# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
India is a sovereign country in South Asia, with a total land area of approximately 2,973,193 sq km. The Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest, flourished during the 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. and extended into northwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated the Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. The Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached its zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Age ushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw a flowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Islam spread across the subcontinent over a period of 700 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established the Delhi Sultanate. In the early 16th century, the Emperor BABUR established the Mughal Dynasty which ruled India for more than three centuries. European explorers began establishing footholds in India during the 16th century. By the 19th century, Great Britain had become the dominant political power on the subcontinent. The British Indian Army played a vital role in both World Wars. Years of nonviolent resistance to British rule, led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU, eventually resulted in Indian independence, which was granted in 1947. Large-scale communal violence took place before and after the subcontinent partition into two separate states - India and Pakistan. The neighboring nations have fought three wars since independence, the last of which was in 1971 and resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons tests in 1998 emboldened Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year. In November 2008, terrorists originating from Pakistan conducted a series of coordinated attacks in Mumbai, India's financial capital. Despite pressing problems such as significant overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and widespread corruption, economic growth following the launch of economic reforms in 1991 and a massive youthful population are driving India's emergence as a regional and global power.

How big is India compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and India living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. The Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest, flourished during the 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. and extended into northwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated the Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Malayalam alphabet, pronunciation and language

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Malayalam is a Dravidian language spoken by about 38 million people, mainly in the southern Indian state of Kerala.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Russian is an Eastern Slavic language spoken mainly in Russia and many other countries by about 260 million people, 150 million of whom are native speakers. Russian is an official language in Russian, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and in a number of other countries, territories and international organisations, including Tajikistan, Moldova, Gagauzia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, and the UN. It is also recognised as a minority language in Romania, Finland, Norway, Armenia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Russsian at a glance

Native name: русский язык [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]

Language family: Indo-European, Balto-Slavic, Slavic, East Slavic

Number of speakers: c. 260 million

Spoken in: Russian, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Moldova, Romania, Finland, Norway, Armenia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, etc.

First written: 10th century AD

Writing system: Cyrillic alphabet

Status: official language in Russian, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan and many other countries and territories.

Written Russian

The earliest known writing in Russia dates from the 10th century and was found at Novgorod. The main languages written on them in an early version of the Cyrillic alphabet were Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic. There are also some texts in Finnish, Latin and Greek.

Russian started appearing in writing regularly during the reign of Peter the Great (a.k.a. Peter I) (1672-1725) who introduced a revised alphabet and encouraged authors to use a literary style closer to their spoken language. The dialect of Moscow was used as the basis for written Russian.

Russian literature started to flower during the 19th century when Tolstoi, Dostoyevskii, Gogol and Pushkin were active. During the Soviet era knowledge of the Russian language was wide spread though the subjects authors could write about were restricted.

Russian alphabet (русский алфавит)

Russian alphabet learning game

Hear the Russian alphabet

Russian phonology

There are a number of other transliteration schemes for Russian. The one shown here is the BGN/PCGN romanization system, which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN) and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN). It is designed to be relatively intuitive for English speakers to pronounce, and is also known as the British Standard.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian
http://www.unics.uni-hannover.de/ntr/russisch/umschrifttabelle.html

Notes

А is pronounced [a] when stressed, and [ə] or [ɐ] in unstressed syllables

The soft (palatalization) sign after Ж, Ш, Ч and Щ does not affect their pronunciation.

The vowels Е, Ё, Ю and Я normally palatalize the previous consonant (the 3rd case). When a hard sign (ъ) separates a consonant and one of these vowels, the consonant is pronounced without palatalization and the vowel is pronounced according to the rules of the 4th case. Example: подъезд (porch) [pad'jest].

If a consonant is the final letter it is always unvoiced (see the previous example).

The pronunciation of unstressed vowels depends on the region. In the Central European part of Russia the unstressed Е and Я are pronounced as [i] and unstressed О is pronounced as [a]. Example: молоко (milk) [mala'ko].

The letter Ё is often written as Е except in cases of possible ambiguity: небо (sky) and нёбо (palate).

Cursive Russian alphabet

This is a version of the cursive handwritten Russian alphabet. Some letters have different shapes when written in this way.

How to write the cursive Russian alphabet

Older versions of the Russian alphabet

Russian alphabet (1750-1918)

This is the version of Cyrillic alphabet used between 1750 and 1917/18.

Russian alphabet (pre-1750)

This is the version of Cyrillic alphabet used until 1750. The chart shows the letters, their names, the IPA transcription of their names, their Latin equivalents, and their numerical values.

These versions of the Russian alphabet are transliterated using the Scientific transliteration system, which is also known as the International Scholarly System, which has been used since the 19th century, and is the only one to include transliteration of the older letters.

Download alphabet charts for Russian (Excel)

Sample text in Russian

Все люди рождаются свободными и равными в своем достоинстве и правах. Они наделены разумом и совестью и должны поступать в отношении друг друга в духе братства.

Cursive version

Transliteration

Vse lyudi rozhdayutsya svobodnymi i ravnymi v svoyem dostoinstve i pravakh. Oni nadeleny razumom i sovest'yu i dolzhny postupat' v otnoshenii drug druga v dukhe bratstva.

A recording of this text by Yuri from Belarus

A recording of this text by Max Bollinger

Russian voiceover audio by Max.Bollinger@Gmail.com

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample videos in Russian

Information about Russian | Useful phrases | Silly phrases | Numbers | Colours | Time | Family words | Terms of endearment | Weather | Idioms | Tongue twisters | Tower of Babel | Articles | Links | Learning materials

Links

Information about the Russian language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/russian/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Russian-language
http://realrussia.co.uk/Info/Languages
https://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/Russian/

Online Russian lessons
http://masterrussian.com
http://www.russianforeveryone.com
http://polymath.org/russian.php
http://russianmadeeasy.com
http://www.russianlessons.net
http://www.yesrussian.com
http://ilovelanguages.org/russian.php
https://everydayrussianlanguage.com/en/words/
https://www.loecsen.com/en/learn-russian
http://www.russianpod101.com/

Russian Sets - news stories in Russian
http://foreigncy.org/russian-sets/

Learn Russian

Slavic languages

Page last modified: 14.11.22

Why not share this page:

Learn languages for free on Duolingo

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Russian language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Russian is an Eastern Slavic language spoken mainly in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Belarus, and in many other countries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Russia is a sovereign country in Central Asia, with a total land area of approximately 16,377,742 sq km. Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding principalities. In the early 17th century, a new ROMANOV Dynasty continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific. Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia. Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament and other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53) strengthened communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize communism, but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent republics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state in which the leadership seeks to legitimize its rule through managed national elections, populist appeals by President PUTIN, and continued economic growth. Russia has severely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus.

How big is Russia compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Russia living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding principalities. In the early 17th century, a new ROMANOV Dynasty continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Italian language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Italian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, the Vatican City, Malta and Eritrea by about 67 million people.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Spanish language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Information about Spanish, a Romance language spoken in Spain and in most of Central and South America, as well as in the USA, by about 417 million people.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Italy is a sovereign country in Europe, with a total land area of approximately 294,140 sq km. Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy is a charter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the forefront of European economic and political unification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include sluggish economic growth, high youth and female unemployment, organized crime, corruption, and economic disparities between southern Italy and the more prosperous north.

How big is Italy compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Italy living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascist dictatorship.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Spain living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Spain’s powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused the country to fall behi…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
German is a West Germanic language spoken mainly in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy. It is recognised as a minority language in Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Namibia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, South Africa, Vatican City and Venezuela. There are also significant German-speaking communities in the USA, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Paraguay, New Zealand and Peru.

Number of speakers

Standard German (Hochdeutsch) has around 90 million native speakers, and other varieties of German have some 30 million. There are about 80 million people who speak German as a second language, and many others study it as a foreign language.

Written German

The earliest known examples of written German date from the 8th century AD and consist of fragments of an epic poem, the Song of Hildebrand, magical charms and German glosses in Latin manuscripts. A short Latin-German dictionary, the Abrogans, was written during the 760s.

German at a glance

Native name: Deutsch [ˈdɔʏtʃ]

Linguistic affliation: Indo-European, Germanic, West Germanic, High German

Number of speakers: c. 200 million

Spoken in: Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Lichtenstein

First written: AD 760s

Writing system: Latin script

Status: official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy (South Tyrol), Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Belgium and the EU; recognised minority language in the Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Namibia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, South Africa, Vatican City and Venezuela

German literature started to take off during the 12th and 13th centuries in the form of poems, epics and romances. Well-known examples include the epic Nibelungenlied (the Song of the Nibelungs) and Gottfried von Straßburg's Tristan. The language used is now known as mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache (Middle High German poetic language). During this period Latin was gradually replaced by German as the language of official documents.

Varieties of German used in writing

High German (Hochdeutsch)

High German began to emerge as the standard literary language during the 16th century. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible, which he completed in 1534, marks the beginning of this process. The language he used, based partly on spoken German, became the model for written German.

Swiss German (Schweizerdeutsch or Schwyzerdütsch)

A variety of German spoken by about 4 million people in Switzerland, occasionally appears in writing in novels, newspapers, personal letters and diaries.

Pennsylvania Dutch/German (Deitsch / Pennsylvania Deitsch / Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch)

Pennsylvania Dutch is a variety of German spoken by about 250,000 mainly in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana in the USA, and in Ontario in Canada. The Pennsylvania Dutch newspaper Hiwwe wie Driwwe publishes poetry and prose in Pennsylvania Dutch, and there are a number of other publications featuring the language. Pennsylvania German is commonly referred to as Pennsylvania Dutch, however it is not a variety of Dutch.

Regional varities of German, or Mundarten, also occasionally appear in writing; mainly in 'folk' literature and comic books such as Asterix.

Written German script styles

Fraktur

Fraktur was used for printed and written German from the 16th century until 1940. The name Fraktur comes from Latin and means "fractured" or "broken script". It is so called because its ornamental twiddly bits (curlicues) break the continuous line of a word. In German it is usually called deutsche Schrift (German script).

Fraktur was also used for a number of other languages, including Finnish, Czech, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. It is still used, to some extent, by speakers of Pennsylvania Dutch on signs and publicity for businesses.

Notes

The final s appears at the ends of syllables, except in the following combinations: ss, st, sp, sh and sch, while the first (ſ) appears everywhere else. The symbol ß ( scharfes S or Eszett) is a combination of the long s and z, or a combination of the two types of s: there is some dispute about origin of this symbol. For further details, see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ß.

Sample text in Fraktur

Other versions of the Latin alphabet

Archaic Latin alphabet, Basque-style lettering, Carolingian Minuscule, Classical Latin alphabet, Fraktur, Gaelic script, Merovingian, Modern Latin alphabet, Roman Cursive, Rustic Captials, Old English, Sütterlin, Visigothic Script

Sütterlin

Sütterlin was created by the Berlin graphic artist L. Sütterlin (1865-1917), who modelled it on the style of handwriting used in the old German Chancery. It was taught in German schools from 1915 to 1941 and is still used by the older generation.

