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Cryptography is the study of securing communications from outside observers. Encryption algorithms take the original message, or plaintext, and converts it into ciphertext, which is not understandable. The key allows the user to decrypt the message, thus ensuring on they can read the message.

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ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students

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These days, every human activity is deeply associated with computing systems. This computing technology is implemented in every application in the domain of healthcare, education, banking, software, and marketing. But you might get wondered how organizations secure their information and how your banking transactions are kept confidential. The answer to all of these is "Cryptography". Almost 90% of the internet websites implement either type of cryptography service to handle their sensitive data. Also, cryptography secures Gmail information in an encrypted format as this data float all across the Google data centers. So, cryptography stands as the fundamental feature to safeguard the shared information.

What is Cryptography?

Cryptography is the method of transmitting secured data and communications via few codes so that only the destined person knows about the actual information that is transmitted. This form of process intercepts unauthorized accessibility for the data. So, in clear the name itself indicates that "crypt" refers to "hidden" to "writing". Encoding of information in cryptography follows mathematical hypotheses and few calculations described as algorithms. The encoded data is transmitted so that it makes it difficult to find the original data. These sets of rules are utilized in the procedures of digital signing, authentication to secure data, cryptographic key development and to safeguard all your financial transactions. Mostly, cryptography is followed by the organizations to go with the objectives of:

Privacy - The transmitted data should not be known by external parties except for the intended individual.

Reliability - the data cannot be modified in storage or transfer between the sender and the destined receiver having no kind of modification.

Non-repudiation - Once the data is transmitted, the sender has no chance to deny it in the later phases.

Authentication - Both the sender and receiver need to circumstantiate their own identities about the transmitted and received data.

Cryptography Types

In cryptography, encryption of the information is classified as three types where those are discussed below:

Symmetric Key Cryptography - This is also termed as Private or Secret key cryptography. Here, both the information receiver and the sender make use of a single key to encrypt and decrypt the message. The frequent kind of cryptography used in this method is AES (Advanced Encryption System). The approaches implemented through this type are completely streamlined and quicker too. Few types of Symmetric key cryptography are

Asymmetric Key Cryptography

This is also termed as Public-key cryptography. It follows a varied and protected method in the transmission of information. Using a couple of keys, both the sender and receiver go with encryption and decryption processes. A private key is stored with each person and the public key is shared across the network so that a message can be transmitted through public keys. The frequent kind of cryptography used in this method is RSA. The public key method is more secure than that of a private key. Few of the kinds of Asymmetric key cryptography are:

Hash Function

Taking the arbitrary length of the message as input and delivering a fixed length of the output is the algorithm followed by a hash function. It is also termed as a mathematical equation by taking numerical values as input and produce the hash message. This method will not need any kind of key as it functions in a one-way scenario. There are various rounds of hashing operations and every round considers input as an array of the recent block and generates last round activity as output. Few of the functionalities of the hash are:

Message Digest 5 (MD5)

RIPEMD

Whirlpool

SHA (Secure hash Algorithm)

Cryptography Tools

Cryptography tools are more useful in the situations of signature confirmation, code signing and to perform other cryptography activities. Here are the extensively used cryptography tools.

Security Token

This token is utilized to verify the user. A security token is supposed to be encrypted to perform a protected exchange of information. Also, it provides complete statefulness for the HTTP protocol. So, the server-side formulated token is utilized by a browser to go on with the state. In general, it is the method that moves with remote authentication.

JCA

This is the tool used to authorize the encryption process. This tool might be termed as Java cryptographic libraries. These Java libraries are included with predefined activities where those need to be imported before implementation. Although it is the Java library, it works in proportion with other frameworks and thus supports the development of multiple applications.

SignTool.exe

This is the popular tool mostly used by Microsoft to sign the files. Adding a signature and time stamp to any kind of file is the prominent feature supported by this tool. With the timestamp in the file, it holds the ability to authenticate the file. The whole feature in SignTool.exe ensures for augmented reliability of the file.

Docker

Using docker one can build huge applications. The information maintained in the docker is completely in an encrypted format. In this, cryptography has to be strictly followed to move with encryption of data. Furthermore, both files and information are encrypted thus allowing no one to access the things having no exact access key. Docker is also contemplated as cloud storage allowing users to manage the information either on a dedicated or shared server.

