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Starting as a German civil war, Catholic princes, allied with the Holy Roman Empire (Austria) and Spanish leaders, fought with Protestants over whether Protestants could openly practice in German provinces. Protestant Bohemian nobles threw two Catholic imperial officials out of a window in Prague Castle. This act of rebellion sparked what would become Europe's most devastating religious and political conflict. The event symbolized Protestant resistance to Catholic authority and Habsburg (the ruling family) power.

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November 8, 1620: Battle of White Mountain

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November 8, 1620: Battle of White Mountain

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Catholic League forces decisively defeated the Protestant Bohemian army near Prague. This early Catholic victory led to the re-Catholicization of Bohemia and strengthened Habsburg control. The battle demonstrated the power of the Catholic Counter-Reformation and marked the end of Bohemian independence for 300 years.

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King Christian IV of Denmark entered the war to support Protestant forces and gain German territories. His defeat by Catholic League forces led to the Treaty of Lübeck (1629). This phase showed how the conflict had evolved beyond religious issues to include territorial and political ambitions.

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The war was going very badly for Protestants by mid-1630. In an effort to aid fellow Protestants, Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus joined the war effort on the side of the Protestants. At this point, the war was becoming less about religion and more about political and economic desires. The Swedish government was financially tied to the French who were Catholic, but deeply against the Habsburg (German) Empire, and therefore joined the fight to help two allies at once: their fellow Protestants and their French allies.

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Habsburg forces captured and brutally destroyed the Protestant city of Magdeburg, killing approximately 25,000 civilians. This massacre became a symbol of Catholic aggression and rallied Protestant support across Europe. The event demonstrated the war's devastating impact on civilian populations and religious communities.

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Catholic France entered the war against Catholic Habsburg Spain and Austria, demonstrating that political interests had overtaken religious motivations. Cardinal Richelieu's decision showed how the conflict had evolved from a religious war into a European power struggle for political dominance and territorial control.

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One of the final major battles saw French and Swedish forces defeat the Imperial army. This late-war victory helped secure favorable peace terms for Protestant powers and France. The battle occurred as peace negotiations were already underway, showing the war's complex political and military conclusion.

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The treaties signed in Münster and Osnabrück ended the Thirty Years War and established the modern European state system. The peace marked the decline of papal political power as it was negotiated by kings and princes without involving the Pope, and it legally accepted that Christianity was permanently split. The war's biggest impact however was that global attention now shifted from southern Europe along the Mediterranean to northern Europe and Russia. This settlement influenced European politics for centuries and established principles of national sovereignty.