Sample text in Sütterlin

Download a font for Sütterlin (TrueType, 56K)

Other versions of the Latin alphabet

Archaic Latin alphabet, Basque-style lettering, Carolingian Minuscule, Classical Latin alphabet, Fraktur, Gaelic script, Merovingian, Modern Latin alphabet, Roman Cursive, Rustic Captials, Old English, Sütterlin, Visigothic Script

Modern German alphabet

Notes

The last four letters are officially considered separate letters of the German alphabet.

In Austria J is known as je [jeː]; Q is known as qwe [kveː], and the name of the Y is pronounced [ʏˈpsiːlɔn].

In Austria and Southern German ß is known as scharfes S. The capital version of this letter is rarely used: SS is usually used instead.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_orthography#Alphabet

German pronunciation

Notes

b = [p] at the end of a syllable or before s or t, [b] before a vowel

ch = [χ] after a, o or u, [k] when followed by a, o or u at the beginning of a word, [ç] elsewhere.

chs = [ks] except in words where ch and s are pronounced separately, e.g. wachsam /'vaχ.zam/, höchst /'høç.st/

d = [t] at end of a syllable or before s or t, [d] before a vowel

e = [ə] in unaccented syllables

er = [ɐ] at the end of the syllable in an unstressed syllable, e.g. Lehrer /ˈle:ʀɐ/

g = [k] at end of a syllable or before s or t,[g] before a vowel, [ʒ] in some loanwords, ig = [iç] at the end of a word

h makes the vowel long when appearing after a vowel or morpheme boundry, [h] elsewhere

j = [ʒ] in loan words, [j] elsewhere

nk = [ŋk], e.g. trinken /ˈtʁiŋkən/

ng = [ŋ], e.g. bringen /ˈbʁɪŋən/

r = [ɐ] between a vowel (except a) and a consonant, e.g. Kurs /kʊɐs/ or between a vowel (except a or unstressed e), and the end of the word, e.g. der /dɛɐ/ or Futur /fʊˈtuːɐ/
- silent between a and a consonant, e.g.Markt /makt/ or between a and the end of the word, e.g. Haar /ha:/
- [ʁ] at the beginning of words and between a consonant and a vowel, e.g.trinken /ˈtʁiŋkən/
- [ʀ] between two vowels, e.g.hören /ˈhø:ʀən/

s = [z] between vowels or before a vowel at the beginning of a word, [ʃ] before t or p at the beginning of words and [s] elsewhere. sk = [ʃ] in Ski [ʃi:]

t = [ts] in the -tion of Latin loanwords, e.g. Intention [ɪntɛn'tsɪo:n]

v = [v] in loan words

y = [y] in words derived from Greek, [i] or [j] elsewhere

dsch, ph, qu and y only appear in loan words

Download an alphabet chart for German (Excel)

Sample text in German

Alle Menschen sind frei und gleich an Würde und Rechten geboren. Sie sind mit Vernunft und Gewissen begabt und sollen einander im Geist der Brüderlichkeit begegnen.

Hear a recording of this text

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample video in German

Information about German | Useful phrases | Silly phrases | Numbers | Colours | Family words | Time | Weather | Tongue twisters | Tower of Babel | Articles | Links | Learning materials

Find German Tutors, Teachers and Lesson Help

Find German Tutors

Links

Information about the German language
http://www.lowlands-l.net/anniversary/deutsch-info.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language
https://www.clozemaster.com/blog/topics/language-learning/learn-german/

Online German courses
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/german/
http://www.deutsch-lernen.com
http://www.deutschakademie.de/online-deutschkurs/english/
http://www.populearn.com
http://www.deutsched.com
http://www.yesgerman.com/
http://learn-german-easily.com
http://leicht-deutsch-lernen.com
http://polymath.org/german.php
http://5-minute-german.com
http://www.primitivecode.com/
http://ilovelanguages.org/german.php
http://ablogaboutlanguages.blogspot.co.uk/p/free-german-lessons-overview.html
http://www.studying-in-germany.org/learn-german/
http://www.hit-tuner.net/de/podcast/deutsch_lernen.html
https://www.lingoda.com/en/german/learning-material/cefr/A1.1
https://learnanylanguages.com/german/

German Electronic talking dictionaries
http://www.ectaco.com

Germanic languages

Other languages written with the Latin alphabet

If you need to type in many different languages, the Q International Keyboard can help. It enables you to type almost any language that uses the Latin, Cyrillic or Greek alphabets, and is free.

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
German language, alphabets and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
German is a West Germanic language spoken mainly in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy. It is recognised as a minority language in Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Namibia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, South Africa, Vatican City and Venezuela.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Germany is a sovereign country in Europe, with a total land area of approximately 348,672 sq km. As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation (after Russia), Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO, while the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has expended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wages up to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU countries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.

How big is Germany compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Germany living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation (after Russia), Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Al...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Turkish language, alphabets and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Turkish is a Turkic language spoken mainly in Turkey, Germany, Bulgarian, the UK and Northern Cyprus by about 88 million people.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Turkey is a sovereign country in Middle East, with a total land area of approximately 769,632 sq km. Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." Under his leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950 election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the Kurdistan People's Congress or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives. After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2013, KGK and the Turkish Government agreed to a ceasefire that continues despite slow progress in ongoing peace talks. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a member of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of the European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession membership talks with the European Union in 2005.

How big is Turkey compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Turkey living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are five different stages in the second language acquisition process:

1. The Silent Period

2. The Early Production Period

3. The Speech Emergence Period

4. The Intermediate Production Period

5. The Advanced Production Period

Even though there is wealth of research on these different stages, out of these five periods, probably the most misunderstood, ignored or even unknown both by teachers and students alike is the first, the Silent Period, which will be the focus of our article today.

What is the Silent Period?

The first stage of the language acquisition process is called "The Silent Period" simply because the students aren't doing much talking yet. In some learners this period may be shorter or longer, ranging between 2 to 6 months, though it may take much longer too, depending on the exposure to the foreign language that the learner has.

For example, a foreigner living abroad and surrounded by a new language all day may have a shorter silent period than a student in his home country who attends a bilingual school in which a second language is taught for four or five hours a day. In turn, this student's silent period may be considerably shorter than that of a learner studying a second language for just two hours a week. So it becomes clear that generalizing how long this period may last is nearly impossible because it depends on many personal and individual variables that come into play.

The main characteristic of this stage is that after some initial exposure to the language, the learner is able to understand much more than s/he can produce. You can easily see this in two-year-old babies too! You can speak to them normally and they can definitely understand whatever you say. However, even if they wanted to say exactly what you said, they would not be able to. They may use some of your words but they would find it impossible to express their ideas in a similarly organized way, in spite of the fact that they may understand every single word we said.

This goes hand in hand with the fact that comprehension preceded production. We will always be able to understand much more than we can produce. For example, in spite of knowing little or nothing about economics, accounting and marketing, when I watch or read news reports on those fields, I can get a pretty good and accurate idea of what those reports are about. However, if someone asked me to explain what the reports said, I would surely resort to general language and simpler explanations to describe what the experts stated using specific jargon and technical analysis.

In other words, at the level of comprehension, I could manage to understand everything, but at the level of production I may not be able to express everything I heard in exactly the same way. Nevertheless, with more exposure on those topics, and if they became meaningful to me and part of my everyday reality, after a while I would be able to start to use that specific jargon as part of my everyday vocabulary. In this example, the stretch of time between my initial exposure to the topic, maybe the first time I heard a report on those topics and the time when I could talk about it freely without jargon or any language-related problems could be considered my silent period in the field.

I want to highlight here that I am stretching the linguists' definition of this period a little bit while saying this. Linguists refer specifically to the time when a person starts to acquire the language through exposure to it, understands a lot but is unable to express his or her ideas yet. When they talk about the "Silent Period" they do not imply that it refers to the acquisition of language at any stage of the second language acquisition process as I do. This is my humble opinion after several years of working with second language learners. Again, this is something that I have personally noticed that I feel could be perfectly applied to language learners at any stage of their learning as shown in the previous example.

As we have just seen when it comes to the first contact between a language learner with a second language this takes a new dimension, of course. For a long time they may be unable to utter a single word and that is perfectly fine and it is part and parcel of the language acquisition process. What is so peculiar about this period is that it has the special ability to make adult students anxious and drive teachers absolutely crazy! This is by far the most difficult period both for teachers and students alike.

A crucial stage of the language acquisition process

One of the main reasons why I decided to write this article was to remind teachers of this crucial stage in second language acquisition and to make students aware of its existence so as not to place a heavy burden on themselves. By knowing this simple fact both teachers and learners can share the joy of teaching and learning without the stress associated with the feeling that they are not reaching their goals.

On occasions, the teacher's lack of knowledge of these kinds of issues can produce unintentional disastrous results on their students' self-esteem. How common it is for those of us who specialize in teaching methodologies to meet disappointed or even angry teachers complaining about their students' lack of progress.

"We've been working on the Present Tense for over two months now. We've been doing drills, lots of repetitions, we've created real-life situations to make the language come to life and yet, they can produce little or nothing!"

"How can they not know this after doing this it for more than three weeks!"

My reply in most cases is the same: " Just give them more time. "

As times goes by, provided that our students are in a truly communicative setting, they will start to produce what they cannot do right now.

The widespread ignorance of this stage in the language acquisition process can create very unwanted situations. As a Colombian saying goes: "la ignorancia es atrevida." Lacking an exact English idiom, or at least not knowing one myself, I will proceed to explain its meaning. The saying basically says that "ignorance is rude and causes us to do stupid things."

On one occasion, while working in a pretty nice school in the US teaching ESL (English as a Second Language) to a child from Mexico, I got a call from my supervisor. She was extremely concerned as the principal of the school I was working at had called her to complain about my skills as a teacher as my student "had not been making any progress at all" since she started to receive my services. Even though this same principal had sat in on one of my classes and even written a report that said that my work was "above average," she seriously doubted that my teaching approach really worked. After all, although the lesson had been fun and provided plenty of communicative opportunities for students to put the language to use, she had not seen any drills, repetitions, gap filling exercises, and grammar rules had never been presented to my group of "seven-year-olders." So, in her opinion, it was only natural this student could not do or say much in English. The funny thing was... this student had been in the US for less than two months and had been receiving ESL services for less than a month and a half!!!

What is more, unlike the idea this principal had, she had made ENORMOUS progress. She could already understand most greetings and basic classroom directives; she could understand several types of questions on different everyday topics. She could even understand many things that people told her to do and basic facts! However, when it came to talking, she could just say one or two greetings and produce "yes" or "no" replies. Does this mean she had not made any progress? Does this mean she had not learned anything? Not in the least! On the contrary, she was way advanced in her initial stage of second language acquisition and very soon afterwards she entered the early production period. Plain and simple, she was going through her silent period.

When I talked to the principal and explained to her, as politely as possible, what the silent period was and how much progress this girl had made, she could not help blushing and sighing with relief at the idea that "we had not been wasting our time!"

Once more, by knowing this simple fact we can relax, enjoy what we are doing without the frustrating feeling that we are getting nowhere. Students can also enjoy the freedom of knowing that sooner or later they will be able to put into practice whatever they are learning now, given the right language setting (For more info on the right language setting, please read my other articles: "Are you in a Really Communicative Second Language Classroom?," Making the Most out of Your Second Language Acquisition Program," and "Second Language Acquisition in Adult Learners - Parts 1 and 2.")