CertMgr.exe

This is the installation file as it is in .exe-extension format. CertMgr holds good for the management of various certificates. Along with this, it even handles CRLs where those are certificate revocation lists. The objective of cryptography in certificate development is to ensure that the information that is exchanged between the parties is more protected and this tool supports to add additional bits in protection.

Authentication Using Key

Here, the encrypted information has to be decrypted through keys. The normal information is easily understood by everyone whereas the encrypted information is known only by the destined user. This tool has two kinds of encryption techniques and those are:

Symmetric Key Cryptography

Asymmetric Key Cryptography

So, cryptography tools are mostly used in every secured activity and there are many tools available where users can choose the one depending on their necessities.

Algorithms

The cryptography algorithms include the following.

In this IoT domain, security matters the most. Though there are many security mechanisms in practice, they do not hold the ability to come up with current day smart applications mainly for the software operating with resource-constraint equipment. In a consequence of this, cryptography algorithms came into practice ensuring enhanced security. So, few of the cryptographic algorithms are as follows:

Triple DES

Taking over from the conventional DES mechanism, triple DES was currently implemented in the security approaches. These algorithms permit hackers to ultimately gained the knowledge to overcome in an easy approach. This was the extensively implemented approach by many of the enterprises. Triple DES operates with 3 keys having 56 bits per each key. The entire key length is a maximum of bits, whereas experts would contend that 112-bits in key intensity is more probable. This algorithm handles to make a reliable hardware encryption answer for banking facilities and also for other industries.

Blowfish

To replace the approaches of Triple DES, Blowfish was mainly developed. This encryption algorithm split up messages into clocks having 64 bits and encrypts these clocks separately. The captivating feature that lies in Blowfish is its speed and efficacy. As this is an open algorithm for everyone, many gained the benefits of implementing this. Every scope of the IT domain ranging from software to e-commerce is making use of this algorithm as it shows extensive features for password protection. All these allow this algorithm to be most prominent in the market.

RSA

One of the public-key encryption algorithms used to encrypt information transmitted through the internet. It was a widely used algorithm in GPG and PGP methodologies. RSA is classified under symmetric type of algorithms as it performs its operation using a couple of keys. One of the keys is used for encryption and the other for decryption purposes.

Twofish

This algorithm implements keys to provide security and as it comes under the symmetric method, only one key is necessary. The keys of this algorithm are with the maximum length of 256 bits. Of the most available algorithms, Twofish is mainly known by its speed and perfect to be implemented both in the hardware and software applications. Also, it is an openly accessible algorithm and has been in execution by many.

AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)

This is the most trusted algorithm technique by U.S administration and many other enterprises. Even though this works efficiently in 128-bit encryption form, 192 and 256 bits are mainly used for huge encryption activities. Being so invulnerable to all hacking systems, the AES technique receives extensive applause for encrypting information in the private domain.

Applications of Cryptography

Applications for cryptography as below.

Conventionally, cryptography was in implementation only for securing purposes. Wax seals, hand signatures and few other kinds of security methods were generally utilized to make sure of reliability and accuracy of the transmitter. And with the arrival of digital transmissions, security becomes more essential and then cryptography mechanisms began to outstrip its utilization for maintaining utmost secrecy. A few of the applications of cryptography are discussed below.

To Maintain Secrecy in Storage

Cryptography allows storing the encrypted data permitting users to stay back from the major hole of circumvention by hackers.

Reliability in Transmission

A conventional approach that allows reliability is to carry out a checksum of the communicated information and then communicate the corresponding checksum in an encrypted format. When both the checksum and encrypted data is received, the data is again checksummed and compared to the communicated checksum after the process of decryption. Thus, effective cryptographic mechanisms are more crucial to assure reliability in message transmission.

Authentication of Identity

Cryptography is strongly linked to the approach of using passwords, and innovative systems probably make use of strong cryptographic methods together with the physical methods of individuals and collective secrets offering highly reliable verification of identity.

Examples

The examples of cryptograph y include the following.

