrupulously honest, Darwin volunteered to send Wallace's ideas to a journal for immediate publication. However, his friends advised that the fairest solution would be a joint announcement.

The following year saw the publication of Darwin's contentious, celebrated book, The Origin of Species.

Evolution versus Creation

Title Page of 'On The Origin of Species by means of natural selection' by Charles Darwin, 1859

The Origin of Species was published in 1859. It provoked outrage from some members of the Church of England as it implicitly contradicted the belief in divine creation. Darwin's opponents accused him of blasphemy but their efforts were in vain - the book was already becoming a bestseller.

The Descent of Man, published in 1871, aroused even greater debate since it suggested that humans descended from apes. The vexed Bishop of Oxford famously asked Thomas Huxley, one of Darwin's most enthusiastic supporters, whether it was through his grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey. Despite the attacks, Darwin's conviction in scientific theory remained unshaken.

Darwin's legacy

Although Darwin's theory has been modified over time, it remains fundamental to the study of life sciences. But the controversy still exists.

There are some who don't agree with Darwin's theory being taught in school biology classes. However the theory of evolution is accepted by the scientific community as the best, evidence-based explanation for the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.

Darwin changed not only the way we see plants and animals, but also the way we see ourselves.

The animals and plants he collected form part of our national heritage and many are held at the Museum.

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Video Museum curator George Beccaloni introduces us to Charles Darwin, the most famous biologist in history, in this video. He talks about the collecting expedition that helped Darwin formulate the theory of evolution by natural selection and shows us some of the specimens from that voyage.

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The Wiltshire Senior League is a football league in the county of Wiltshire, having senior status and operaing within the English Football Pyramid.

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Class 3 - listen to the last 3 chapters then you can quiz! 

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Class 3 - listen to the last 3 chapters then you can quiz! 

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Epilogue - the mini chapter at the end that ties up a few loose ends. Hope you enjoyed the end of the book! Don't forget to quiz! 

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Epilogue - the mini chapter at the end that ties up a few loose ends. Hope you enjoyed the end of the book! Don't forget to quiz! 