If we are "masters and commanders" of our class, as it may happen if you have your own language school or if you have the freedom to do as you please, just knowing this simple fact can give you a whole different perspective of your work. Nevertheless, if you are working for someone who demands quick and immediate results, the best piece of advice I could give you is to do your own research on this topic; read as much as you can and be prepared to account for whatever you do with your students. Talk to your supervisor, peers, students or whoever is demanding results now and simply explain to them what the wealth of research on this issue shows. More often than not, the light that knowledge projects will dissipate the darkness that surrounds ignorance. Not only will they understand what you mean but they will also appreciate your efforts to make your classes more enjoyable and stress-free.

Written by Julio Foppoli
Julio Foppoli is a teacher of English as a Second Language and a teacher of Spanish as a Second Language. He is the creator and owner of esaudio.net, an online educational website with a technological edge, specialized in the teaching of Spanish as second language via audio-conference to native speakers of English from all over the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Silent Period of Second Language Acquisition - Eslbase.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are five different stages in the second language acquisition process: The Silent Period The Early Production Period The Speech Emergence Period The Intermediate Production Period The Advanced Production Period Even though there is wealth of research on these different stages, out of these five periods, probably the most misunderstood, ignored or even unknown both by teachers and students alike is the first, the Silent Period, which will be the focus of our article today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The language experience approach integrates speaking and listening, reading and writing through the development of a written text based on first hand experiences.

Through scaffolded talk, the teacher supports students to document experiences and ideas, using familiar and expanded vocabulary, modelling ways in which their thoughts and words can be written down and later read.

The experience

Typically, the language experience approach involves a shared experience such as everyday happenings, common school experiences, a classroom event or hands-on activity, excursions but can also include students' personal experiences or ideas.

Spoken language

The teacher's role in language experience is to support the student to recreate the experience orally as they:

capitalise on students' interest and experiences

prompt the students to reflect on the experiences

ask questions to elicit details about the experience through more explicit language

help students to rehearse the ideas they will be writing about.

Creating the text

The text might be written by the teacher or by the student. As the writer, the teacher acts as a model, demonstrating how thought and words can be represented in writing as students dictate their ideas. Individual children might dictate a sentence, or a longer text might be written.

Alternatively, students will write their own texts. Here, the teacher can guide students' writing, encouraging them to understand that what they think can be said, and what they say can be written down by them or others (Hill, 2012).

In the writing that occurs as part of the language experience approach, it can be helpful to remind the children that the writing produced will provide information for those who did not directly share the experience.

In that way, differences between spoken language and written language can be emphasised.

"How can we put that in writing for someone that wasn't there?" is a question that might support children to create more elaborate, extended text.

As the texts written through the language experience approach reflect first hand experiences, the formats will vary - for example, charts, labels, captions, lists or genres such as recounts, procedures, information reports.

Drawing either before or after writing will often complement the written text. In her research into connections between drawing and writing, Mackenzie (2011) found that when emergent writers see drawing and writing as a unified meaning making system, more complex texts are created.

Reading

What is written can now be read. As the language experience texts are relevant to the students, the opportunity to read them aloud creates a positive experience and reinforces the reciprocity between reading and writing.

Texts that the students have produced based on their experiences, using familiar language make good early reading material which can be read chorally or individually.

The following examples show how one Foundation teacher provided varied opportunities for her students to create texts using the language experience approach where:

following discussion, writing about different topics and experiences is captured which can later be read about (for example, an excursion to the zoo, a visit by the fireman, an investigation of nocturnal animals)

simple sentences using a repetitive structure are written for the students to illustrate and copy, supporting both reading and writing

students are encouraged to write their own ideas, using compound or complex sentences and expanded noun groups

the writing includes the labelling of a diagram.

Example 1 - The fireman

After a visit to the school by the fireman, and extensive discussion of that experience, each child was provided with a series of simple sentences following a repetitive structure 'Here is the .... (hose, ladder, fire engine).' In the example below, the child copies the sentences and illustrates it

Example 2 - Nocturnal animals

As part of a direct experience and subsequent investigation of nocturnal animals, the students were provided with a simple structure following a repetitive structure, but were encouraged to extend the information based on their classroom research. Here, the student includes a labelled diagram of a bat.

The teacher has written two labels after asking the child 'What do we call this part of a bat?', and the child has added one label independently.

On another page in the booklet, the child copies the sentence supplied by the teacher, 'I can see an owl' but also extends the text by adding 'And they have eyes that can't move but the head can move'.

These additions to the simple base sentence provide an example of a rudimentary information report where the purpose is to inform. The child's writing includes:

a compound sentence which includes the coordinating conjunction 'but' to contrast ideas (i.e. 'And they have eyes that can't move but the head can move'.)

a relative clause to expand on the noun 'eyes' (i.e. eyes that can't move)

the present simple tense used in information reports

simple punctuation (full stops).

Example 3 - An excursion to the zoo

In this instance, the child's writing includes:

a complex sentence 'When we went to the zoo I heard the elephants stomping loud'

an embedded clause which expands on the noun 'elephants' (i.e. elephants stomping loud)

simple past tense used to recount the experience and what was seen (e.g. went, heard, was)

capital letters and full stops.

Because of the high degree of involvement the children have in the initial experience, subsequent discussion and creation of a written text, these texts often become favourite texts for children's classroom reading.

Example 4 - A shared experience

After participating in a shared experience of 'jumping like kangaroos', the teacher acted as scribe. The teacher provided prompts to support the students to recount and comment on their experience as well as to recall some of the information about kangaroos that they had been learning.

In this instance, words which students will later use in their own writing are used, such as kangaroos. High frequency words and conventions of written text such as capital letters and full stops also feature in the text.

For more examples, see: Language experience unit of work for a foundation class

For an example of the language experience approach for EAL/D students, see: Language experience unit for EAL/D students

Lorraine Wilson advocated the importance of the language experience approach in 'Write me a Sign', published in 1979. A key message from this publication is that language is central to learning in all areas of the curriculum. Wilson also acknowledges the need for children to read published texts which open up possibilities of engaging with other people's language and ideas as they become more experienced readers and writers.

Understanding the difference between spoken and written language is critical in the primary years of schooling (Christie, 2013). Hill (2012) states that language experience enables young literacy learners in particular to understand the difference between spoken and written language.

Importantly, children's language is extended through interactions with an 'expert other', that is, the teacher. Through the expansion and extension of oral language based around experiences, students are supported to write about these experiences. These student-generated written texts then become texts the students read allowing the experience to be revisited.

While the language experiences approach benefits many kinds of learners, it is particularly beneficial for for English as an Additional Language or Dialect students.

For more information on the language experience approach and EAL/D students, see: Language experience approach and EAL/D students

Christie, F. (2013). Writing development as a necessary dimension of language and literacy education.

Hill, S. (2012). Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching (2nd ed.). South Yarra, Vic: Eleanor Curtain.

Mackenzie, N. (2011). From drawing to writing: What happens when you shift teaching priorities in the first months of school? Australian Journal of Language and literacy, 34 (3), 322-340.

Wilson, L. (1979). Write me a sign. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson Australia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The language experience approach integrates speaking and listening, reading and writing through the development of a written text based on first hand experiences. Through scaffolded talk, the teacher supports students to document experiences and ideas, using familiar and expanded vocabulary, modelling ways in which their thoughts and words can be written down and later read.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Bosnian is a South Slavic language spoken mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina by about 2.2 million people. On a formal level, Bosnian began to emerge as a distinct language after the break up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. It became one of official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994, along with Croatian and Serbian.

Bosnian is written with both the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Historically it was written with a version of the Cyrillic alphabet known as Bosnian Cyrillic from the late 10th century. This alphabet was only used in Bosnia. During the Ottoman era Bosnian was written with a version of the Arabic alphabet.

The first Bosnian dictionary, a rhymed Bosnian-Turkish glossary authored by Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi, was composed in 1631.

Bosnian is closely related to and mutually intelligible with Croatian, Serbian and Montenegrin. For more information see an article about Serbo-Croatian language issues.

Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet

This chart shows the Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet, which was used from the 10th century until the 20th century, in some places. It was never standardised and most letters had several different forms - the typical forms are shown here. Some of the letters used in the modern Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet were not used in this version, and there are some extras letters that are no longer used.

Arabic alphabet for Bosnian (Arabica/Alhamijado/Adzamijski)

Latin and Cyrillic alphabets for Bosnian

Hear the Bosnian alphabet

Download a Bosnian alphabet charts (Excel)

Bosnian sample text in the Cyrillic alphabet

Cвa љyдскa бићa paђajy сe слoбoднa и jeднaкa y дoстojaнствy и пpaвимa. Oнa сy oбдapeнa paзyмoм и свиjeшћy и тpeбa дa jeднo пpeмa дpyгoмe пoстyпajy y дyхy бpaтствa.

Bosnian sample text in the Latin alphabet

Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i sviješću i treba da jedno prema drugome postupaju u duhu bratstva.

Bosnian sample text in the Arabic alphabet

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample video in Bosnian

Information about Bosnian | Phrases | Time | Tower of Babel | Learning materials

Links

Information about Bosnian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_language

Information about the Bosnian Cyrillic alphabet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic
http://www.slavorum.com/index.php?topic=664.0

Bosnian courses
http://polymath.org/bosnian.php
http://www.101languages.net/bosnian/

Bosnian phrases
http://home.freeuk.net/iandart/elem_phrases.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/other/quickfix/bosnian.shtml
http://www.101languages.net/bosnian/basics.html
http://wikitravel.org/en/Bosnian_phrasebook

Slavic languages

Languages written with the Arabic script

Languages written with the Latin alphabet

Page last modified: 22.02.22

Why not share this page:

Learn languages for free on Duolingo

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bosnian language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bosnian is a South Slavic language spoken mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina by about 2.2 million people. On a formal level, Bosnian began to emerge as a distinct language after the break up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. It became one of official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1994, along with Croatian and Serbian.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fluent Land - Online Language Learning Community

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
United States compared to Bosnia and Herzegovina

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Bosnia and Herzegovina living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared sovereignty in October 1991 and independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after a referendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Brazil and United States living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

# data[].attributes.headline
An Asset-Based Approach to Supporting English Learners' Reading Skills

# data[].attributes.subject
An Asset-Based Approach to Supporting English Learners' Reading Skills

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
English Language Learners

A look at what English learners need in order to develop the skills and motivation to improve their ability to read in English.

ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo

English learners (ELs) are the fastest growing group of students in the United States, and the NEA expects that by the year 2025, roughly one fourth of our students will be ELs. These students bring a rich diversity into our classrooms-they represent over 400 languages. With this beautiful diversity comes a need for educators to understand language acquisition and linguistic differences and similarities.

Because English learners are far from monolithic, it's dangerous to paint them with one brush, especially when it comes to teaching reading. It is critical that we consider students first, before considering content. It's also important that language acquisition be addressed in balance with reading instruction. All states have language standards to support linguistic development.

the student's first language proficiency (listening, speaking, reading, and writing),

the student's current English language proficiency,

the student's background knowledge and opportunities,

the student's access to language at home, and

similarities and differences between the student's first language and English (cognates and written features).

ELs may not have had the same opportunities with English as native English speakers, but they have other experiences with language, including speaking and hearing another language since birth. And in addition to language, students enter classrooms with backgrounds and experiences that influence their ability to read.