One of the prominent examples of cryptography encryption these days is end-to-end encryption in WhatsApp. This feature is included in WhatsApp through the asymmetry model or via public key methods. Here only the destined member knows about the actual message. Once after the installation of WhatsApp is finished, public keys are registered with the server and then messages are transmitted.

The next real-time application of cryptography is digital signatures. In the situation that when two clients are necessary to sign documents for a business transaction. But when two clients never come across each other they might not believe each other. Then encryption in the digital signatures ensures enhanced authentication and security.

As cyber-attacks are constantly progressing, security needs to be more necessary and thus cryptography methodologies also become more prominent. These cryptographic algorithms not only let down the hacking activities but shows no scope for these activities to emerge. Get the idea of what are the other tools and technologies available in cryptographic scenarios?

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Cryptography : Different Types, Tools and its Applications

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These days, every human activity is deeply associated with computing systems. This computing technology is implemented in every application in the domain of healthcare, education, banking, software, and marketing. But you might get wondered how organizations secure their information and how your banking transactions are kept confidential.

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What is Cryptography? | Introduction to Cryptography | Cryptography for Beginners | Edureka 

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What is Cryptography? | Introduction to Cryptography | Cryptography for Beginners | Edureka

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Public Key Cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, uses two keys to encrypt data. One is used for encryption, while the other key can decrypts the message.

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From TLS to authentication, "crypto" is used for a lot more than just currencies. Security should be part of every developer's toolkit and cryptography a fundamental building block for the libraries and tools we use to protect our data and applications. This post will dive into public key cryptography, also known as asymmetric cryptography, an overview of how it works, and its everyday use cases - including how Twilio uses public-key crypto in our Verify API and to secure our API.

Let's start with some context and history.

Meet Alice and Bob

Alice and Bob have a history of illicit dealings. We're not really sure what they're up to, but they don't want us, or the ever-curious Eve, to know. Before the internet, Alice and Bob could pass secret messages by encrypting text with an agreed upon cipher. Maybe that was through letter substitution or shifting or other sophisticated methods. They agreed on the method in advance and both knew how to encode and decode the end message.

This is known as symmetric cryptography - the same key is used in both directions. This worked well for World War II spies, but what happens when our secret messengers can't agree on the key in advance?

We invented public-key, or asymmetric, cryptography so that two people like Alice and Bob could communicate securely without meeting first to agree on a shared encryption key or risk an eavesdropper like Eve to intercept the key over unsecured communication channels. This is an incredibly necessary advancement because of the internet - we are no longer only transacting and communicating with people we know and trust.

What is Public Key Cryptography?

In public-key cryptography, also known as asymmetric cryptography, each entity has two keys:

Public Key - to be shared

Private Key - to be kept secret

These keys are generated at the same time using an algorithm and are mathematically linked. When using the RSA algorithm, the keys are used together in one of the following ways:
1. Encrypting with a public key
Use case: sending messages only the intended recipient can read.

Bob encrypts a plaintext message with Alice's public key, then Alice decrypts the ciphertext message with her private key. Since Alice is the only one with access to the private key, the encrypted message cannot be read by anyone besides Alice.
2. Signing with your private key
Use case: verifying that you're the one who sent a message.

Alice encrypts a plaintext message with her private key, then sends the ciphertext to Bob. Bob decrypts the ciphertext with Alice's public key. Since the public key can only be used to decrypt messages signed with Alice's private key, we can trust that Alice was the author of the original message.

These methods can also be combined to both encrypt and sign a message with two different key pairs.

Use Cases of Public-Key Cryptography

Public-key cryptography is used in a lot of scenarios:

How Twilio Uses Public-Key Cryptography
Push Authentication
Verify Push API

One of the ways Twilio uses public-key cryptography is with the Verify Push SDK and API for push authentication (seen above). The Verify SDK generates a new RSA key pair on your device and only sends the public key to our servers - your private key never leaves your device. When you "Approve" or "Deny" a request on your device, the Verify API validates:

That the request comes from the sender who is in control of the private key

That the authorization request has not been modified in transit

SHAKEN/STIR

SHAKEN (Signature-based Handling of Asserted information using toKENs) / STIR (Secure Telephone Identity Revisited) is a new industry standard to combat call spoofing and be able to track down spam callers more effectively. SHAKEN/STIR uses a public-key infrastructure with centralized Certificate Authorities (CAs) similar to how TLS is managed. With this technology, Twilio will sign your calls to add authentication. Learn more about enabling SHAKEN/STIR.

