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Nietzsche's most famous and often misunderstood declaration, found in his book The Gay Science. With the title can be easily assumed, it is not a literal statement towards the existence of God, but is more on cultural study. Nietzsche believed scientific rationality ruined the foundation of Christian morality. He is known for his critiques of traditional European morality, religion, and philosophy.

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David Hume is widely known from his influential system of skepticism and naturalism. A famously known philosophical work of him is that "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them." With this, he believed that human behavior is driven by emotions and desires, and that reason's only role is to help us figure out the best way to achieve what our passions are longing for.

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"Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect upon them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me," captures the depth of his belief in a human's capacity for reason and morality. Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century philosopher who shaped the world with rationalism. He sought to reach for limits and structure of human knowledge.

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Aristotle believed that “man is by nature a political animal” because humans are naturally meant to live in a community. He taught that people can only reach their full potential through relationships, shared rules, and working for the common good. He emphasized that using reason and speech allows people to discuss justice and create a fair society. For him, living a good life means being part of a community where people help one another and follow the laws.

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The philosophy explains the ideas of Karl Marx, a thinker who believed that the way society works under capitalism is unfair. He said that workers often feel unhappy and disconnected because they don’t own what they make and are always treated like a machines. Marx believed that rich people, or capitalists, get richer by taking most of the profit, while workers get paid very little. He also pointed out that capitalism often leads to big problems like too many goods being made and not enough people buying them. Marx dreamed of a world where wealth is shared more equally and people can work with freedom and purpose.

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Plato believed that what makes a person truly human is the soul, which has three parts: the rational (logistikon), the spirited (thymoeides), and the appetitive (epithymetikon). He taught that the rational part should lead, as it seeks truth and wisdom, while the spirited part supports it with courage, and the appetitive part must be controlled to avoid excess. For him, justice and harmony within the soul are achieved when each part does its proper role. A well-ordered soul, guided by reason, leads to a virtuous and fulfilling life.

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Plato’s Tripartite Soul Explained: Rational, Spirited, and Appetitive

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This philosophy shares the peaceful and wise teachings of Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism. He believed that instead of always trying to control life, we should learn to go with its natural flow—what he called the “Tao.” This means living simply, being kind and humble, and not forcing things to happen. Lao Tzu taught that true strength comes from being soft, calm, and patient, like water that gently shapes the hardest rock. His message reminds us that life becomes easier and more meaningful when we stop fighting it and start flowing with it.

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Socrates claimed that the immortal soul is what makes a human a person, which has three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite. He believes that “The unexamined life is not worth living,” giving importance to self-reflection, questioning beliefs, and values. He encouraged to seek answers to gain knowledge of what is good; he proclaimed that education and self-examination is the key to fight evil.

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What Is The Philosophical View Of Self Of Socrates? - Philosophy Beyond

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“I doubt, therefore I think. I think, therefore I am.” The Father of Modern Philosophy, René Descartes, introduces the idea of doubt: skepticism on one one’s thoughts, therefore, thinking. He shared that sometimes his senses mislead him, doubting wether or not something is true.

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Rene Descartes - “I think, therefore I am”

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Locke shared the idea of “Tabula Rasa”: we are a “Blank Slate” at birth. He also believed that the key to understanding one self is consciousness and memory. “If one commits a crime, yet, does not remember it, he is not responsible for it.”