Additional factors come into play when teaching reading to English learners. If a child has already "cracked the code" in their first language (L1)-so that they understand the connections between sounds and symbols-reading instruction will differ from that of a child who has not yet cracked the code in their L1. Some factors to consider include:

The primary grades are traditionally highly language-rich environments. Many students, no matter their language experience, are emergent readers and writers. At this very early stage of school, phonemic awareness and phonics should be explicitly and systematically taught to all learners. This helps students learn to crack the code. Since reading is not a natural experience, students must be taught to lift letters off the page, turn them into sounds, connect sounds, and make words.

Decoding, however, is only one aspect of reading-another is comprehension. ELs who already read in their L1 can transfer knowledge and skills they've learned to acquiring English. Some may also benefit from individualized, explicit phonics instruction. For example, a third-grade newcomer EL from Venezuela may need additional support with English letters and sounds that are nonexistent in Spanish. Formatively assessing students' first language reading by listening to them read in their L1, asking them questions about their reading life, and/or talking to caregivers about their reading experiences will help teachers make instructional decisions.

There is much we can learn from observing a child read in their primary language even if we don't speak or understand the language. The simple act of sitting side-by-side with a student and observing them with a book in their language allows us to see how they interact with text, and we can listen for expression and watch for visual clues of engagement or excitement.

What Do ELs need?

Native language resources,

Visuals and gestures,

Opportunities to listen and speak with peers,

Sentence stems for speaking and writing, and

Content and language objectives.

ELs need high quality tier one reading instruction. Here are some characteristics of tier one reading instruction that is designed to meet ELs' cognitive, affective, and linguistic needs.

Building a strong classroom community,

Fostering a love of literacy,

Allowing and encouraging reading in L1, and

Providing books that represent students' experiences.

Cognitive needs: Instruction provides ELs with access to grade-level state standards with the support of second language acquisition methods. Teachers can set high expectations for ELs while providing them with supports such as:

Affective needs: Instruction supports ELs' confidence, self-assurance, positive identity, and self-efficacy as readers. Teachers can provide a safe environment for reading that follows a gradual release of responsibility and represents all learners by:

Linguistic needs: Instruction supports ELs' English proficiency and bridges or leverages students' first language and uses English Language Proficiency Standards and grade level state standards to guide students to reach literacy goals for listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

This work is not the sole responsibility of the English as a second language teacher but rather a collaborative effort by all stakeholders.

3 Ways Teachers Can Help Motivate ELs as Readers

Motivation to read is built by creating environments where students want to pick up books and then don't want to put them down. Here are three ways teachers can create conditions to motivate ELs as readers.

1. Provide books that represent students: Rudine Sims Bishop wrote about the importance of seeing ourselves and learning about the world and others in books we read. Providing rich bookshelves with selections that represent students and their experiences can help students feel connected, build community, and motivate students to turn the pages.

2. Factor in student choice and interest in reading materials: Readers are more apt to read and understand a book they find interesting than one they don't. They bring their own experiences and background knowledge to the text. By removing limits, such as letting ELs read books in their primary language, we leverage their assets and increase engagement and reading growth.

3. Increase student talk and interaction: By definition, ELs are acquiring English. They benefit from multiple opportunities to listen, speak, read, and write in English. Saving space for students to talk about the books they are reading is an excellent way to help them think about their reading and comprehension.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
An Asset-Based Approach to Supporting English Learners' Reading Skills

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
English Language Learners A look at what English learners need in order to develop the skills and motivation to improve their ability to read in English. ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo English learners (ELs) are the fastest growing group of students in the United States, and the NEA expects that by the year 2025, roughly one fourth of our students will be ELs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mexico is a sovereign country in North America, with a total land area of approximately 1,943,945 sq km. The site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations - including the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, and Aztec - Mexico was conquered and colonized by Spain in the early 16th century. Administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain for three centuries, it achieved its independence early in the 19th century. The global financial crisis beginning in late 2008 caused a massive economic downturn the following year, although growth returned quickly in 2010. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely indigenous population in the impoverished southern states. The elections held in 2000 marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that an opposition candidate - Vicente FOX of the National Action Party (PAN) - defeated the party in government, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe CALDERON, but Enrique PENA NIETO regained the presidency for the PRI in 2012. Since 2007, Mexico's powerful drug-trafficking organizations have engaged in bloody feuding, resulting in tens of thousands of drug-related homicides.

How big is Mexico compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Mexico living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. The site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations - including the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, and Aztec - Mexico was conquered and colonized by Spain in the early 16th century. Administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain for three centuries, it achieved its independence early in the 19th century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lebanon is a sovereign country in Middle East, with a total land area of approximately 10,230 sq km. Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French demarcated the region of Lebanon in 1920 and granted this area independence in 1943. Since independence the country has been marked by periods of political turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on its position as a regional center for finance and trade. The country's 1975-90 civil war that resulted in an estimated 120,000 fatalities, was followed by years of social and political instability. Sectarianism is a key element of Lebanese political life. Neighboring Syria has long influenced Lebanon's foreign policy and internal policies, and its military occupied Lebanon from 1976 until 2005. The Lebanon-based Hizballah militia and Israel continued attacks and counterattacks against each other after Syria's withdrawal, and fought a brief war in 2006. Lebanon's borders with Syria and Israel remain unresolved.

How big is Lebanon compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Lebanon living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French demarcated the region of Lebanon in 1920 and granted this area independence in 1943.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The acronyms BICS and CALP refer to the length of time required by immigrant children to develop conversational skills in the target language and grade appropriate academic proficiency in that language. Understanding the difference between social language and academic language acquisition is an important concept for teachers working with non-native students. Learn more in our academic language resource section.
BICS = social language
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) refer to linguistic skills needed in everyday, social face-to-face interactions. For instance, the language used in the playground, on the phone, or to interact socially with other people is part of BICS. The language used in these social interactions is context embedded. That is, it is meaningful, cognitively undemanding, and non-specialized. It takes the learner from six months to two years to develop BICS.
CALP = academic language
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) focuses on proficiency in academic language or language used in the classroom in the various content areas. Academic language is characterized by being abstract, context reduced, and specialized. In addition to acquiring the language, learners need to develop skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring when developing academic competence. It takes learners at least five years to develop CALP. Research from Collier and Thomas (1995) has shown that it may take children with no prior instruction or no support in native language development at least seven years to develop CALP.

The distinction between BICS and CALP was made by Professor Jim Cummins.

Learn more in Explaining BICS and CALP from EverythingESL.

Video: BICS and CALP

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The acronyms BICS and CALP refer to the length of time required by immigrant children to develop conversational skills in the target language and grade appropriate academic proficiency in that language. Understanding the difference between social language and academic language acquisition is an important concept for teachers working with non-native students.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.mylifeelsewhere.com/compare/united-states/ukraine

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ukraine is a sovereign country in Europe, with a total land area of approximately 579,330 sq km. Ukraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state, Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest and most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels and Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laid the foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent centuries. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was established during the mid-17th century after an uprising against the Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate managed to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During the latter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic territory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapse of czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to achieve a short-lived period of independence (1917-20), but was reconquered and forced to endure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered two forced famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II, German and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 million more deaths. Although final independence for Ukraine was achieved in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, democracy and prosperity remained elusive as the legacy of state control and endemic corruption stalled efforts at economic reform, privatization, and civil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "Orange Revolution" in the closing months of 2004 forced the authorities to overturn a rigged presidential election and to allow a new internationally monitored vote that swept into power a reformist slate under Viktor YUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in the YUSHCHENKO camp allowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage a comeback in parliamentary (Rada) elections and to become prime minister in August of 2006, and to be elected president in February 2010. In October 2012, Ukraine held Rada elections, widely criticized by Western observers as flawed due to use of government resources to favor ruling party candidates, interference with media access, and harassment of opposition candidates. President YANUKOVYCH's backtracking on a trade and cooperation agreement with the EU in November 2013 - in favor of closer economic ties with Russia - led to a three-month protest occupation of Kyiv's central square. The government's eventual use of force to break up the protest camp in February 2014 led to all out pitched battles, scores of deaths, international condemnation, and the president's abrupt departure to Russia. An interim government scheduled new presidential elections for 25 May 2014. On 1 March 2014, one week after the overthrow in Kyiv, Russian President PUTIN ordered the invasion of Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula claiming the action was to protect ethnic Russians living there. On 16 March 2014, a "referendum" was held regarding the integration of Crimea into the Russian Federation. The "referendum" was condemned as illegitimate by the Ukrainian Government, the EU, the US, and the UN General Assembly. Russian forces now occupy Crimea and Russian authorities claim it as Russian territory. The Ukrainian Government asserts that Crimea remains part of Ukraine.

How big is Ukraine compared to United States? See an in-depth size comparison.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
United States and Ukraine living comparison. Explore similarities and differences. Ukraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state, Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest and most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels and Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian Common...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Portuguese is a Romance language spoken by about 255 million people. It is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe, and is a co-official language in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea and Macau. These Portuguese-speaking countries and regions are known as Lusophone ( Lusófono) and are part of Lusofonia or the Lusophone World ( Mundo Lusófono). These names originate from Lusitania, the Roman province that covered more or less the same area as modern Portugal.

Number of speakers

There are about 212 million Portuguese speakers in Brazil, 18 millioin in Angola, 10 million in Mozambique, 9.9 million in Portugal, 396,450 in Guinea-Bissau, 367,800 in the Cape Verde Islands, 197,000 in São Tomé e Principe, 18,680 in Macau, and 5,600 in East Timor. Other countries with significant numbers of Portuguese speakers include France (1 million), the USA (714,018), Switzerland (309,270), Japan (270,000), Venezuela (254,000), India (250,000), Canada (222,000) and Paraguay (212,000). The language is spoken by smaller numbers of people in many other countries [ source].

Portuguese at a glance

Native name: português [puɾtuˈɣeʃ / poɾtuˈɡes]

Language family: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Western Romance, Ibero-Romance, West Iberian, Galician-Portuguese

Number of speakers: c. 220 million

Spoken in: Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé e Principe, East Timor and Macau

First written: 9th century

Writing system: Latin script

Status: sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe; co-official status in Macau, Equatorial Guinea and East Timor

Portuguese is taught as a foreign language in such countries as South Africa, Argentina, Venezuela, Zambia, Senegal, Paraguay, Congo and Uraguay, where it is a compulsory subject.

History of Portuguese

Portuguese is a descendent of Latin, which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants from 216 BC. The Latin in that area was influenced by the Hispano-Celtic languages that were spoken there at the time.

After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD, Germanic peoples, such as the Suebi, Visigoths and Buri invaded and settled in Iberia. The quickly adopted Latin and Roman culture, and integrated with the local population.

In 711 AD, the Moors from North Africa began to invade and occupy southern parts of Iberia. Arabic became the main language in their conquered territory, and some words were borrowed from Arabic into local varieties of languages during this time.

It is thought that by about 600 AD, an early form of Galician-Portuguese was being spoken in the Kingdom of the Suebi in the nortwest corner of Iberia. By 800 AD this language was spoken throught the northwest of Iberia.

The earliest records of a distinctly Portuguese language appear in administrative documents dating from the 9th century AD from the Kingom of Galicia, which corresponds to modern Galicia in Spain, and part of northern Portugal. This language was known as Galician-Portuguese or Proto-Portuguese.