PKCV

Twilio also offers Public Key Client Validation as an added layer of security for making API requests. When you send a request with Public Key Client Validation, Twilio validates:

That the request comes from a sender who is in control of the private key

That the message has not been modified in transit

You can read more about PKCV and how to implement it here.

How Does Public Key Crypto Work? Trapdoor Functions for Security

Think about mixing together two paint colors: it's simple to combine them, but challenging to factor back out into the original colors. We see this idea all the time in physical security: things like zip ties, locks, tamper proof screws, sealed packages, and more. It's possible to undo these things without detection, but it's difficult enough that most people don't take the time or money to try. Cryptography relies on the same principle, using calculations that are easy to do in one direction and really hard to reverse unless you have a key. We call these trapdoor one-way functions.

One way we achieve this in digital security by using really large prime numbers and multiplying them together. It's easy for a computer to compute the product of two 600-digit prime numbers, but really hard to take the result and find its factors.

Your Challenge: find the two prime factors of 4,757

There are a few ways to do this, including brute force trial and error. For a 4-digit number you could write a script that loops through known prime numbers, but once that target number becomes 1000 digits long that's going to take a long time.

Your Next Challenge: multiply 67 and 71

Now that is much easier!

Your Final Challenge: let's build a key pair together! Don't worry, we'll walk you through this one. The numbers we use in our example are intentionally small.

Note: this example is for instructional purposes. Please don't roll your own cryptography for your application!

This example uses the RSA algorithm, one of many options for calculating key pairs for asymmetric encryption. You can follow along in python code below or find the whole script on my GitHub.

1. Pick two prime numbers:

4. Pick a number less than x that is not a divisor of x:

Now we have all we need to create our keys!

We can use the public key to encrypt a message:

And we can use the private key to decrypt the message:

...which gives us the original message! 🤯

Public Key Cryptography Algorithms and Key Size
https://twitter.com/kayandrae07/status/1042026591856017408
RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman)

The example showed how these trapdoor one-way functions are incorporated into common cryptography algorithms. Most of our explanation so far has focused on RSA, named for the researchers Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, and one of the most common encryption algorithms used for public-key cryptography. You've probably used it if you've ever generated a GitHub SSH key, for example:

This is how you generate an RSA key pair for real. Let's break down what's happening in this command.

ssh-keygen is a command included in MacOS and Linux (and in Git Bash for Windows) used for "authentication key generation, management and conversion."

-t rsa tells it to use the rsa algorithm. Other options include dsa ( Digital Signature Algorithm) and ecdsa ( Elliptic Curve DSA).
https://xkcd.com/538/
-b 4096 specifies the key size in bits to use. Key size impacts the security strength, measured in bits of security. Security strength is "a number associated with the amount of work (that is, the number of operations) that is required to break a cryptographic algorithm or system" according to the NIST Recommendation for Key Management. For example, an RSA key size of 2048 gives 112 bits of security while a key size of 3072 gives 128 bits of security.

The current NIST recommendations for RSA is to use at least 2048 bits for your key. These recommendations take into account advancements in hardware and computation power, so if you want your keys to be secure past 2030 NIST recommends 3072-bit encryption.

Once you run this command on your computer, you'll have two files: a public key and a private key. It's important that you do this on your own computer so that you only have to copy the public key to GitHub's servers. Now, every time you push code to GitHub, it signs the request with your private key, which GitHub authenticates by using your public key. Note: ssh authentication is different from signing git commits, which uses GPG, another form of public-key cryptography. It's everywhere!

Other common algorithms you might encounter include:

Diffie-Hellman

This is the foundation for public-key cryptography. The Diffie-Hellman approach involves two people building a shared secret key together. It's pretty neat. Here's a great video that explains how the Diffie-Hellman method works.

Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC)

This has gained a lot of recent traction because the Elliptic Curve DSA algorithm can achieve the same level of security as RSA but with smaller key sizes. ECC is also what cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin use. I like this explainer for how ECC works if you want to learn more.