The period between the 12th and 14th centuries is known as the Galician-Portuguese period. Portuguese became the preferred language of lyric poetry in Christian Hispania. There was no standard way to write the language, however one popular orthography, based on Occitan, was probably devised by Gerald of Braga, a monk from Moissac, who became Bishop of Braga in 1047.

Portugal became independent in 1139. In 1290, King Dinis I (1261-1325) decreed that Portuguese, which was called the "common language", should be known as the Portuguese language and should be officially used in Portugal. Poetry and songs were the main form of Portuguese literature at that time, and King Dinis himself wrote quite a few poems.

From the 13th century Portuguese literature included prose works such as chronicles, lives of saints and treatises on genealogy.

From the 15th century the Portuguese began to colonise parts of Africa, Asia and the Americas, taking with them their language. By the mid-16th century, Portuguese was used in Asia and Africa in colonial administration, and as a lingua franca between the Portuguese, other Europeans and local people. Portuguese-based creoles also began to emerge during this time.

Modern Portuguese began to develop in the 16th century. At that time Portuguese speakers who were literate in their own language, were also literate in Latin, and borrowed many words from Classical and Renaissance Latin, and from Classical Greek.

A reformed Portuguese orthography ( nova ortografia), in which words were spelled more in accordance with their pronunciation, was adopted is Portugal in 1916. A slightly modified form was adopted in Brazil in 1943 and revised in 1970. A new orthography which aims to unify the written Portuguese of all the lusophone countries was adopted in Brazil in 2009. Dates have yet to be set for its adoption in the other Portuguese-speaking countries

Portuguese alphabet and pronunciation

European Portuguese alphabet

The letters K, W and Y are used only in foreign loan words.

Pronunciation of European Portuguese

Notes

a = [ə] when unstressed or at the ends of words, [a] or [ɐ] elsewhere.

Between vowels b = [β]; d = [ð]; g = [ɣ]

c = [s] before jor e, [k] elsewhere

e = [ə] when unstressed or at the ends of words, [e] or [ɛ] elsewhere. Often barely pronounced at the ends of words.

gu = [ɡʷ] before jor e, [ɡ] elsewhere

r = [ʀ] or [rr] when at the beginning of words, [r] elsewhere

l often = [ɫ]

s = [s] at the beginning of words, [z] between vowels and at the end of a word when preceded by a vowel and followed by a word beginning with a vowel, e.g. os Estados Unidos [uz eʃtaduz uniduʃ], [ʃ] after a vowel and before and consonant and at the end of syllables.

z = [ʒ] at the end of words, [z] elsewhere

Brazilian Portuguese alphabet

The letters K, W and Y are used only in foreign loan words.

Listen to the Portuguese alphabet read by Heitor de Moraes from Brazil

Pronunciation of the Portuguese of Brazil

Listen to the consonants of Brazilian Portuguese read by Heitor de Moraes from Brazil

Notes

e = [e] when unstressed and non-final, [e] or [ɛ] when stressed, [i] when final

o = [o] when unstressed and non-final, [ɔ] or [o] when stressed, [u] when final

oa = [oa/owa] when stressed, oa &ua = [ṷa] when unstressed

the diphthongs ea, eo, ia, ie, io, oa, ua, ue and uo appear at the ends of words and are always unstressed. ua and uo can also appear after g and q, and in other positions.

c = [s] before i or e, [k] elsewhere

d = [ʤ] before i or a final unstressed e, [d] elsewhere. However in parts of Santa Catarina and Paraná and the north and north east of Brazil, d in the final -de is pronounced [d]. In those same regions (except Paraná) djis pronounced [di] or [dʲi].

g = [ɣ] between vowels and [ɡ] elsewhere

gu = [ɡ] before i or e, [ɡʷ] elsewhere

Triphthongs are made up of combinations of gu, gü, qu, qü + a diphthong, e.g. saguão, agüei, sequóia.

l = [ṷ] after vowels (final e before consonants).

m is nasalized when at the end of a syllable and preceded by a vowel, e.g. cantam [´kãtãʷ], homem ['omẽj̭], sim [sĩj̭].

n is nasalized when at the end of a syllable, preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant, e.g. cansar [kã'sa], alento [a'lẽtu].

nh = [~j], i.e. nasalizes preceeding vowels, e.g. banha ['bãija]. In some north eastern parts of Brazil, inha = [ĩa] and -inho = [ĩu]. In some parts of Brazil, nh = [ɲ]

qu = [k] before i or e, [kʷ] before a or o

r = [x~ʀ] (or [r~ɾ] in some areas) at the beginning of words and after n
r = [Ø~x~ʀ~r~ɾ] at the ends of words and before consonants. If the following word begins with a vowel, r = [r~Ø]
r = [r] after consonants (except n)
rr = [x~ʀ] (or [r~ɾ] in some areas)
r = [ɽ] before consonants and at the end of words in São Paulo, south of Brasil, Minas Gerais and Goiás

s = [s] at the beginning of words, [z] between vowels and between voiced consonants. However in parts of Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro and the north east and north of Brazil, s = [ʒ] before d, g, l, m, n, r and v, [ʃ] before c, f, p, qu and t, and when in final position.

sc (before e and i) and sç (before a and o) = [s]. In Rio de Janeiro, sc/sç = [is], e.g. nascimento [naisi'mẽtu]

t = [ʧ] before i or a final unstressed e, [t] elsewhere. However in parts of Santa Catarina and Paraná and the north and north east of Brazil, the final t in the final -te is pronounced [t]. In those same regions (apart from Paraná) tj= [ti] or [tʲi]. The [ʧ] sound is also written tch (e.g. tchau), or tx in indigenous names (e.g. txukahamãe).

x = [ʃ] at the beginning of a word and, in parts of Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro and northeast and north of Brazil, before c, p and t
ex + vowel = [z], e.g. exame [e'zãmi], or [ʃ], e.g. vexame [ve'ʃami]
x = [ʃ], [ks] or [s] elsewhere, e.g. relaxar [xela'ʃa], fixo ['fiksu], auxiliar [aʷsi'lj̭a(x/r)]
x = [ks] when in final position
x is silent in exce-, exci-, exs-, e.g. exceto [e'sɛtu], excitar [esi'ta], exsudar [esu'da]

z = [s] in final position and before unvoiced consonants. In parts of Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro and the north east and north of Brazil, z = [ʒ] before voiced consonants, [ʃ] before unvoiced consonants and when in final position.

In the north east of Brazil some of the letters have different names: F (fê), J (ji), L (lê), M (mê), N (nê), R (rê), S (si) and Y (ipsilone).

Download alphabet charts for Portuguese (Excel)

Sample text in Portuguese

Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.

A recording of this text

Sample text in Brazilian Portuguese

Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e direitos. São dotados de razão e consciência e devem agir em relação uns aos outros com espírito de fraternidade.

A recording of this text

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample video in European Portuguese

Sample video in Brazilian Portuguese

Sample video in Angolan Portuguese

Sample video in Mozambique Portuguese

Sample video in Cape Verde Portuguese

Sample video in Macau Portuguese

Sample video in East Timor Portuguese

Information about Portuguese | European Portuguese phrases | Brazilian Portuguese phrases | Family words | Numbers | Time | Tongue twisters | Tower of Babel | Articles | Links | Learning materials

Contributors to this page: Marcelo Manschein, Mário André Coelho da Silva and Heitor de Moraes from Brazil, and Renato Serôdio from Portugal

Links

Information about Portuguese
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language
http://www.golisbon.com/practical-lisbon/language.html
http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/
http://www.portugueselanguageguide.com

A Língua Portuguesa (a history of the Portuguese language in Portuguese, English and French): http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/

Information about Portuguese pronunciation (in Portuguese)
http://www.rudhar.com/foneport/en/foneport.htm
http://www.fonologia.org

Online Portuguese lessons
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/portuguese/
http://www.easyportuguese.com
http://www.learningportuguese.co.uk
http://polymath.org/brazilian.php
http://polymath.org/portuguese.php
http://ilovelanguages.org/portuguese.php
https://tropicalportuguese.teachable.com/p/mini-course-sound-like-brazilians

More links to Portuguese language resources

- Learn Portuguese online with Portuguese Pod101
- Grammar Hero Portuguese - Internalise Portuguese Grammar
- Portuguese learning software
- Learn Portuguese with Glossika
- Learn Portuguese now at Rocket Languages!

Romance languages

Languages written with the Latin alphabet

Page last modified: 26.09.21

Why not share this page:

report this ad

If you need to type in many different languages, the Q International Keyboard can help. It enables you to type almost any language that uses the Latin, Cyrillic or Greek alphabets, and is free.

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Portuguese language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Portuguese is a Romance language spoken by about 255 million people. It is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe, and is a co-official language in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea and Macau.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are a number of laws and guidelines related to the education of English language learners (ELLs) at the federal, state, and local level. This section includes an overview of those laws, as well as topics such as important court cases impacting ELLs and current issues in the news today. For additional information, see Advocacy & Leadership.

Research & Reports

Our Research & Reports section is filled with research reports, policy briefs, and research-based recommendations on reaching, teaching, and assessing ELLs.
Our policy section was made possible by the Carnegie Corporation, as well as the valuable input of many friends of our project.

The education of English language learners (ELLs) is impacted by policies at the federal, state, and local level. For more information about the federal laws and guidelines, see our page on the Every Student Succeeds Act. For information about state policies, see our state resources section.

The articles in this section guide local educators and leaders through the process of creating appropriate language policies for their students. In addition, the section includes policy recommendations related to the creation of those documents and procedures.

This section provides an overview of landmark court cases regarding English language learners (ELLs) at the state and federal level, as well as related discussion topics.

When studying policy and English language learners (ELLs), it is helpful to start with some background information about the history of U.S. language policy. The following resources summarize key pieces of legislation, historical issues, and Landmark Court Cases regarding language policy.

In recent years, many schools have seen numbers of English language learners increase dramatically. In addition, new waves of refugees, the arrival of unaccompanied youth from Central America, and changes in the laws that impact undocumented students have had a significant impact on schools.

Learn more about what these changes mean for schools and teachers below.

The following articles provide perspectives meant to inform policy discussions around the education English language learners (ELLs). They are written for a general audience and we encourage you to chime in using our comment boxes after each article!

The following recommendations from researchers, policymakers, and educators address some of the changes that these experts hope to see across the ELL field in the future.

The education of English language learners (ELLs) is impacted by policies at the federal, state, and local level. For more information about the federal laws and guidelines, see our page on the Every Student Succeeds Act. For information about state policies, see our state resources section.

The articles in this section guide local educators and leaders through the process of creating appropriate language policies for their students. In addition, the section includes policy recommendations related to the creation of those documents and procedures.

This section provides an overview of landmark court cases regarding English language learners (ELLs) at the state and federal level, as well as related discussion topics.

When studying policy and English language learners (ELLs), it is helpful to start with some background information about the history of U.S. language policy. The following resources summarize key pieces of legislation, historical issues, and Landmark Court Cases regarding language policy.

In recent years, many schools have seen numbers of English language learners increase dramatically. In addition, new waves of refugees, the arrival of unaccompanied youth from Central America, and changes in the laws that impact undocumented students have had a significant impact on schools.

Learn more about what these changes mean for schools and teachers below.

The following articles provide perspectives meant to inform policy discussions around the education English language learners (ELLs). They are written for a general audience and we encourage you to chime in using our comment boxes after each article!

The following recommendations from researchers, policymakers, and educators address some of the changes that these experts hope to see across the ELL field in the future.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are a number of laws and guidelines related to the education of English language learners (ELLs) at the federal, state, and local level. This section includes an overview of those laws, as well as topics such as important court cases impacting ELLs and current issues in the news today.

# data[].attributes.headline
Free, Fun and Effective Way to Learn a Language 

# data[].attributes.subject
Free, Fun and Effective Way to Learn a Language 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Duolingo is the world's most popular way to learn a language. It's 100% free, fun and science-based. Practice online on duolingo.com or on the apps!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
1. Failure to enroll a child who resides in the school's geographic boundaries due to the child's or parents' immigration status could be interpreted as a violation of federal law.

TRUE. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in public schools on the basis of race, color or national origin. The U.S. Supreme Court also ruled in Plyler v. Doe (1982) that such discrimination violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

2. Parents can "opt out" of having their child receive ELL services.

TRUE. Even if families opt out of ELL services, the student must still be assessed for proficiency annually. This refers to federal law; state laws may differ.

3. Schools do not have to screen ELL students for advanced programs, such as Gifted/Talented, Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate.

FALSE. Screenings must be inclusive and provide language accommodations.

4. ELL students can't be considered for eligibility in special education while they are receiving ELL services.

FALSE. A school cannot delay a special education evaluation because a student is receiving ELL instruction.

5. Once a student leaves an ELL program, they do not have to be monitored.

FALSE. All students must be monitored for two years after exiting an ELL program.

Here are words and acronyms you should know when working with English language learners.

Characterizing Students

English language learner (ELL): A student who is in the process of acquiring English language skills; also referred to as an English learner (EL). The U.S. Department of Education specifies ELL as the most appropriate term because it privileges accomplishments over deficits.

Limited English proficient (LEP): A federal term referring to a person whose primary language is other than English and who has limited English proficiency in one of the four domains of language proficiency-speaking, listening, reading and writing. This term is commonly used to describe non-English-speaking parents and families of students. Many social justice educators do not use this term because it characterizes students and their families based on a deficit rather than a strength.

Other Terms Commonly Used in Schools

Educators tell us that these are terms to pay attention to:

Culturally and linguistically diverse students: Often used to describe a base of students in a school or district who may or may not need ELL services; characterizes multilingualism as an asset.

Language-minority students: Describes students who speak a language other than the majority language at their school but is often used to refer to students who do not speak English, taking on a meaning that devalues multilingualism.

Students of English for speakers of other languages (ESOL): Predates and is commonly interchanged with ELL but is often used to "other" ELL students.

Students of English as a second language (ESL): Considered outdated, as it downplays the value of multilingualism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
How much do you know about the rights of English language learners?

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/refugee-trauma

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many refugees, especially children, have experienced trauma related to war or persecution that may affect their mental and physical health long after the events have occurred.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sheltered Instructional Observational Protocol (SIOP) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Sheltered Instructional Observational Protocol (SIOP) 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.savvas.com/index.cfm?locator=PS2rWo

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is SIOP?

Today's online and in-person classrooms are wonderfully diverse. By the year 2025, one in four K-12 students will be an English learner (EL). These students represent a kaleidoscope of backgrounds, languages, cultures, and experiences. With such rich diversity, all teachers need greater support to help ELs-along with all students-engage with the content and language of lessons.

Built around culturally responsive teaching and learning, the SIOP ® (Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol) Model is the only empirically-validated sheltered instruction framework that meets this objective. The SIOP ® Model advances academic language development alongside meaningful engagement with lesson content through any mode of lesson delivery. Developed by Jana Echevarría, Ph.D., MaryEllen Vogt, Ed.D., and Deborah J. Short, Ph.D., the SIOP ® Model offers teachers a proven, time-tested framework for moving all learners toward academic excellence.

Savvas Learning Company is proud to be the sole organization partnering with SIOP ® authors to offer educators SIOP ® Professional Learning that reflects fidelity to the SIOP ® Model, along with attention to best practices to engage adult learners.

Request More Information about SIOP

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
SIOP Model - Culturally Responsive Teaching - Savvas

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is SIOP? The SIOP Model is built around culturally responsive teaching. Accelerate language learning for ELs with Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol.

# data[].attributes.headline
Hello Talk - Chat with People Around The World to Learn Each Others' Languages

# data[].attributes.subject
Hello Talk - Chat with People Around The World to Learn Each Others' Languages

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
HelloTalk | Free Language Exchange | Language Partners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Language learning app - learn a language by chatting with native speakers around the world. iOS or Android.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What's Happening

Announcements on this page are generally from the Department of Education's Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA), or other relevant government agencies and offices, about concerns facing multilingual learner education.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Home | NCELA - English Language Acquisition & Language Instruction Educational Programs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Announcements on this page are generally from the Department of Education's Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA), or other relevant government agencies and offices, about concerns facing multilingual learner education.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.colorincolorado.org/

# data[].attributes.headline
Babbel for Language Learning - Pay Once for Lifetime Access

# data[].attributes.subject
Babbel for Language Learning - Pay Once for Lifetime Access

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Achieve your goals with course material that's tailored to your proficiency level, interests, and time commitment. Stay motivated with real-time feedback, progress trackers, and handy visualizations.

It's like having a private tutor in your pocket.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Babbel is the new way to learn a foreign language. The comprehensive learning system combines effective education methods with state-of-the-art technology. Interactive online courses will improve your grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation skills in no time. You'll make fast progress and have fun doing it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Living abroad can be an exhilarating experience that encourages new world views, increases cultural curiosity and supports a willingness to explore unfamiliar terrains. However, it may also invite a sense of feeling a little lost in the world.

Culture shock is a common phenomenon and, though it may take months to develop, it often affects travelers and people living far from home in unexpected ways. Culture shock is more than simply being unfamiliar with social norms or experiencing new foods and it tends to impact travelers even after they've become familiar with and comfortable in new cultures.

Culture shock generally moves through four different phases: honeymoon, frustration, adjustment and acceptance. While individuals experience these stages differently and the impact and order of each stage varies widely, they do provide a guideline of how we adapt and cope with new cultures.

Headquartered in North Carolina, the Participate staff includes both people from around the world now living in the U.S. and U.S. Americans who have spent significant time in other countries. Insights from staff members on their experiences with the stages of culture shock are included throughout this post.

1. The Honeymoon Stage
The first stage of culture shock is often overwhelmingly positive during which travelers become infatuated with the language, people and food in their new surroundings. At this stage, the trip or move seems like the greatest decision ever made, an exciting adventure to stay on forever.

"I moved to the U.S. from Brazil to a host family as a exchange student and spoke almost no English. Within three months I had found a job, a boyfriend, I moved to an apartment with two other roommates, started a Brazilian dance club and I was traveling all over California. It felt easy and quick for me to make the U.S. my home." - Fernanda Araujo, Participate events specialist

On short trips, the honeymoon phase may take over the entire experience as the later effects of culture shock don't have time to set in. On longer trips, the honeymoon stage will usually phase out eventually.

2. The Frustration Stage
Frustration may be the most difficult stage of culture shock and is probably familiar to anyone who has lived abroad or who travels frequently. At this stage, the fatigue of not understanding gestures, signs and the language sets in and miscommunications may be happening frequently. Small things - losing keys, missing the bus or not being able easily order food in a restaurant - may trigger frustration. And while frustration comes and goes, it's a natural reaction for people spending extended time in new countries.

"Coming from a really big city, the Research Triangle in North Carolina was tiny in comparison (population-wise) but, at the same time, I realized how vast distances were in the U.S. with cities spread out over miles. Not seeing people walking all over the place was very new to me as I've always lived in very busy places. I also came to know good public transport only exists in the biggest of cities in the U.S. In India there are a lot of neighborhood shops and markets so you don't need to shop for groceries or household stuff in bulk. That took a little getting used to and in grad school I actually found it pretty inconvenient." - Nitya Mallikarjun, director of product development

"A couple of weeks into a six-month stay in a very remote town on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, I became extremely ill and was bedridden for a week. It was completely miserable and for days all I could think was: What am I doing here? All I thought about was how to get home. Of course, once I was finally recovered, I made the mile-long walk to a nearby beach and the thoughts I had about wanting to be back home instantly disappeared." - Tamara Oxley, marketing and communications associate

"One thing that was particularly frustrating to me in the beginning was the lack of mobility that I experienced in the U.S. Where I grew up in Germany, you can get to any point at any time thanks to a great public transportation system, sidewalks and bike lanes everywhere. In the U.S., you are very limited in the things you can do if you don't have a car and I completely underestimated how much you have to depend on others to get around. I realized that home, for me, meant to live in a place with countless opportunities and absolute freedom. I felt less independent and I think that this was one of the main reasons I felt homesick (besides the obvious ones: family, friends, etc.)." - Arne Plum, business operations analyst

Bouts of depression or homesickness and feelings of longing to go home where things are familiar and comfortable are all common during the frustration stage.

3. The Adjustment Stage
Frustrations are often subdued as travelers begin to feel more familiar and comfortable with the cultures, people, food and languages of new environments. Navigation becomes easier, friends and communities of support are established and details of local languages may become more recognizable during the adjustment stage.

"Because I was in Turkey for six months in a study abroad setting, acclimating to my new environment was sped up due to all of the resources I was able to access. However, I found that the best way to understand my new environment was to ask questions and learn to respect the culture in the way it currently exists. The local Turkish people seemed much more accommodating when I showed genuine interest in their customs, rather than obviously being an American who was uncomfortable with her new situation. I also found myself asking my Turkish roommates what was okay to do, not okay to do, where to go and where not to go, so I was able to adjust to my environment more quickly." - Kate Riley, marketing and communications intern

4. The Acceptance Stage
Generally - though sometimes weeks, months or years after wrestling with the emotional stages outlined above - the final stage of culture shock is acceptance. Acceptance doesn't mean that new cultures or environments are completely understood, rather it signifies realization that complete understanding isn't necessary to function and thrive in the new surroundings. During the acceptance stage, travelers have the familiarity and are able to draw together the resources they need to feel at ease.

"When I moved from California to North Carolina, I came to the conclusion that one culture is not better than the other - there is no right or wrong, they are just different. And yes, that brought peace of mind, no more judgement or coming to my own conclusions." - Fernanda Araujo

"There was a time when I realized that constantly comparing and contrasting everything would never allow me to be really happy here. Qualifying the differences worked both ways, and I felt torn between my life here and what used to be my life back in Germany. So I began to see the differences as what they are - just differences - without trying to rate them or use them to put one place over the other. Over time, I felt much more at ease with my life in the U.S., and I began to understand that these differences are what living abroad is all about." - Arne Plum

Overcoming Homesickness in a New Country
For people living abroad, homesickness is bound to creep in. Here is what a few Participate staff members had to say about dealing with homesickness:

"I think I just acknowledged homesickness and sadness as natural parts of my cross-cultural experience. I stayed in touch with my family and friends but also worked on making friends here in the U.S., and looked for any opportunities to experience new things and visit new places." - Anamaria Knight, director of curriculum and instructional design, on her experience moving to the U.S. from Romania for graduate school.