Cryptography in Your Applications

As a general rule, you should never roll your own crypto. Use libraries that implement well-accepted encryption schemes like RSA. If you're building common security workflows, like login, most major frameworks will already have encryption built-in.

Now that you have some security fundamentals under your belt, it might be time to audit your password requirements or implement two-factor authentication. If you have any questions about cryptography, leave me a comment or find me on Twitter @kelleyrobinson.

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From TLS to authentication, "crypto" is used for a lot more than just currencies. Security should be part of every developer's toolkit and cryptography a fundamental building block for the libraries and tools we use to protect our data and applications.

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This uses a single key to encrypt data. Both encryption and decryption in symmetric cryptography use the same key, making this the easiest form of cryptography.

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Public key cryptography and private key cryptography refer to two different encryption schemes that serve two vastly different functions. In this article, we'll give a quick overview of both, as well as what they're used for.

Breaking Down Public Key and Private Key Cryptography

What is Private Key Cryptography?

Private key encryption is the original type of encryption. Dating back to the advent of cryptography, private key cryptosystems were the first and continue to be the most common. When using private key cryptography, both parties much each possess, or at least exchange the private key. The word "key" can be a bit misleading - the key itself is really just the cipher that's used to scramble and unscramble the data being encrypted.

With an ancient cipher, like the Caesar cipher, the private key was simply a number that corresponded to the number each alphabetical character needed to be shifted. In current digital encryption schemes, the keys are now prohibitively difficult algorithms that no modern computer could ever efficiently crack.

The one thing that remains the same with all private key systems is that the same key can both encrypt and decrypt. Private key encryption is sometimes called symmetric encryption.

What is Private Key Cryptography Used for?

Public key cryptography, in the context of SSL/TLS, is used for the actual communication portion of the connection. Each party derives the key during the handshake and then uses it to both encrypt and decrypt all data that's transmitted between them.

Private key encryption, or symmetric encryption, uses smaller keys that are easier to compute with. These still provide adequate computational hardness, but don't tax the client and server as much to use. Especially at scale, this is extremely important and the biggest advantage of symmetric encryption.

What is Public Key Cryptography?

Public key cryptography is actually a fairly recent creation, dating back to 1973, it uses a public/private key pair. The keys are asymmetric, the public key is actually derived from the private key. It can be used to encrypt while the private key can be used to decrypt. The public key is also capable of verifying signatures left by the private key.

Public/Private key pairs are generally much larger than their symmetric counterparts. That's because public key cryptography is kind of like the gatekeeper, it needs to be sufficiently robust to protect the website and the connections it's making. Public key cryptography is primarily used for two things:

These are both performed during the handshake. They're critical functions. A large key makes it harder to manipulate these functions. Once the public key cryptography is done the two parties have authenticated and exchanged keys. Now it's simply a matter of actually communicating. The size of the key, though still plenty secure, can be reduced to increase performance.

What is Public Key Cryptography Used For?

As we just covered it handles authentication and key exchange. Public key cryptography was first developed as a mechanism to securely exchange an encryption key via an insecure channel. The first guys to nail it were Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman (with an assist from Ralph Merkle) - they created the eponymous Diffie-Hellman key exchange scheme.

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Diffie-Hellman lacked authentication, though, and Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman figured if you're going to send an encryption key to someone, it might be good to make sure you know who that someone is. Thus, the birth of RSA, which could both securely pass the key and authenticate the entity it was passing it to.

Diffie-Hellman was later paired with digital signature algorithm (DSA) to create a key exchange/authentication combination - a variant of which has now replaced RSA in TLS 1.3.

Quickly, let's go through how this works:

RSA

With RSA, there are two functions being performed simultaneously. The client first encrypts a bit of information using the public key and sends it to the server, which decrypts it using the private key. Both parties use that information to derive the session key (a symmetric, private key that will be used to communicate). When the client encrypts that data, the pre-master secret, it will also authenticate the server when it proves it has the corresponding private key to decrypt it with. Once this is complete, the two parties can begin communicating with the session key that was passed.

Diffie-Hellman/DSA

Nowadays in TLS 1.3, all key exchange has to be an ephemeral Diffie-Hellman family paired with Elliptic Curve DSA, also known as ECDSA. The way it handles key exchange actually doesn't even count as public key encryption - the only public key cryptography involved is when the digital signature is verified.

Here's how it works. With Diffie-Hellman, both parties exchange randomly generated bits of data. There's a logarithmic function that takes place and both parties are able to use that data, despite passing it insecurely, to derive the same secure session key. No encryption takes place in its passing, as you see in RSA, hence it's not technically public key encryption.

The part that is public key encryption comes with the digital signature - once the keys have been exchanged, the server takes the entire handshake, encrypts it with the private key, and digitally signs it. The client uses the public key to verify the signature, which proves key ownership and authenticates the server.

Voila! That's private and public key cryptography explained.

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What is Public Key and Private Key Cryptography, and How Does It Work?

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Public key cryptography and private key cryptography refer to two different encryption schemes that serve two vastly different functions. In this article, we'll give a quick overview of both, as well as what they're used for. Private key encryption is the original type of encryption.

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Public Key Encryption explained with images in simpler terms

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Public Key Encryption (Asymmetric Key Encryption)

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Private Key explained with images in simpler terms

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Private Key Encryption (Symmetric Key Encryption)

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Relationship among cybersec and cryptography

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For some reason, cryptography seems to be the weakest area of understanding in the Cyber Security profession. I've lost count of the number of times I've debated with a cyber security professional that public key encryption is not actually used to encrypt things, and it's only used to sign for identity and in key exchange. No-one actually needs to know a great deal about the actual mechanics of...

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Is Cryptography the Ohm's Law of Cyber Security?

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For some reason, cryptography seems to be the weakest area of understanding in the Cyber Security profession. I've lost count of the number of times I've debated with a cyber security professional that public key encryption is not actually used to encrypt things, and it's only used to sign for identity and in key exchange.

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The CIA system effectively frames the objectives and goals of the security program and assists associations with guarding against dangers, for example, information breaks, malware assaults, phishing, online assaults, etc.,. Its is not exactly known who created them but it has been widespread and became acceptable from 1998

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Cryptology provides the means to keep electronic information secure by protecting the electronic system as a whole, and by securing individual pieces of information (“bit”), even if the system itself is compromised. However, the Achilles heel to all data protection methods is that none is mathematically perfect. That is, no protection algorithm, even removing the computer from an Internet connection, guarantees data security.

Encryption is an element of cryptography. Cryptography is the most utilized method of data security and the primary focus of this series. At a basic level, encryption is easy to understand. It is just the process of using a cypher.

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In computer programming hash functions map text (or other data) to integer numbers. Usually different inputs maps to different outputs, but sometimes a collision may happen (different input with the same output).

In cryptography, hash functions transform input data of arbitrary size (e.g. a text message) to a result of fixed size (e.g. 256 bits), which is called hash value (or hash code, message digest, or simply hash). Hash functions (hashing algorithms) used in computer cryptography are known as "cryptographic hash functions". Examples of such functions are SHA-256 and SHA3-256, which transform arbitrary input to 256-bit output.

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Cryptography focuses on four different objectives:

1. Confidentiality: Confidentiality ensures that only the intended recipient can decrypt the message and read its contents.

2. Non-repudiation: Non-repudiation means the sender of the message cannot backtrack in the future and deny their reasons for sending or creating the message.

3. Integrity: Integrity focuses on the ability to be certain that the information contained within the message cannot be modified while in storage or transit.

4. Authenticity: Authenticity ensures the sender and recipient can verify each other’s identities and the destination of the message.

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A brief explanation of hashing

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What is a Cryptographic Hashing Function? (Example + Purpose)

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A cryptographic hash function is an algorithm that takes an arbitrary amount of data input—a credential—and produces a fixed-size output of enciphered text called a hash value, or just “hash.” That enciphered text can then be stored instead of the password itself, and later used to verify the user

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Hashing is the process of translating a given key into a code. A hash function is used to substitute the information with a newly generated hash value.

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Here we can see the reason why hashing is so important in the field of cybersecurity, the passwords which are modified cannot be stolen. Also, there is no need to worry if a hash code is stolen since it cannot be applied anywhere else.