"I learned early on that missing your home culture is okay. I find that talking to friends and family, and having my favorite movie and/or snack in the house helps in those moments when I do miss home." - Lisa Lundegard, e-learning business systems analyst, on immigrating to the U.S. from Sweden.

"It's so easy to stay connected with family back home these days through email, Skype, WhatsApp - there are great new ways to constantly stay in touch so things are quite different from years back, I believe. When I feel homesick I usually have a long Skype chat with family or friends back home." - Nitya Mallikarjun

Though it can be one of the hardest part of traveling, culture shock is just as integral to the experience as food, people and scenery. By recognizing it for what it is and finding ways to cope, you can prevent culture shock from ruining an otherwise fantastic experience abroad.

To learn more about living and teaching abroad, check out the Participate Learning blog.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Living abroad can be an exhilarating experience that encourages new world views, increases cultural curiosity and supports a willingness to explore unfamiliar terrains. However, it may also invite a sense of feeling a little lost in the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Spanish is a Romance language with approximately 470 million speakers, 410 of whom speak it as a first language, while the remainder speak it as a second language. A significant number of people also speak Spanish as a foreign language. Spanish is spoken in Spain and 22 other countries including: Andorra, Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, the USA and Venezuela

Spanish at a glance

Native names: español, castellano

Linguistic affliation: Indo-Europea, Italic, Romance, Western Romance, Ibero-Romance, West-Iberian, Castilian

Number of speakers: c. 470 million

Spoken in: Spain, Latin America, USA, Equatorial Guinea

First written: 11th century

Writing system: Latin script

Status: official language in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Spain, Uruguay, Venezuela

Spanish first started to appear in writing in the form of notes and glosses in Latin religious texts, the Glosas Emilianenses, dating from the 11th century. During the 12th century, law codes ( Fueros) were being translated into Spanish. Spanish prose flowered during the reign of King Alfonso X the Wise of Castile (1252-84), who in addition to being the king and a poet, also found time to write an encyclopaedia in Spanish called Las Partidas, which contains laws, chronicles, recipes, and rules for hunting, chess and card games. The first Spanish grammar, by Antonio de Nebrija, and the first dictionaries were published during the 15th and 16th centuries.

In Spain this language is generally called español (Spanish) when contrasting it with languages of other countries, such as French and English, but it is called castellano (Castilian, the language of the Castile region) when contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain, such as Galician, Basque, and Catalan.

Some philologists use Castilian only when speaking of the language spoken in Castile during the Middle Ages, stating that it is preferable to use Spanish for its modern form. The subdialect of Spanish spoken in northern parts of modern day Castile is also called Castilian sometimes, and differs from those of other regions of Spain, however the Castilian dialect is conventionally considered in Spain to be the same as standard Spanish.

The name castellano is widely used for the language in Latin America. Some Spanish speakers consider castellano a generic term with no political or ideological links, much as "Spanish" in English.

Spanish alphabet (alfabeto español / el abecedario)

Ch (che) and Ll (elle) are also considered letters of the Spanish alphabet, however in 2010 the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE) decreed that these letters would no longer be treated as separate letters in dictionaries.

Recordings of the Spanish alphabet

Daniel Callejas Sevilla from Spain

René Alejandro Zaldívar Gallegos from Mexico

Pronunciation of European Spanish

Notes

b = [β] between vowels, [b] elsewhere

c = [θ] before i or e, [k] elsewhere

d = [ð] between vowels, [d] elsewhere

g = [x] or [χ] before i or e, [g] or [ɣ] elsewhere

gu = [g] before i or e, [gw] elsewhere

gü only appears before i or e

n = [ŋ] before g, x and k, [n] elsewhere. At the ends of words n = [ŋ] or [n]

r = [ɾ] between vowels and in consonant clusters such as br, pr and tr, [r] elsewhere

At the ends of words and syllables s often not pronounced, e.g. peces = /'peθes/ in northern Spain, /'peθeh/ in central Spain, /'peseh/ in southern Spain, and /'pesε/ in the southeast of Spain.

v = [β] between vowels, [b] elsewhere

w appears only in loanwords

Thanks to Francisco Peña Blas for corrections to this pronunciation guide, with additional information from Angel Castaño

Pronunciation of Spanish in Latin America

Notes

Vowels are the same as European Spanish.

c = [s] before i or e, but [k] elsewhere

In some varieties of Caribbean and Chilean Spanish, ch = [ʃ], especially in Panamanian Spanish and in southern Chile. In northern Chile ch = [ts].

g = [x] (or [h] in some countries, or [χ] in Peru) before i or e, [g] or [ɣ] elsewhere

gu = [g] before i or e, but [gw] elsewhere

ll = [j] or [dʐ] in most places, though the original pronunciation of [ʎ] is still used in some areas. ll = [ʃ] or [ʒ] in Argentina

n = [ŋ] before g, e.g. tengo (I have), [n] elsewhere. In the Caribbean dialects, n can also be [ŋ] at the end of a syllable.

r = [ɾ] between vowels, [r] elsewhere. At the end of syllables (not followed by a vowel) [l] in the Caribbean dialects; occasionally [ɹ] in Puerto Rico.

rr = [χ] or [ʀ]in Puerto Rico.

s = [h] at the ends of words and syllables in Argentina and Chile, e.g. peces = /'peseh/. Mainly in Cuba and northern Colombia it is not pronounced in that position, e.g. peces = /'pesε/

x = [s] at the beginning of words, [ks] elsewhere. In words borrowed from Nahuatl, Mayan or other indigenous languages of Mexico, x = [ʃ] or [s]. X is sometimes replaced with J, especially in proper nouns, e.g. Ximena / Jimena.

y = [i] at the end of syllables, such as hay, buey and muy, [j] as a consonant or semiconsonant. In parts of Argentina y = [ʒ̊] or [ʃ]. In Paraguay y = [dʒ].

k and w appear mainly in loan words

Download alphabet charts for Spanish (Excel)

Information on the pronunciation of Spanish in Latin America provided by Alejandro P. Estrada, with corrections and additional information from Angel Castaño, Samir Castro Zapata and Thomas Sanchez

Sample text in Spanish

Todos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros.

Recordings of this text

Margarita Gracia Sanz from Valencia

Alejandro García-Aragón from Cádiz, Andalucía

René Alejandro Zaldívar Gallegos from Mexico

Franco Roca from Peru

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample videos in Spanish

( Puerto Rica)

Information about Spanish | Useful Phrases | Silly Phrases | Idioms | Family words | Time | Weather | Tongue twisters | Video lessons | Tower of Babel | Articles | Links | Learning materials | My Spanish learning adventures | My podcast about Spanish | Learn Spanish through stories

Links

Information about the Spanish language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language
http://spanish.about.com/
http://www.spanishlanguage.co.uk/
https://www.clozemaster.com/blog/topics/language-learning/learn-spanish/

Spanish Classes in Los Angeles |
Lyceum Español - a different way to learn Spanish in Spain
- Learn Spanish online with SpanishPod101
- Learn Spanish online with Mondly
- Spanish Uncovered - Learn Spanish Through the Power of Story
- Say Something In Spanish
- Learn to speak Spanish with Rocket Spanish
- Learn Spanish with Glossika
- Learn Spanish faster
- Spanish Con Salsa
- Learn Dominican Spanish
- Learn Cuban Spanish
- Find Spanish tutors on Lingua Linkup

More links to Spanish language resources

Romance languages

Languages written with the Latin alphabet

Why not share this page:

report this ad

If you need to type in many different languages, the Q International Keyboard can help. It enables you to type almost any language that uses the Latin, Cyrillic or Greek alphabets, and is free.

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Spanish language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Spanish is a Romance language with approximately 470 million speakers, 410 of whom speak it as a first language, while the remainder speak it as a second language. A significant number of people also speak Spanish as a foreign language.

# data[].attributes.body
https://omniglot.com/writing/ukrainian.htm

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ukrainian is an Eastern Slavonic language spoken mainly in Ukraine. In 2016 there were about 30 million speakers of Ukrainian in Ukraine, where it is an official language. There were about 1.1 million Ukrainian speakers in Russia in 2010, and smaller numbers in other countries, particularly in Brazil (500,000), the USA (152,000), Germany (141,000), Italy (120,000) and Moldova (107,000). It is estimated that there are 40 million Ukrainian speakers worldwide.

Ukrainian is closely related to Belarusian and Russian, and is to some extent mutually intelligible with them, especially with Belarusian.

Ukrainian at a glance

Native name: українська мова (ukrayins'ka mova) [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔwɐ])

Language family: Balto-Slavic, Slavic, East Slavic, Ruthenian

Number of speakers: c. 1.3 billion

Spoken in: Ukraine, Russia, and many other countries

First written: 10th century

Writing system: Cyrillic alphabet

Status: official language in Ukraine, Crimea and Transnistria. Recognised minority language in Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia

History of Ukrainian

The recorded history of the Ukrainian language began in 988, when the principality of Kyiv / Kiev ( Київ) was converted to Christianity. Ukrainian religious material, including translations of the Bible, was written in Old Slavonic, the language used by missionaries to spread Christianity to the Slavic peoples.

In the 13th century, Ukraine became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian and Ruthenian, an ancestor of Belarusian and Ukrainian became the main language. The remaining parts of Ukraine were taken over by Poland during the 16th century and Latin and Polish were used for official purposes. Ruthenian began to split into Ukrainian and Belarusian during this period.

The Cossacks later moved into eastern Ukraine and during the 17th century, their leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, invited Russia to help against Polish domination in 1648. During the reign of Catherine the Great, the Cossacks moved to the eastern frontiers of Russia, but Ukraine remained under Russian domination, and the Russians considered the Ukrainian language as little more than a dialect of Russian.

A decree in 1876 banned the printing or importing of Ukrainian books. Inspite of this, there was a revival of Ukrainian poetry and historiography during the 19th century.

Ukraine enjoyed a brief period of independence from 1918 to 1919, then was taken over by the USSR and declared a Soviet Republic. During the Soviet era, Russian was the main language of education and employment and Ukrainian was sidelined.

Ukraine declared independence in 1991. Since then many Ukrainian émigrés have returned to Ukraine, particularly from central Asia and Siberia.

Please note, the capital of Ukraine is written Київ (Kyiv) in Ukrainian, and Киев (Kiev) in Russian. It is usually written Kiev in English, however since 1995 the Ukrainian government has written it Kyiv in legislative and official acts, and this spelling is used by international organisations such as the UN, and international news sources, such as the BBC.

Ukrainian alphabet (українська абетка)

There are a number of systems for transliterating Ukrainian into the Latin alphabet. The Ukrainian National transliteration was first codified in 1996 and is used to write personal names in passports, and for geographical names on maps and road signs. A new system was introduced in 2007, and revised in 2010.