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Hans Peter Luhn invented Hashing. He was a conscientious scientist in IBM researching the field of Computer Science and Information Science. There is one more famous algorithm he contributed- the Luhn algorithm. Luhn was born in Germany but after the war, he had to move to the United States as he was working in the textile field. While in the textile field he invented Lunometer which is still used. A Luminometer is a thread counting device. In 1941 he decides to join IBM as a senior research engineer. He soon got the position of manager and headed the Information Retrieval Research Department. James Perry and Malcolm Dyson brought a problem to this department of IBM in 1947. The challenge was to search chemical compounds that had been stored in coded form. This was the first Luhn was introduced to the experimenting field of information and documentation science. He used to provide solutions, but at that time the available machines also had their limitations. He then had to find new methods to overcome these limitations. And the 1950s came which was the 'computer age'. Luhn had started spending a great deal amount of time on the challenges of the information retrieval system. In 1953 Luhn had the idea to put all the information in a bucket. He predicted that this would make searching faster. And this information can consist of numbers as well as text. Luhn's invention was further shaped and modified by scientists of the coming generation. Hashing algorithms today have become essential, especially in cryptography, cloud service, textual tools, data-intensive research, etc. The two other great inventions of Luhn are KWIC and SDI systems.

Importance of Hashing

Hashing gives a more secure and adjustable method of retrieving data compared to any other data structure. It is quicker than searching for lists and arrays. In the very range, Hashing can recover data in 1.5 probes, anything that is saved in a tree. Hashing, unlike other data structures, doesn't define the speed. A balance between time and space has to be maintained while hashing. There are two ways of maintaining this balance.

1. Controlling speed by selecting the space to be allocated for the hash table

2. Controlling space by choosing a speed of recovery

Hashed passwords cannot be modified, stolen, or jeopardized. No well-recognized and efficient key or encryption scheme exists that can be misused. Also, there is no need to worry if a hash code is stolen since it cannot be applied anywhere else.

Two files can be compared for equality easily through hashing. There is no need to open the two documents individually. Hashing compares them word-by-word and the computed hash value instantly tells if they are distinct. This advantage can be used for the verification of a file after it has been shifted to a new place. It is an example of SyncBack which is a file backup program.

In DBMS, hashing is used to search the location of the data without using index structure. This method is faster to search using the short hashed key instead of the original value.

Application of Hashing:

Password Verification

Compiler Operation

Rabin-Karp Algorithm

Data Structures

Message Digest

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Hans Peter Luhn invented Hashing. He was a conscientious scientist in IBM researching the field of Computer Science and Information Science. There is one more famous algorithm he contributed- the Luhn algorithm. Luhn was born in Germany but after the war, he had to move to the United States as he was working in the textile field.

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Among the many advancements seen in network security, encryption and hashing have been the core principles of additional security modules. The secure hash algorithm with a digest size of 256 bits, or the SHA 256 algorithm, is one of the most widely used hash algorithms. While there are other variants, SHA 256 has been at the forefront of real-world applications.

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EThere are many systems to encode information and one of them is the SHA-256 algorithm. This is an algorithm of which is used by to guarantee the integrity of the information stored in a Inter alia.

Like almost all the advances in cryptography stuff, the governments of the world have had a fundamental role due to wars. The algorithm SHA or Secure Hash Algorithm (Secure Hash Algorithm), is one of these advances. This cryptographic algorithm was developed by the United States National Security Agency (NSA) and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Its objective is to generate hashes or unique codes based on a standard with which documents or computer data could be secured against any external agent that wishes to modify them. This algorithm was and is a great advance in the way to guarantee the privacy of the content in the information processing.

In 1993 the first SHA protocol, also colloquially called SHA-0, came to light. Two years later, a stronger, improved variant was released, the SHA-1. A few years later it was launched SHA-2, which has four variants according to the number of bits, such as SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384 y SHA-512.

Features of the SHA-256 algorithm

A hash algorithm works in one direction only: this means that from any content we can generate its hash (its "digital fingerprint") but from a hash there is no way to generate the content associated with it, except by trying randomly until we find the content.

Among the different ways to create hashes, the algorithm used by SHA-256 is one of the most used for its balance between security and computational cost of generation, since it is a very efficient algorithm for the high collision resistance it has.

Another peculiarity of the SHA-256 hashing algorithm is that the length of the resulting hash is always the same, no matter how long the content you use to generate the hash: either one letter or all the words in Harry's book Potter integer, the result is always a string of 64 letters and numbers (with a 256-bit, 32-byte encoding).

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The acronym SHA-256 makes mention of the hash function that has been chosen for the operation of many cryptocurrencies because it offers a high level of security, which makes it perfect for the task of securely protecting and encoding their information.

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Message Length: The length of the cleartext should be less than 264 bits. The size needs to be in the comparison area to keep the digest as random as possible.

Digest Length: The length of the hash digest should be 256 bits in SHA 256 algorithm, 512 bits in SHA-512, and so on. Bigger digests usually suggest significantly more calculations at the cost of speed and space.

Irreversible: By design, all hash functions such as the SHA 256 are irreversible. You should neither get a plaintext when you have the digest beforehand nor should the digest provide its original value when you pass it through the hash function again.

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The working of the SHA Algorithm is explained

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SHA: Secure Hashing Algorithm - Computerphile

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Digital Signature Verification: Digital signatures follow asymmetric encryption methodology to verify the authenticity of a document/file. Hash algorithms like SHA 256 go a long way in ensuring the verification of the signature.

Password Hashing: As discussed above, websites store user passwords in a hashed format for two benefits. It helps foster a sense of privacy, and it lessens the load on the central database since all the digests are of similar size.

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SSL Handshake: The SSL handshake is a crucial segment of the web browsing sessions, and it’s done using SHA functions. It consists of your web browsers and the web servers agreeing on encryption keys and hashing authentication to prepare a secure connection.

Integrity Checks: As discussed above, verifying file integrity has been using variants like SHA 256 algorithm and the MD5 algorithm. It helps maintain the full value functionality of files and makes sure they were not altered in transit.

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Cryptography might be cool innovation, yet since security is a human issue, cryptography is just pretty much as great as the acts of individuals who use it. It is a dynamic and an obligatory part of computerized business. Associations need perceivability into their cryptographic occurrences as well as direction from not just norms gatherings like NIST and ISO (International Organization for Standardization), yet in addition the internet browsers who control the UIs that interface organizations with shoppers through secure web-based correspondences. Crypto agility is the way to staying up with the most recent cryptographic consistence necessities, principles, and suggestions that maintain and get computerized business.

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Access to technology is tightly controlled. The average citizen does not have access to it for private use and likely doesn't know what it is or understand how it works. You would almost have a scenario where a portion of the population is super technologically advanced and they use that tech to keep the remainder in line acting like it is magic.

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You have provided with a preformed structure for your world: You can't easily transmit ciphered information (keys, passwords, etc.) and you can't hide anything but with physical vaults.

Instead of arguing whether or not this is practically possible (with current technology), let us concentrate on your questions.

Almost the same as it looks like, now. Only two-key (public and private) type encryption systems would not be possible. The passwords on emails and user accounts would still be as effective as they are now.

Simply, because hacking a password is an extremely long and boring process known as "brute forcing", where the attacker tries every possible word combination possible for a given length of characters. This is the only type of hacking possible when you don't have a direct attack on the information possible (keylogging, server database hack etc).

Yes, encrypted connections between server and client side computers might not be possible in such a world and hence banks would have limited services regarding online transactions and money transfer.

Militaries all over the world would have a very high reliance on codebooks than on digital encryption systems.

Yes it would be possible. People would send encrypted messages to each other without sending the key to decrypt those messages. This is how the system would work:

Person A sends person B an encrypted message Person B applies another layer or encryption on the message and sends it back to person A. Person A removes his layer of encryption and sends the message to person B. Person B removes his layer of encryption and reads the message.

At no point in this protocol does a transmission of keys occur. Yes, this system might be slightly slower in working than the protocols we have in place these days, but it would still work flawlessly for digital communications.

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What would a society without cryptography look like?

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begingroup$ You have provided with a preformed structure for your world: You can't easily transmit ciphered information (keys, passwords, etc.) and you can't hide anything but with physical vaults. Instead of arguing whether or not this is practically possible (with current technology), let us concentrate on your questions.