Hear how to pronounced Ukrainian:

Notes

gh is used in the romanization of зг = zgh, avoiding confusion with ж = zh

The transliterations beginning with y - ye, yi, yu, ya are used at the beginning of a word, as is y for й

Download an alphabet chart for Ukrainian (Excel)

You can find a detailed discussion of Ukrainian phonology at:
https://www.academia.edu/38059820/Vakulenko_Maksym_2018_Ukrainian_vowel_phones
https://www.academia.edu/40178358/Ukrainian_Consonant_Phones

More information about the transliteration of Ukrainian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian

Sample text in Ukrainian

Всі люди народжуються вільними і рівними у своїй гідності та правах. Вони наділені розумом і совістю і повинні діяти у відношенні один до одного в дусі братерства.

Transliteration (Ukrainian National)

Vsi liudy narodzhuiutsia vilnymy i rivnymy u svoiii hidnosti ta pravax. Vony nadileni rozumom i sovistiu i povynni diiaty u vidnoshenni odyn do odnoho v dusi braterstva.

Transliteration (Scholarly)

Vsi ljudy narodžujut'sja vil'nymy i rivnymy u svojij hidnosti ta pravax. Vony nadileni rozumom i sovistju i povynni dijaty u vidnošenni odyn do odnoho v dusi braterstva.

A recording of this text by Anatoli Sakhnik

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample videos in Ukrainian

Information about Ukrainian | Phrases | Numbers | Tower of Babel | Learning materials

European-Ukrainian Latynka

Links

Information about Ukrainian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language
https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ukr
https://www.ukrainianlanguage.org.uk/et

Online Ukrainian lessons
http://www.internetpolyglot.com/lessons-uk-en
http://www.ukrainianlanguage.org.uk/read/
http://www.ielanguages.com/ukrainian.html
http://www.101languages.net/ukrainian/
http://polymath.org/ukrainian.php
http://www.funkyukrainian.com/learnukrainian/vocab/
http://www.studyukrainian.com
Learn Ukrainian with Glossika
Online Ukrainian phrases
https://www.ukrainianlessons.com/greetings/
https://www.ukrainianlessons.com/14-basic-ukrainian-phrases/
https://storylearning.com/blog/basic-ukrainian-phrases
http://mylanguages.org/ukrainian_phrases.php
http://www.foreigndocuments.com/phrases_ukrainian.html
http://www.bestofukraine.com/ukrainian.htm

Online Ukrainian dictionaries
http://www.lingvozone.com/LingvoSoft-Online-English-Ukrainian-Dictionary
http://www.freelang.net/online/ukrainian.php
http://www.lexicool.com/dictionaries_ukrainian.asp
https://www.yenotes.com

Online Ukrainian Transliteration and Spell Check
http://ua.translit.cc

Online Ukrainian radio
http://www.nrcu.gov.ua
http://molode.com.ua
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ukrainian/

Online Ukrainian news
http://www.pravda.com.ua
http://www.day.kiev.ua
http://www.grani.kiev.ua
http://postup.brama.com
http://www.onlinenewspapers.com/ukraine.htm
http://www.infoukes.com/organizations/media/

Free Cyrillic fonts
http://www.wazu.jp/gallery/Fonts_CyrS.html
http://www.fingertipsoft.com/ref/cyrillic/fontlist.html
http://www.typography.com/collections/cyrillic/
http://kodeks.uni-bamberg.de/AKSL/Schrift/RomanCyrillicStd.htm

Slavic languages

Languages written with the Latin alphabet

Page last modified: 17.01.22

Why not share this page:

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ukrainian language, alphabet and pronunciation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ukrainian is an Eastern Slavonic language spoken mainly in Ukraine. In 2016 there were about 30 million speakers of Ukrainian in Ukraine, where it is an official language. There were about 1.1 million Ukrainian speakers in Russia in 2010, and smaller numbers in other countries, particularly in Brazil (500,000), the USA (152,000), Germany (141,000), Italy (120,000) and Moldova (107,000).

# data[].attributes.headline
Link to Add Google Translate Extension to Chrome

# data[].attributes.subject
Link to Add Google Translate Extension to Chrome

# data[].attributes.body
https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/google-translate/aapbdbdomjkkjkaonfhkkikfgjllcleb?hl=en

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Highlight or right-click on a section of text and click on Translate icon next to it to translate it to your language. Or, to translate the entire page you're visiting, click the translate icon on the browser toolbar.

Learn more about Google Translate at https://support.google.com/translate.

By installing this extension, you agree to the Google Terms of Service and Privacy Policy at https://www.google.com/intl/en/policies.

UPDATE (v.2.0): Now you can highlight or right-click a text and translate it vs. translate the entire page. You can also change extension options to automatically show translation every time you highlight text.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
View translations easily as you browse the web. By the Google Translate team.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Arabic script evolved from the Nabataean Aramaic script. It has been used since the 4th century AD, but the earliest document, an inscription in Arabic, Syriac and Greek, dates from 512 AD. The Aramaic language has fewer consonants than Arabic, so during the 7th century new Arabic letters were created by adding dots to existing letters in order to avoid ambiguities. Further diacritics indicating short vowels were introduced, but are only generally used to ensure the Qur'an was read aloud without mistakes.

There are two main types of written Arabic:

1. Classical Arabic - the language of the Qur'an and classical literature. It differs from Modern Standard Arabic mainly in style and vocabulary, some of which is archaic. All Muslims are expected to recite the Qur'an in the original language, however many rely on translations in order to understand the text.

2. Modern Standard Arabic (اللغة العربية الفصحى / al-luġatu l-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā) - the universal language of the Arabic-speaking world which is understood by all Arabic speakers. It is the language of the vast majority of written material and of formal TV shows, lectures, etc.

Each Arabic speaking country or region also has its own variety of colloquial spoken Arabic. These colloquial varieties of Arabic appear in written form in some poetry, cartoons and comics, plays and personal letters. There are also translations of the bible into most varieties of colloquial Arabic.

Arabic has also been written with the Hebrew, Syriac and Latin scripts.

Notable Features

Type of writing system: abjad

Direction of writing: words are written in horizontal lines from right to left, numerals are written from left to right

Number of letters: 28 (in Arabic) - some additional letters are used in Arabic when writing placenames or foreign words containing sounds which do not occur in Standard Arabic, such as /p/ or /g/. Additional letters are used when writing other languages.

Most letters change form depending on whether they appear at the beginning, middle or end of a word, or on their own. (see below)

Letters that can be joined are always joined in both hand-written and printed Arabic. The only exceptions to this rule are crossword puzzles and signs in which the script is written vertically.

The long vowels /a:/, /i:/ and /u:/ are represented by the letters 'alif, yā' and wāw respectively.

Vowel diacritics, which are used to mark short vowels, and other special symbols appear only in the Qur'an. They are also used, though with less consistency, in other religious texts, in classical poetry, in books for children and foreign learners, and occasionally in complex texts to avoid ambiguity. Sometimes the diacritics are used for decorative purposes in book titles, letterheads, nameplates, etc.

Arabic script

Arabic consonants

The transliteration of consonants used above is the ISO version of 1984. There are various other ways of transliterating Arabic.

This chart shows how the letters change in different positions

Arabic vowel diacritics and other symbols

Arabic chat alphabet

When chatting online some Arabic speakers write in the Latin alphabet use the following letters:

More details
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet
https://books.google.co.uk/books

Download

Download an Arabic alphabet chart in Word or PDF format

Arabic numerals and numbers

These numerals are those used when writing Arabic and are written from left to right. In Arabic they are known as "Indian numbers" (أرقام هندية / arqa-m hindiyyah). The term 'Arabic numerals' is also used to refer to 1, 2, 3, etc.

The Arabic language

Arabic is a Semitic language with about 221 million speakers in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Chad, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Oman, Palestinian West Bank & Gaza, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkey, UAE, Uzbekistan and Yemen.

There are over 30 different varieties of colloquial Arabic which include:

Egyptian - spoken by about 50 million people in Egypt and perhaps the most widely understood variety, thanks to the popularity of Egyptian-made films and TV shows

Algerian - spoken by about 22 million people in Algeria

Moroccan/Maghrebi - spoken in Morocco by about 19.5 million people

Sudanese - spoken in Sudan by about 19 million people

Saidi - spoken by about 19 million people in Egypt

North Levantine - spoken in Lebanon andSyria by about 15 million people

Mesopotamian - spoken by about 14 million people in Iraq, Iran and Syria

Najdi - spoken in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan and Syria by about 10 million people

For a full list of all varieties of colloquial Arabic click here (format: Excel, 20K).

Source: www.ethnologue.com

Sample Arabic text (unvocalised)

Sample Arabic text (vocalised)

Transliteration

Yūladu jamī'u n-nāsi aḥrāran mutasāwīna fī l-karāmati wa-l-ḥuqūq. Wa-qad wuhibū 'aqlan wa-ḍamīran wa-'alayhim an yu'āmila ba'ḍuhum ba'ḍan bi-rūḥi l-ikhā'.

Listen to a recording of this text by زين العابدين شبيب (Zein Al-A'bideen Shabeeb)

Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

Sample videos in and about Modern Standard Arabic

Information about Arabic | Phrases | Numbers | Video lessons | Tower of Babel | Articles | Links | Learning materials | Books about the Arabic script | Arabic electronic dictionaries and translators

Links

Online Arabic lessons
http://i-cias.com/babel/arabic/
http://mylanguages.org/learn_arabic.php
http://www.madinaharabic.com
http://arabicspeaker.blogspot.com
http://www.arabic-alphabet.org
http://www.naturalarabic.com
http://www.dalilusa.com/arabic_course/intro.asp
http://www.arabicsp.com
http://www.arabicpod.net
http://www.arabic-studio.com
http://www.ArabicOnline.eu
http://www.laflwsp.com
http://www.criticallanguageservice.com/about-us/youtube-videos
http://www.learnarabic.com
http://ilovelanguages.org/arabic.php
http://lingohut.com/en/l69/learn-arabic

- Learn Arabic online with ArabicPod101

- TalkInArabic.com - learn colloquial Arabic of Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, the Levant, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan or Tunisia

- eArabic Learning - Learn Arabic Online with Live Teachers

- Learn Arabic online with Mondly

- Learn Arabic with Glossika
- Learn Arabic quickly and easily with Rocket Arabic
- Arabic Genie - a quick and easy way to learn the Arabic alphabet
Find Arabic Tutors on Preply

Arabic courses and other resources available on Amazon

More Arabic-related links

Learn the Arabic alphabet
https://youtu.be/53Nf8xVrN24?list=PLfqR7v0tdEjIe-ScJPmw6Z4JR1Lj33hDl

How to read handwritten Arabic
https://myloveofmornings.com/2017/02/23/handwritten-arabic/

Varieties of Arabic

Semitic languages

Languages written with the Arabic script

Other writing systems

If you need to type in many different languages, the Q International Keyboard can help. It enables you to type almost any language that uses the Latin, Cyrillic or Greek alphabets, and is free.

If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. Omniglot is how I make my living.

Note: all links on this site to Amazon.com , Amazon.co.uk and Amazon.fr are affiliate links. This means I earn a commission if you click on any of them and buy something. So by clicking on these links you can help to support this site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Arabic script evolved from the Nabataean Aramaic script. It has been used since the 4th century AD, but the earliest document, an inscription in Arabic, Syriac and Greek, dates from 512 AD. The Aramaic language has fewer consonants than Arabic, so during the 7th century new Arabic letters were created by adding dots to existing letters in order to avoid ambiguities.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XaBrwzPQbhM

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Use the Google Translate Mobile App